Chapter 1-7 PDF

Chapter 1
Understanding Consumer
Behavior
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Learning Objectives
1. Define consumer behavior and explain the
components that make up the definition
2. Identify the four domains of consumer behavior
that affect acquisition, usage, and disposition
decisions
3. Discuss the benefits of studying consumer
behavior
4. Explain how companies apply consumer
behavior concepts when making marketing
decisions
Exhibit 1.1 - What Is Consumer Behavior?
Consumer Behavior
Acquisition, consumption, and disposition of

goods, services, time, and ideas by human
decision-making units
– Acquisition: Consumer comes to own an
offering
– Usage: Consumer uses an offering
– Disposition: Consumer discards an offering
How does this relate to marketing strategies and

tactics?
Consumer Behavior (continued 1)
Dynamic process
Can involve many people
Involves many decisions
Involves consumer emotions and coping
Exhibit 1.2 - Disposition
Exhibit 1.4 - Eight Ways to Acquire an
Offering
What Affects Consumer
Behavior?
Psychological core
• Motivation, ability, and opportunity

• From exposure to comprehension
• Memory and knowledge
• Attitude formation and change
Process of making decision
• Problem recognition and information search

• Judgment and decision making
• Post-decision processes
What Affects Consumer
Behavior? (continued)
Consumer behavior outcomes and issues
• Innovations: Adoption, resistance, and diffusion

• Symbolic consumer behavior
• Marketing, ethics, and social responsibility
Consumer’s culture
• Social influences on consumer behavior

• Consumer diversity
• Household and social class influences
• Psycholgraphics: Values, personality, and lifestyle
Exhibit 1.7 - Forming and
Retrieving Memories
Exhibit 1.8 - Influence of
Reference Groups
Beneficiaries of Consumer
Behavior Studies
Marketing managers - understand what
consumers and clients value
Ethicists and advocacy groups - create
public awareness of inappropriate practices
Public policy makers and regulators -
protect consumers from unfair, unsafe, or
inappropriate marketing practices
Beneficiaries of Consumer
Behavior Studies
Academics
– (a) disseminate knowledge about consumer
behavior when they teach courses
– (b) generate knowledge about consumer behavior
when they conduct research focusing on how
consumers act, think, and feel when acquiring,
using, and disposing of offerings
Consumers - enables marketers and other
organizations to provide tools for more
informed decision-making
Marketing
Activity, set of institutions, and processes for

creating, communicating, delivering, and
exchanging offerings that have value
Aimed at individuals, groups, and society
Marketing Implications
of Consumer Behavior
Developing or implementing customer-
oriented strategy
– Segmentation of the market
– Profitability of each segment
– Characteristics of consumers in each segment
– Customer satisfaction with existing offerings
Selecting target market
of Consumer Behavior (continued 1)
Developing products
– Consumer ideas for new products
– Attributes that can be added or changed in
existing products
– Branding of offering
– Appearance of package and logo
Positioning decisions
– Positioning of competitive offerings
– Positioning of one’s own offerings
– Need for repositioning offerings
Promotion and marketing communication
decisions
– Communication objectives
– Appearance of marketing communications
– Location, time, and effectiveness of
advertisement
– Sales promotion objectives and tactics
– Effectiveness of sales promotion
– Number of sales personnel required to best
serve customers
Pricing decisions
– Price range of a product or service
– Consumer sensitivity to price and price
changes
– Pricing tactics be used
Distribution decisions
– Time and convenience of consumers
– Assortment of merchandise
– Store design
Chapter 2
Motivation, Ability, and

Opportunity
Learning Objectives
1. Show how motivation influences high-effort

behavior, high-effort information processing and
decision-making, and felt involvement
2. Discuss the four types of influences that
determine the consumer’s motivation to process
information, make a decision, or take an action
Learning Objectives (continued)
3. Explain how financial, cognitive, emotional,

