Preface

Why is this book important for your preparation?

T here are several books in the market pertaining to the Modern History and Post India
Independence, but none of them deals with the current pattern of the examination.
Hence, there is an urgent need to cater to the requirements of the aspirants of lAS, State
Public Services, as well as other competitive examinations.
This book has been designed keeping in mind the pattern of Civil Services examination.
Since there is a major change in the pattern of the questions of different examinations,
especially UPSC, this book serves as an elixir to the aspirants.
This material is very comprehensive and covers all aspects of Modern History and Post
India Independence alongwith the objective and subjective practice questions.
The content has been designed in point format and in lucid language covering length
and breadth of each topic.
Though it is a factual topic but it includes many underlined concepts and inter-linkages,
thus material will help in constructing a time-line of events through ages.
Thus this book will enable students to understand the finer points as well the multi-di-
mensional perspective of the subject.
Last but not the least; I would like to thank my parents, who supported me with love
and understanding, my committee members, each one of them has provided patient advice
and guidance throughout the research process.
Suggestions for improvement in the book are welcome.
Best Wishes
Amrit Singh Chopra
Chief Educator
Unique Shiksha
About the Book
Thought Behind the Book
The ever-changing pattern of Civil Services Examination and the evolving needs of aspirants
drove us to create a new series of reference books following a Unique Pattern.
This has been designed to meet two basic needs of every Civil Services Aspirant:
• Content Retention Management (Understanding of basic concepts and retention of facts); and
• Time Management (saving time by avoiding reading from different sources).

Pedagogical Assistance to be Found in the Book

This book covers – Modern History and Post Independence India comprehensively. The
team comprising of the author, editors and publishing experts have followed the below mentioned
concepts to ensure this book meets requirements like no other.
Salient features are:
• Each chapter is broken into units to signify how much content an aspirant must cover daily.
• T
 hough it is a factual topic but it includes many underlined concepts and inter-linkages. All topics
and key points are broken down into bullet points to help with lucid and concise learning.
• T
 he materials have been designed to give student a time-line of historical events so that the
connection can be established.
• The material is suitable for both the Prelims and Main examination.
• E
 very unit ends with Prelims and Mains oriented questions to ensure that the aspirants test
themselves on what they have studied to ensure clarity of concepts.

How this Book is One-Stop Reference

 he book is the amalgamation of different sources, edited by experts to provide one stop
• T
solution for Modern History and Post Independence India.
 he content has been designed by taking assistance of NCERT, NIOS and other standard
• T
books. Further deep analysis of previous year papers have also been done to add more
relevant topics.
• Hence it will act as a complete self-study material.

UNIQUE SHIKSHA MASTER SERIE S vs Other Books

Specifications MASTER SERIES OTHER BOOKS

Standard content referred from different Sources Yes Yes
Crisp and Concise concept with indepth analysis Yes No
Practice Questions Yes No
Pictorial representation of content for easy retention Yes No
 Trend Analysis of Modern History

In Prelims examination
 odern History forms an important part of the Civil Services Examination. The weightage of
• M
questions asked in Prelims are generally 8-12.
• A
 ccording to the trend, the questions related to Modern History asked in the UPSC IAS prelims
exam were moderate to tough in their difficulty level. 
• S
 tudent can attempt the easily, hence Modern history is an important portion of prelims paper
which can’t be ignored.

Year No. of questions

2018 12

2017 6

2016 6

2015 8

2014 5
• If we analyse the previous year questions, certain sub-sections are frequently asked in the paper
such as – Acts related to Constitution making, Social reformers, Gandhi’s movements,
Indian congress sessions, Land revenue/economic policies of Britishers.

In Main examination
• U
 PSC Syllabus mentions about Modern History as - Modern Indian history from about the middle
of the eighteenth century until the present - significant events, personalities, issues; The Freedom
Struggle - its various stages and important contributors /contributions from different parts of
the country.
• It demands not only basic understanding of these topics, but also critical and analytical abilities
to answer questions on these topics. The content has been designed in detail to develop
analytical and multi-dimensional approach of the student.

Year No. of Marks

2018 25
2017 50
2016 37.5

2015 37.5
2014 30
2013 30

• A
 s one can see that the weightage of Modern History has been increasing year by year. Thus
proper understanding of historical events is must to attain good marks in the examination.
 Trend Analysis of Post Independence India
 hough in UPSC less questions from Post Independence India are asked but the study of it
• T
is must to understand the background of political, social and economic policies of India.
• A
 Student must study to establish a sound foundation for other subjects. Further knowledge of it
can help in essay also while connecting the past and present of India with respect to any topic
on event related to Post Independence India.
Year No. of Marks
2018 15
2017 15
2016 12.5
2015 0
2014 0
2013 50

Important Notes:
1. A student should focus on understanding the chronology of events for retaining the facts
in the history. He/She should read each chapter minutely, jot down the important
points as designing Self study notes are very important for the revision.
2. The Topics and sub-topics related to Previous Year Questions have been catered
in the book.