physical, and social and cultural resources, plus
age and education, can affect the individual’s
ability to engage in consumer behaviors
4. Identify the three main types of influences on
the consumer’s opportunity to process
information and acquire, consume, or dispose of
products
Motivation
Inner state of activation that provides energy
needed to achieve a goal
Consumers can be motivated to acquire, use,
or dispose of an offering
Are you a motivated person?
Can one change others’ motivation state in
general? Or in the marketplace?
Consumer Motivation
and Effects
High-effort behavior
– Drives that bring a goal closer and create a
willingness to spend time and money
High-effort information processing and
decision-making
Motivated reasoning: Processing
information in a way that allows consumers to
reach the conclusion they want to reach
Consumer Motivation
and Effects (continued 1)
Felt involvement
– Consumer's experience of being motivated with
respect to products or services, or decisions and
actions regarding these
Consumer Motivation
Felt involvement
– Types of involvement
• Enduring - show interest in an offering or activity over
a long period of time
• Situational (temporary)
• Cognitive - consumer is interested in thinking about
and processing information related to goal
• Affective - consumer is willing to expend emotional
energy in or has heightened feelings about an offering
or activity
• Response - Consumers involved in certain decisions
and behaviors
Consumer Motivation
Objects of involvement
– Product or retail category – clothing stores
– Experiences – theme parks
– Brands – Apple
– Ads – Jollibee
– Medium – internet or tv
Drivers of Motivation
Personal relevance
• Something that has direct bearing on self that has

potentially significant consequence or implication
Self-concept
• Mental view of who one is
Values
• Abstract, enduring beliefs about what is right or wrong,

important, or good or bad
• Ex: Organic or eco-friendly products
Drivers of Motivation (continued)
Need
• Internal state of tension experienced as a

discrepancy between current and ideal state
(physical or psychological)
Goal
• Outcome one would like to achieve

• Can be concrete or abstract and promotion-
focused or prevention-focused
Exhibit 2.3 - Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Exhibit 2.4 - Categorizing Needs
Characteristics of Needs
Internally or externally activated
Need satisfaction is dynamic
Exist in hierarchy
Can cause conflict
Types of Need Conflicts
Approach-avoidance conflict
• About acquiring or consuming an offering that fulfills one need

but fails to fulfill another; (ex: deciding whether to smoke
cigarettes)
Approach-approach conflict
• About which offering to acquire when each can satisfy an

important but different need; (ex: invited to 2 different events)
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
• About which offering to acquire when neither can satisfy an

important and different need (ex: going home alone vs waiting
for a companion at a later time)
Goals and Emotions
Appraisal theory
– Proposes that emotions are based on individuals’
assessment of a situation or an outcome and its
relevance to his or her goals
– Posits that emotions are affected by the
normative or moral compatibility, certainty, and
agency
Positive and negative emotions experienced
during or after consuming a product or
service change in time or get satiated
Goals and Emotions (continued 1)
Self-control conflicts arise when individuals
face decisions about actions related to goals
that are in conflict
– Self-control: Regulates feelings, thoughts,
and behavior in line with long-term goals
– Ego depletion: Outcome of decision-making
effort that results in mental resources being
exhausted. Challenges deplete a consumer’s
mental energy, which in turn reduces decision
quality. (Yogurt vs chocolate – cheat days)
Goals and Emotions (continued 2)
Challenges in information processing and
emotional regulation
– Psychological conflict between desire and
willpower
– More focus on short-term pleasure and less on
long-term cost and unpleasurable experience
of Needs and Goals
Enhancing motivation to process
communications
Product development and positioning
Encouraging specific behaviors
Perceived Risk
Extent to which the consumer anticipates:

– Negative consequences of an action to
emerge
– Positive consequences to not emerge
Tends to be high because of:
– New offering
– High price
Perceived Risk (continued)
– Complex technology
– Brand differentiation
– Little confidence or experience in evaluation
– Opinions of others and fear of judgment
What else increases risk of your
buying/consumption?
Types of Perceived Risk
Psychological - reflects consumers’ concern about
the extent to which a product or service fits with the
way they perceive themselves (ex: if you see yourself
as an environmentalist, buying disposable diapers
may be psychologically risky.)
Time - reflects uncertainties about the length of time
that must be invested in buying, using, or disposing
of the product or service
Types of Perceived Risk
Performance - reflects uncertainty about whether
the product or service will perform as expected
Financial – risk is higher if an offering is expensive,
such as the cost of buying a home
Physical or safety - refers to the potential harm a
product or service might pose to one’s safety
Social - potential harm to one’s social standing that
may arise from buying, using, or disposing of an
offering
Psychological - reflects consumers’ concern about
the extent to which a product or service fits with the
way they perceive themselves (ex: eco-friendly
Inconsistency with Attitudes
Motivation to process information is:

– High when information is moderately
inconsistent with one’s attitude
– Low when information is highly inconsistent
with one’s prior attitude
Any examples of this?
Consumer Ability and
Opportunity
Ability
– Factors that affect consumers' ability to
process information and make decisions
• Financial, cognitive, emotional, physical, social,
cultural resources, education, and age
Key influences in consumer opportunity
– Lack of time, distraction, and the amount,
complexity, repetition, and control of
information
Marketing Implication of Enhancing
Information Processing
Repeating marketing communications