What Makes this Book Special?

MODERN INDIA MASTER SERIES

UNIT 1
Day-wise self study plan to
The Decline of the achieve reasonable targets with
respect to different demensions of
MUGHAL EMPIRE the subject.

Rupture of Relationship between

the Emperor and Aristocracy
●● Some historians argue, the functional relationship
between the emperor and the aristocracy, on Bullet format material for easy
which, depended the efficiency of the imperial
reading and high retention
administration. To study how this diminishing
loyalty of the aristocrats could affect the Mughal of facts
Empire; a close look at the composition of this
ruling class is called for.
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
1. Which of the following Mughal Mughal
Emperor has reinnposed Jaziyah on all
Chapter end prelims questions
the Hindus in the the country? for immediate practice and
(a) Farukh Siyar (b) Anrangzeb
progressive learning.
(c) Jahandar Shah (d) Ahmad Shah

Subjective type questions for

Main Examination
Chapter end Subjective
1. Discuss the major factors responsible for questions for enhancing the Art
the decline of Mughal Empire of Answer Writing
2. Discuss Deccan policy of Mughal rulers
from Akbar to Aurangzeb?

How a Unique Shiksha Foundation Student Should Use This Book?

• C
 hapters and Content are in sync with the class to help in achieving desired daily progress.
Thus student can use the material for daily revision and practicing of questions.
• Class Tests are drawn from the book to test a student for progressive learning.
• T
 he subjective type questions can be given for checking to teachers once in a while, this may
help in improving Answer Writing Skill.
Contents
Part A - Modern History