Reducing time pressure
Reducing time needed for purchase and
learning about a product or service
Providing information
Chapter 3
From Exposure to Comprehension
Learning Objectives
1. Discuss why marketers are concerned about
consumers’ exposure to marketing stimuli and what
tactics they use to enhance exposure
2. Explain the characteristics of attention and how
marketers can try to attract and sustain consumers’
attention with products and marketing messages
3. Describe the major senses that are part of perception
and outline why marketers are concerned about
consumers’ sensory perceptions
4. Discuss the process of comprehension, and outline how
marketing-mix elements can affect consumer inferences
about products and brands
Exposure
Consumer comes into physical contact with a

stimulus
Marketing stimuli: Information about
offerings communicated by the marketer or
by nonmarketing sources
Factors of influence
– Position of an ad within a medium
– Product distribution
– Shelf placement
Selective Exposure
Zipping: Fast-forwarding through
commercials on a program recorded earlier
Zapping: Switching channels during
commercial breaks
Cord-cutting - Choosing streaming services
(Netflix) over cable television
Attention
Amount of mental activity a consumer
devotes to a stimulus
Enables consumer to learn efficiently from
their exposure to marketing stimuli
Limited, selective, and divisible
– Divisible/divided – walking while texting
Defines customer segments
Weakened by habituation - To counter this,
marketers can alter the stimulus periodically.
Under what conditions do you give full attention
to advertising and marketing communication?
Focal and Nonfocal Attention
Focal attention - Consumers focus on a
stimulus
Nonfocal attention - Consumers are
simultaneously exposed to other stimuli
Ex: process any information from a billboard
in our peripheral vision while
Preattentive processing: Unconscious
processing of stimuli
– Catchy advertisements lead to liking a brand
Characteristics of Stimulus That
Attract Consumer Attention
Personal relevance
•Appealing to one’s needs, values, emotions, or goals
Pleasantness
•Using attractive models, music, and humor
What are some other ways to make ads more

pleasant to consumers?
Characteristics of Stimulus That
Attract Consumer Attention (continued)
Element of surprise
•Using novelty, unexpectedness, and puzzles
Easy to process
•Prominence and concreteness of stimuli

•Consumers are more likely to notice larger or
longer ads; Movement also increases prominence
•Concreteness - ex: advertisement featuring
student drinking coffee
•Limited number of competing stimuli
•Contrast with competing stimuli
What are ways to enhance suspense or surprise in advertising or
marketing communications?
Is surprise a good thing in marketing communications? Why/not?
Perception
Determining the properties of stimuli using

vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch
Factors in visual perception
– Size and shape
– Lettering
– Image location on package
– Color
– Appearance of being new or worn
Perception (continued 1)
Elements in sound perception

– Sonic identity - Use of specific sounds to
identify a brand (ex: Netflix)
– Sound symbolism - Inference of product
attributes and evaluations
• Using information obtained from hearing a
brand’s sounds, syllables, and words
• Ex: the name of Nissan’s LEAF electric car
reminds consumers of the product’s
environmental benefits
Taste
– Varying perceptions of food
– Different cultural backgrounds influence taste
preference
– In-store marketing tactic of tasting or sampling
of food
Smell
– Effect on physiological responses, liking,
product trial, and buying
Touch
– Liking of some products because of their feel
– Perceived ownership of the item increases
– Consumer reaction to touch differs across
cultures
Consumers’ Stimuli Perception
Absolute thresholds
• Minimal level of stimulus intensity needed to detect stimulus
Differential thresholds (just noticeable difference)
• Intensity difference needed between two stimuli before they are

perceived to be different
• Weber’s law: Stronger the initial stimulus, greater the additional
intensity needed for the second stimulus to be perceived as different
Subliminal perception
• Activation of sensory receptors by stimuli presented below the

perceptual threshold
Perceptual Organization
Process by which stimuli are organized into

meaningful units
Figure and ground: People interpret stimuli
in the context of a background
Closure: Individuals’ need to organize
perceptions so that they form a meaningful
whole
Perceptual Organization (continued)
Grouping: Tendency to group stimuli to form

a unified picture or impression
Preference for the whole: Perceiving more
value in a whole than in combined parts that
make a whole
– Even if the parts have the same objective
value as the whole
Knowledge to Understand:
Comprehension
Extracting higher-order meaning from what

individuals have perceived in context of what
is already known
Source identification: Determining what
perceived stimulus actually is and what
category it belongs to
Comprehension (continued 1)
Objective comprehension
• Extent to which the consumer accurately

understands the message the sender intends
to communicate
Subjective comprehension
• What the consumer understands from the

message, regardless of whether it is accurate
Miscomprehension - Consumers inaccurately

interpret the meaning in a message
Effect of MAO (motivation, ability, and
opportunity)
– Lack of comprehension may arise due to:
• Low motivation
• Limited opportunity or time to process the
message
• Complexity of the message
Effects of cultures
– Differences in low-context cultures and high-
context cultures
– Message sender's social class, values, and
age play a key role in message interpretation
– Language differences
Marketing Implications to
Improve Comprehension
Keeping the message simple
Repeating the message
Presenting information in different forms
Designing a message consistent with
consumer's prior knowledge
Consumer Inference
Brand names and symbols

- Create subjective comprehension and
inferences
Product features and packaging
− Product attributes
− Country of origin
− Package design
Consumer Inference (continued)
Price
– Culture can influence perceptions of price
and quality
Message wording
Retail atmospherics, display, and distribution
Chapter 4
Memory and Knowledge
Learning Objectives
1. Distinguish among sensory, working, long-term,
implicit, and explicit memory, and explain why
marketers must be aware of these different types of
memory
2. Explain how and why knowledge content and
structure, including associative networks,
categories, schemas, scripts, and prototypicality,
are relevant to marketers
3. Discuss what memory retrieval is, how it works,
and the ways in which marketers can try to affect it
Consumer Memory
Persistence of learning over time, via storage

and retrieval of information, either
consciously or unconsciously
– Retrieval: Process of remembering or
accessing what was previously stored in
memory
Memory
Sensory memory Working memory Long-term memory
Echoic memory - Hearing Incoming information that Information is permanently
is encoded or interpreted stored for later use
with existing knowledge or
kept available for more
processing
Iconic memory - Seeing Forms of information Episodic (autobiographical)
processing consist of memory: Knowledge about
imagery processing and oneself and his or her
discursive processing personal, past experiences
Olfactory memory - Smelling Limited and short-lived Semantic memory: General

knowledge about an entity,
detached from specific
episodes
What are some of your childhood memories with
brands? Are those brands still in your life?
Implications of Imagery
Processing for Marketers
Imagery
– Improves the amount of information that can
be processed
– Stimulates future choice
Realistic imagery improves consumer

satisfaction
Effective Use of Episodic Memory
Promoting empathy and identification

Cueing and preserving episodic memories
Reinterpreting past consumption experience
Types of Memory
Explicit memory
• Consumers are consciously aware that they

remember something
Implicit memory
• Consumers are not consciously aware that they

remember something
• Leads to processing fluency
Expression of Explicit Memory
Recognition: Identifying
whether individuals have
previously encountered a
stimulus when reexposed to
the stimulus
Recall: Ability to retrieve
information about a stimulus
from memory without being
reexposed to the stimulus
again
Techniques to Enhance Memory
Chunking - Group of items that are processed

as a unit
Rehearsal - Active and conscious interaction
with the material one is trying to remember
Recirculation - Encountering information
repeatedly
Elaboration: Transferring information to long-
term memory by processing at deeper levels
Why are these techniques important for marketers to
understand?
Knowledge Content: Schema
Set of associations or associative network

linked to a concept in memory
– Spreading of activation: Retrieving a
concept or association spreads to the retrieval
of a related concept or association
• Priming: Increased sensitivity to certain
concepts and associations due to prior
experience based on implicit memory
Knowledge Content: Schema
(continued)
Dimensions of associations include

favorability, uniqueness, and salience
Specific schemas
– Brand image: Captures what a brand stands
for and how favorably consumers view it
– Brand personality: Set of associations that
reflect a brand’s personification
Exhibit 4.4 - Brand Personality Framework
Marketing Implications of
Brand Images and Personality
Creation
– Brand extension: Using the brand name with a
well-developed image on a product in a different
category
Maintenance
Change
Protection
Categories
Taxonomic category:
Classification of objects in
memory in an orderly way
based on their similarity
Graded structure and
prototypicality
Hierarchical structure
Correlated associations
Exhibit 4.6 - Taxonomic Category
Structure
Knowledge Flexibility
Goal-derived categories: Things viewed as
belonging in the same category as they fulfill
same goals
Construal level theory: Describes:
– Different levels of abstractness in associations
that a consumer has about things
– How a consumer's psychological distance
influences abstractness of associations and his
or her behavior
Why Consumer Knowledge Differs
Culture affects how associations are

correlated
Expert consumers:
– Have rich associative network
– Have more graded and refined taxonomy
– Exhibit high flexibility in activating suitable
associations
Retrieval Failures
Decay: Weakening of memory strength over

time
Interference: Strength of a memory
deteriorates over time because of competing
memories
Serial-position effects
– Primacy and recency effect: Tendency to
show greater memory for information that
comes first or last in a sequence
Memory and Retrieval
Memory can be subject to:

– Selection
– Confusion
– Distortion
Enhancing retrieval
– Characteristics of the stimulus
– What the stimulus is linked to
– Way the stimulus is processed
– Consumer characteristics
Characteristics of Stimulus
Salience
Prototypicality
Redundant cues
Medium in which the stimulus is

processed
What are examples of advertising/marketing stimuli?

Linking Stimulus: Retrieval Cues
Brand name Logos Package
Familiar
Images branding and
typefaces
Chapter 5
Attitudes Based on High Effort
Learning Objectives
1. Discuss how marketers can apply various
cognitive models to understand consumers’
attitudes based on high-effort thought processes
2. Describe some of the methods for using the
communication source and the message to
favorably influence consumers’ attitudes in high-
effort situations
3. Identify the emotional foundations of attitudes
when consumers' processing effort is high
4. Explain how and why a company might try to
change consumers’ attitudes by influencing their
feelings
5. Outline the three main factors that lead to a
positive overall consumer attitude toward an
advertisement
6. Discuss the various elements that can affect
whether a consumer’s attitudes will influence his
or her behavior
Attitude
Relatively global and enduring
evaluation of an object, issue, person,
or action
learned, and they tend to persist
over time.
overall evaluation that expresses
how much we like or dislike an
object, issue, person, or action.
Influences thoughts, feelings, and behavior
– Cognitive function -guide our thoughts
– Affective function-influence our feelings
– Connative function-affect our behavior
What is your attitude about: people, stores, ads,
websites or customer service?
As marketers, we need to change attitudes in
order to influence consumer decision-making
and change consumer behavior.
Characteristics of Attitudes
Confidence -hold
Accessibility -how
Favorability- how our attitudes very
easily and readily
much we like strongly and with
an attitude can be
something a great deal of
retrieved from
confidence,
memory.
Ambivalence –
Resistance-to
Persistence- mixed emotions ,
subsequent
endurance positive or negative
change
evaluations
Exhibit 5.1 - Approaches to Attitude Formation and
Change
Consumers can form attitudes in four basic ways, depending on whether

elaboration is high or low and whether the processing is cognitive or affective.
Cognitive Foundations of
Attitudes
Direct or imagined experience -actual
experience with a product or service
Reasoning by analogy or category- form
attitudes by considering how similar a
product is to other products or to a
particular product category
Values-driven attitudes are
generated or shaped is based on
individual values such
environmental protection
Social identity-based attitude
generation , own social identities
can play a role in forming their
attitudes
Analytic processes of attitude
construction-after being exposed to
marketing stimuli or other information,
customers form attitudes based on their
cognitive responses.
may take the form of recognitions,

evaluations, associations, images, or
ideas.
Cognitive Responses to
Communication
Cognitive response: Thought
individuals have in response to
a communication
− Counterargument (CA):
Thought that disagrees with
the message
− Support arguments (SA):
Thought that agrees with the
message
− Source derogations (SD):
Thought that discounts or
attacks the source of the
message
Expectancy-Value Models
Explain how consumer attitudes form and

change based on:
– Beliefs or knowledge about an object or action
– Evaluations of these particular beliefs
Theory of reasoned action (TORA): Model
that provides an explanation of how, when,
and why attitudes predict behavior
– Normative influences play a significant role
in how people behave
Components of the TORA
Model
Behavior (B): What one does
Behavioral intention (BI): What
one intends to do
– Determined by:
• Attitude toward the act (Aact):
How one feels about doing
something
• Subjective norms (SN): How
others feel about another person
doing something
Exhibit 5.4 - Theory of Reasoned
Action (TORA)
Theory of Planned Behavior
Extension of the TORA model

Predicts behaviors over which consumers
perceive they have control
What are the key differences between TORA and

theory of planned behavior?
Which theory do you prefer and why?
Marketing Implications on
Changing Consumer Attitudes
Strategies for changing attitudes, intentions,
and behavior
– Changing beliefs
– Changing evaluations
– Adding a new belief
– Encouraging attitude formation based on
imagined experience
– Targeting normative beliefs
How Cognitively Based
Attitudes Are Influenced
Communication source
• Source credibility - Trustworthiness, expertise, and status