Unit-1. Decline of the Mughal Empire  1-10

1.1. The Withering Mughal Empire in 18th Century
1.2. Rupture of Relationship between Emperor and Aristocracy
1.3. Jagirdari Crisis of 18th Century
1.4. Principle Reasons of Decline of Mughal Empire
Unit-2. Rise of Autonomous States in 18th Century  11-18
2.1. Rise of Autonomous States
2.1.1. Successor State
2.1.2. Rebellious States
2.1.3. Autonomous States
2.2. ‘Unstable’ National Polity of 18th Century
Unit-3. Advent of Europeans and Subjugation of Territories  19-39
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Advent of Europeans
3.2.1. The Portuguese
3.2.2. The Dutch
3.2.3. The English
3.2.4. The French
3.2.5. The Danes
3.3. Anglo-French Rivalry
3.4. Anglo-Bengal War:Bengal Resistance of British Subjugation
3.4.1. Battle of Plassey
3.4.2. Battle of Buxar
3.4.3. Treaty of Allahabad
3.4.4. Dual Government in Bengal
3.5. Anglo-Oudh Wars:Resistance of British Subjugation
3.6. Anglo-Mysore Wars:Southern Resistance to British Subjugation
3.7. Anglo-Maratha Wars:Maratha Resistance to British Subjugation
3.8. Anglo-Sikh wars:Sikh Resistance to British Subjugation
3.9. Anglo-Assam Wars:North Eastern Resistance to British Subjugation
3.10. British Manipulation with the Neighbouring countries
3.11. Reasons for British Subjugation of India
Unit-4. Consolidation of British Rule in India 40-65
4.1.1. Commercial Phase (1600-1757)
4.1.2. Mercantile Phase (1757-1813)
4.1.3. Industrial Phase (1813-1858)
4.1.4. Financial Colonialism (1860-1947)
 4.2. Reinforcement of Devil of British Power
4.3. Constitutional and Political
4.3.1 Regulating Act-1773
4.3.2. Pitt’s India Act-1784
4.3.3. Charter Act -1793
4.3.4. Charter Act-1813
4.3.5. Charter Act-1833
4.3.6. Charter Act-1853
4.3.7. Government of India Act-1858
4.3.8. Indian Council Act-1861
4.3.9. Indian council Act-1892
4.3.10. Indian Council Act-1909 (Morley Minto Act)
4.3.11. Government of India Act-1919 (Mont-Ford Reforms)
4.3.12. Government of India Act-1935
4.4. Development of Civil Services
4.5. Development of Judiciary
4.6. Development of Finance
4.7. Development of Local self Government
Unit-5 The Economic Implication of British Rule on India  66-80
5.1. Land Revenue System
5.1.1 Permanent Settlement (Zamindari System)
5.1.2 Ryotwari System
5.1.3 Mahalwari System
5.2. Agriculture Related General Acts during British Era
5.3. Skewed Commercialization of Agriculture by British
5.4. Impact of Commercialization of Agriculture
5.5. Deindustrialization of India
5.6. Impact on Drain of Wealth
5.7. Monetary Policy during British Era
5.8. Famine Commissions
Unit-6. Revolt of 1857 and Other Rebellions  81-116
6.1. Revolt of 1857: The First War of independence
6.1.1 Character of 1857 Revolt
6.2. Administrative and Military Changes after 1857 Revolt
6.3. Popular Rebellions and Movements in 19th Century
6.4. Peasants Revolts of 19th Century
6.5. Peasants Movements during National Movement
6.6. Indian Working Class Movement
6.7. Caste Movements
Unit-7. Socio-Religious Reform Movements in 19th Century  117-132
7.1. The Factors Responsible to ‘Call for Change’
7.2. Major Religious movements in 19th Century
 7.3. Bengal:The Centre of Religious Movement
7.4. Fundamental principles of Socio-Religious Movements
7.5. Chief Characteristics/Nature/Character of Socio-Religious Movements
7.6. Summary of Effect of 19th Century Indian Renaissance
7.7. Limitations of 19th Century Socio-Religious Movements
Unit-8. Indian National Movements 133-242
8.1. Indian National Movement Stage-1 : Growth of National Consciousness
8.2. Factors responsible for rise of Nationalism
8.3. Growth of Press in India
8.4. Evolution of Educational policy—Orientalist-Anglicist controversy
8.5. Indian National Movement Stage-2 : Formation of Indian National Congress
8.5.1. Background of Foundation of Congress
8.5.2. Safety Valve Theory
8.5.3. Attitude of British towards Congress
8.6. Indian National Movement Stage-3 : Early Leadership of Congress
8.7. Indian National Movement Stage-4 : Indian National Movement (1905-15)
8.7.1 Partition of Bengal
8.7.2 Swadeshi Movement
8.7.3 Surat Split
8.8. Indian National Movement Stage-5 : Rise of Revolutionary Movement
8.9. Indian National Movement Phase-6 : Rise of Gandhian Leadership
8.9.1 Gandhi Early Political Activities
8.10. Indian National Movement Phase-7 : 1916-26
8.10.1 Khilafat Movement
8.10.2 Non Co-operation Movement
8.11. Indian National Movement Phase-8 : Rise of Left
8.11.1 Rise and Growth of Communist Movement
8.12. Rise of Left with in Congress/Rise and Growth of Socialist Movement
8.13. Indian National Movement Phase-9 : 1927-37
8.13.1 Simon Commission
8.13.2 Nehru Report
8.13.3 Civil Disobedience Movement
8.13.4 Gandhi-Irwin Pact
8.13.5 Communal Award
8.13.6 Congress Ministries
8.13.7 Haripura and Tripuri Congress : Gandhi-Bose Differences
8.14. Indian National Movement Phase-10 : 1939-47
8.14.1 Cripps Mission
8.14.2 Quit India Movement
8.14.3 RIN Mutiny
8.14.4 Mountbatten Plan
8.14.5 India Independence Act
 8.15. Indian National Movement Phase-11
8.15.1. Communalism,Muslim Separatism and Partition
8.16. Pakistan Movement
8.17. British Role in Promoting Muslim Communalism
8.18. Acceptance of Partition by Congress
8.19. Indian National Movement Phase-12
8.19.1. Prajamandal Movement
Unit-9. Indian Personalities related to Freedom Struggle 243-254
9.1. Mohan Das Karamchand Gandhi
9.2. B.R. Ambedkar
9.3. Dada Bhai Naoroji
9.4. Madan Moham Malviya
9.5. Jyotirao Phule
9.6. Subhash Chandra Boss
9.7. Bhagat Sngh
9.8. M.A. Jinnah
9.10. Jawahar Lal Nehru
9.11. Dayanand Saraswati
9.12. V.D.Sawarkar
9.13. Rabindranath Tagore