• Company reputation
• Sleeper effect: Consumers forget the source of a
message faster than the message
Message
• Strong argument: Features the central merits of an

offering in a convincing manner
• One-sided messages: Only positive information
• Two-sided messages: Positive and negative information
• Comparative message: Direct comparisons with
competitors
Affective (Emotional)
Foundations of Attitudes
High affective involvement leads to emotional
engagement with a stimulus
Affective response: Generation of feelings
and images in response to a message
Emotional appeal: Message designed to elicit
an emotional response
What is an example of a current brand using an emotional
appeal in advertising?
Are certain industries more prone to benefit from
emotional appeals in their advertising and marketing
communications?
How Affectively Based
Attitudes Are Influenced
Source
– Attractiveness: Evokes favorable attitudes if a
source is physically attractive, likable, familiar,
or similar to the consumer
– Match-up hypothesis: Idea that the source
must match the product or service
Message
– Emotional appeals - Elicit emotions that
attract consumers
How Affectively Based
Attitudes Are Influenced (continued)
– Emotional contagion: Message designed to
induce consumers to vicariously experience
an emotion
– Fear appeals: Stress negative consequences
• Terror management theory (TMT): Deals with
how individuals cope with threat of death by
defending their worldview of values and beliefs
Can you name a context where TMT applies?
Attitude toward the Ad (Aad)
Whether the consumer likes or dislikes an ad

Dimensions
– Utilitarian (functional):
When an ad provides information
– Hedonic:
When an ad creates positive or negative
feelings
When Do Attitudes Predict
Behavior?
Factors
Level of involvement or elaboration
Knowledge and experience
Analysis of reasons
Accessibility of attitudes
Attitude confidence
Specificity of attitudes
Attitude-behavior relationship over time
Emotional attachment
Situational factors
Normative factors
Personality variables
Chapter 7
Problem Recognition and

Information Search
Learning Objectives
1. Describe how consumers recognize a consumption
problem and show why marketers must understand
this part of the decision-making process
2. Discuss what happens when consumers conduct an
internal search to solve a consumption problem and
identify some of the ways in which marketers can
affect internal searches
3. Explain why and how consumers conduct an
external search to solve a consumption problem,
and highlight the main implications for marketing
strategy
Problem Recognition
Ideal state Actual state

– Where individuals – Where individuals
want to be are now
Exhibit 7.2 - Ideal State
Stimulating Problem Recognition
Creating a new ideal state

Encouraging dissatisfaction with the actual
state
Positioning a product or service as a
solution to the problem
Exhibit 7.3 - Targeting the
Ideal State
Internal Search
Searching for information from memory
Degree of internal search varies
Kinds of information recalled
– Brands
– Attributes
– Evaluations
– Experiences
Brand Recall
Consideration or evoked set: Subset of top-of-
mind brands evaluated when making a choice
– Varies in terms of:
• Size
• Stability
• Variety
• Preference dispersion
Brand Recall (continued)
Factors that increase the possibility of

consumers recalling a particular brand
– Prototypicality - more easily recall brands that
are closest to the prototype or that most
resemble other category members
– Brand familiarity
– Goals and usage situations
– Brand preference
– Retrieval cues
Exhibit 7.4 - Prototypicality
Exhibit 7.5 - Retrieval Cues
Attribute Recall
Accessibility/availability - Information that is more
accessible or available—having the strongest
associative links—is the most likely to be recalled
and entered into the decision process.
Diagnosticity - helps us distinguish objects from one
another. Research shows that negative information
tends to be more diagnostic than positive or neutral
information because the former is more distinctive
Attribute Recall
Salience - Research has clearly shown that
consumers can recall very salient (prominent)
attributes even when their opportunity to process is
low
* An attribute can be highly salient but not necessarily
diagnostic. For information to be recalled and entered
into the decision, it must have attribute determinance,
which means the information is both salient and
diagnostic
Attribute Recall
Vividness - presented as concrete words, pictures, or
instructions to imagine. Vivid information is easier to
recall than less dramatic information, but it only tends
to influence judgment and decision-making when
consumers have not formed a strong prior evaluation,
especially one that is negative
Goals - The consumer’s goals will determine which
attribute is recalled from memory
Evaluations and Experiences
Evaluations Experiences
– Are easier to – Take the form of
remember than specific images and
specific attribute the effect
information associated with
– Tend to form them
strong associative – Are most likely to
links with the brand be recalled when
they are more vivid,
salient, or frequent
Is Internal Search Accurate?
Confirmation bias
– Drawing attention to negatives of competition
Inhibition
– Consumers do not always consider key aspects
– Consumers recall other attributes that are more
accessible
– Mood
• Enhancing the recall of positive attribute
information through the use of humor or
attractive visuals
Exhibit 7.7 - Types of
Information Search
Sources of External
Information
Media and
Retailer
social media
Interpersonal Independent
Experiential Internet
Internet Sources
Keyword search
Shopping agents
Information overload
Simulations
Online community
Information Processing
Influenced by:
– Motivation
– Ability
– Opportunity
What motivates you to process information in

advertising?
Motivation to Process
Information
Involvement and perceived risk
– Higher situational involvement will generally lead to a greater
prepurchase search, whereas enduring involvement relates
to an ongoing search regardless of whether problem
recognition exists.
– Meanwhile, when consumers face riskier decisions, they
engage in more external search activity
Perceived costs and benefits - External search
activity is also greater when its perceived benefits are
high relative to its costs
Information
Consideration set - If the consideration set contains
a number of attractive alternatives, consumers will be
motivated to engage in external search to decide
which alternative to select.
Relative brand uncertainty - When consumers are
uncertain about which brand is the best, they are
more motivated to engage in external search
Information
Attitudes toward search - Some consumers like to
search for information and do so extensively. Other
consumers simply hate searching and do little of it.
Discrepancy of information - Consumers are likely to
reject highly incongruous information. Marketers can
capitalize on this tendency by introducing moderate
discrepancies between their brand and other brands.
Exhibit 7.8 - Utilizing
Discrepancy
Ability to Process Information
Consumer knowledge
Cognitive abilities
Consumer affect - Positive affect results in more efficient
processing, according to research, whereas negative affect
appears to make judgments both less efficient and more
effortful.
Demographics – According to research, consumers with
higher education tend to search more than less educated
consumers do. This situation results because consumers with
more education have at least moderate levels of knowledge
and better access to information sources than the less
educated do
Opportunity to
Process Information
Amount of information available - If information is
restricted or not available, consumers have a hard
time engaging in extensive external search.
Information format
– Presenting information in a manner that reduces consumer
effort can enhance information search and usage,
particularly when the consumer is in the decision mode
– Consumers will engage in more leisurely exploratory
searches if the information surrounding an object is visually
simple and uncluttered
– The order in which options are presented can also influence
attitude and preference
Opportunity to
Process Information
Time availability - Consumers who face no time
restrictions have more opportunity to search
Number of items being chosen - When consumers
are making a decision about multiple items, research
suggests that they will conduct a more extensive
search with less variability in search patterns than if
the decision involves the purchase or use of only one
item
Information Acquired
in External Search
Brand name
Price
Other attributes that are salient and
diagnostic
Exhibit 7.11 - Attributes
Chapter 6
Attitudes Based on Low

Consumer Effort
Learning Objectives
1. Outline some issues marketers face in trying to
change consumers’ attitudes when processing
effort is low
2. Explain the role of unconscious influences on
attitudes and behavior in low-effort situations
3. Discuss how consumers form beliefs based on
low-processing cognitive effort
4. Show how marketers can influence cognitive
attitudes through communication source,
message, context, and repetition
5. Describe how consumers form attitudes
through affective reactions when cognitive
effort is low
6. Highlight how marketers can use the
communication source, message, and context
to influence consumers’ feelings and attitudes
when processing effort is low
Low-Effort Situation
Consumers are unwilling/unable to use
effort or emotional resources to process
an idea
Strategies to overcome effects of low-
level processing
– Peripheral route to persuasion:
Aspects other than key message
arguments that are used to influence
attitudes
• Peripheral cues: Easily processed
characteristics of a message
– Design ads to favor the thoughts and
feelings of consumers
Unconscious Influences on
Consumers’Attitudes
Thin-slice judgments: Evaluations made

after very brief observations
Body feedback
– Influences attitude and behavior
Cognitive Bases of Attitudes in Low-
Effort Consumers
Simple inferences
– Beliefs based on peripheral cues
Heuristics: Rules of thumb that are used to
make judgments
– Frequency heuristic: Belief based on the
number of supporting arguments or amount of
repetition
Truth effect: Consumers believe a statement
simply because it has been repeated a
number of times
Characteristics of Communication That
Influence Cognitive Attitudes
Communication source
– Source expertise is used to judge the
credibility of a message
Message
− Category- and schema-consistent information
− Number of supporting arguments
− Simple messages
− Involving messages such as self-referencing
Characteristics of Communication That
Influence Cognitive Attitudes (continued)
Message context and repetition

– Message context affects the strength and
salience of consumers’beliefs
– Repetition enhances brand awareness
• Increases recall through incidental learning
• Activates truth effect
Marketers can increase self-referencing by:
– Directly instructing consumers
– Using the word you in an ad
– Asking rhetorical questions
– Using visuals of common consumer situations
Mystery ad: Brand is not identified until the end
of the message
Other techniques include using avatars in
websites and scratch-and-sniff print ads
Affective Bases of Attitudes
Mere exposure effect: Tendency to prefer

familiar objects
– Consumers experience wearout or get bored with
a stimulus
Classical conditioning: Producing a response to
a stimulus by repeatedly pairing it with another
stimulus that automatically produces this
response
– Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
– Unconditioned response (UCR)
Affective Bases of Attitudes (continued)
– Conditioned stimulus (CS)

– Conditioned response (CR)
– Evaluative conditioning: Producing an affective
response by repeatedly pairing a neutral
conditioned stimulus with an emotionally charged
unconditioned stimulus
When Does Conditioning Occur?
CS–UCS link is relatively novel or unknown

CS precedes UCS (forward conditioning)
CS is paired consistently with UCS
Consumer is aware of the link between
conditioned and unconditioned stimuli
Logical fit exists between conditioned and
unconditioned stimuli
Exhibit 6.4 - Classical
Conditioning
Exhibit 6.5 - The Dual-
Mediation Hypothesis
Mood: Categories of
Affective Responses
SEVA
– Surgency, elation, vigor, and activation
Deactivation feelings
– Soothing, relaxing, quiet, or pleasant
responses
Social affection
– Feelings of warmth, tenderness, and care
Factors Influencing Affective
Attitudes
Communication sources include physical

attractiveness, likability, and celebrity
Message
– Pleasant pictures
– Music
– Humor
– Sex
– Emotional content such as transformational
advertising and dramas
– Context
Exhibit 6.8 - Humor in
Advertising

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Chapter 1

Acquisition, consumption, and disposition of

How does this relate to marketing strategies and

• Motivation, ability, and opportunity

Process of making decision

• Problem recognition and information search

• Innovations: Adoption, resistance, and diffusion

• Social influences on consumer behavior

Activity, set of institutions, and processes for

Motivation, Ability, and

1. Show how motivation influences high-effort

3. Explain how financial, cognitive, emotional,

• Something that has direct bearing on self that has

• Mental view of who one is

• Abstract, enduring beliefs about what is right or wrong,

• Internal state of tension experienced as a

• Outcome one would like to achieve

Internally or externally activated

Need satisfaction is dynamic

Can cause conflict

• About acquiring or consuming an offering that fulfills one need

• About which offering to acquire when each can satisfy an

• About which offering to acquire when neither can satisfy an

Extent to which the consumer anticipates:

Motivation to process information is:

Repeating marketing communications

From Exposure to Comprehension

Consumer comes into physical contact with a

•Appealing to one’s needs, values, emotions, or goals

•Using attractive models, music, and humor

What are some other ways to make ads more

•Using novelty, unexpectedness, and puzzles

•Prominence and concreteness of stimuli

Determining the properties of stimuli using

Elements in sound perception

• Minimal level of stimulus intensity needed to detect stimulus

Differential thresholds (just noticeable difference)

• Intensity difference needed between two stimuli before they are

• Activation of sensory receptors by stimuli presented below the

Process by which stimuli are organized into

Grouping: Tendency to group stimuli to form

Extracting higher-order meaning from what

• Extent to which the consumer accurately

• What the consumer understands from the

Miscomprehension - Consumers inaccurately

Brand names and symbols

Memory and Knowledge

Persistence of learning over time, via storage

Olfactory memory - Smelling Limited and short-lived Semantic memory: General

Realistic imagery improves consumer

Promoting empathy and identification

• Consumers are consciously aware that they

• Consumers are not consciously aware that they

Chunking - Group of items that are processed

Set of associations or associative network

Dimensions of associations include

Culture affects how associations are

Decay: Weakening of memory strength over

Memory can be subject to:

Medium in which the stimulus is

What are examples of advertising/marketing stimuli?

Brand name Logos Package

Attitudes Based on High Effort