Part B - Post India Independence

Unit-1. State Reorganization Process and Foreign Policy 1-18

1.1. Framing of the Indian Constitution
1.2. Partition of India and its consequences
1.3. Integration of India
1.4. Tribal Integration
1.5. Reorganization of States
1.6. Problem of National Language
1.7. Episodes of External Aggression
1.7.1 Indo-Pak War-1947
1.7.2 Indo-China War-1962
1.7.3 Indo-Pak War-1965
1.7.4 Indo-Pak War-1971 (Bangladesh Liberation)
1.8. Evolution of Indian Foreign Policy
1.9. Non Aligned Movement
1.10. Relation with USA
1.11. Relation with USSR
Unit-2. Political Issues  19-36
2.1. Regionalism and Associated Issues
2.2. Linguistic Reorganization of States
2.3. Inter-States Disputes
2.3. Federalism and Regionalism
2.4. Internal Disturbances and Movements
2.4.1 Emergency : The Dark Age of Indian Democracy
2.4.2 Naxalite Movement
2.5. Communalism
2.5.1 Ayodhya Issue
2.5.2 Gujarat Riots
2.6. Nuclear Programme of India
2.7. Panchayati Raj system
2.8. Evolution of Electoral Politics
Unit-3. Post Independence Economic Issues Part-1 37-43
3.1. Economic Development in Post Independence India
3.2. Planning and its Implications
3.3. Land Reforms
3.4. Green Revolution
3.5. White Revolution
Unit- 4. Post Independence Economic Issues Part-2 44-47
4.1. License Raj
4.2. New Economic Policy-1991
4.3. World Trade Organization
Unit-5. Post Independent Developments in Other Fields 48-60
5.1. Social Developments
5.2. Prominent Movement
5.2.1 Chipko Movement
5.2.2 Narmada Bachao Movement
5.2.3 silent Valley Movement
5.3. Caste Issues
5.3.1 OBC Movement
5.3.2 Dalit Movement
5.4. Other Movement
5.5. Population policy
5.6. Issues of Linguistic Minorities
5.7. Science and Technological
5.8. Skill Development
5.9. Era of Information and Communication Technology
 Part - A
Modern History
 The Decline
MODERN INDIA MASTER SERIES
UNIT 1
The Decline of the
MUGHAL EMPIRE
The 'Rise' and 'Fall' of Powerful Empires
in History
We study history not to know just the past but
to widen our present and future horizons, to
understand that our present situation is neither
natural nor inevitable. For example:- studying how
Europeans came to India could have enable us to
realize that there is nothing natural or inevitable
about the superiority, and that the world might
well be arranged differently.
History proved beyond doubt that every Empire that
evolved and flourished across centuries created were
its own grave-diggers. The strong foundation pro-
vided by able rulers Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan
started deteriorating during the reign of Aurangzeb.
The Mughal Empire was a "war-state" in its core.
It sought to develop a centralised administrative
system, whose vitality depended ultimately on its
military power. The emperor stood at the apex of
this structure, his authority resting primarily, on his
military might. Below him the other most important
element in this structure was the military aristocracy.
The Withering Mughal Empire in
18th Century
In the late sixteenth century, Akbar had
organised this aristocracy through his Mansabdari
system, which meant a military organisation of
the aristocracy, its basis primarily being personal
loyalty to the emperor. Every aristocrat was called
a Mansabdar, with a dual numerical rank-jat and
oftothe
Introduction Mughal
Constitution Empire| 1
& Preamble 1
sawar-jat signifying his personal rank and sawar the
number of horsemen he was required to maintain.
This dual numerical rank also indicated the position
of a particular nobleman in the overall Mughal
bureaucracy.
Sometimes they were paid in cash (Naqdi
Mansabdar); but most often they were paid in
the form of a jagir or landed estate, the estimated
revenue income (jama) of which would cover his
personal salary and the maintenance allowance for
his soldiers and horses.
The Two Types of Jagirs
There were two types of jagirs-transferable or
Tankha jagir and non-transferable or Watan jagir.
Most of the jagirs were transferable-the non-trans-
ferable jagirs were only a device to incorporate
the locally powerful rajahs and zamindars into the
Mughal system, by proclaiming their autonomous
chiefdoms their Watan jagirs. Appointment, pro-
motion or dismissal of Mansabdars and allocation
or transfer of jagirs was done only by the emperor
and so the members of the aristocracy only had
personal loyalty to the emperor himself. Any
form of impersonal loyalty-national, ethnic or
religious-could not develop in Mughal India and so
the entire imperial edifice stood on a "patron-client
relationship" existing between the emperor and
the ruling class.
●● The effectiveness and the permanence of
this relationship depended on the personal
qualities of the emperor and the constant
expansion of resources, which explains the
2 Master Series : Modern India
constant drive towards territorial conquests
in Mughal India. But there were no more
conquests since the late years of Aurangzeb,
and this was supposedly followed by a period
of constant shrinkage of the resources of the
Empire. Moreover, during the heydays of
the Mughals, no Mansabdar maintained the
required number of soldiers and horses as
per their Zat/Sawar rank and there was no
effective supervision either. This weakening
of the army lead to weakening of empire,
the stability of the empire depended on its
military might.
Rupture of Relationship between
the Emperor and Aristocracy
●● Some historians argue, the functional
relationship between the emperor and the
aristocracy, on which, depended the efficiency
of the imperial administration. To study how
this diminishing loyalty of the aristocrats
could affect the Mughal Empire; a close
look at the composition of this ruling class
is called for.
●● Lineage or ethnic background was the
single most important factor in matters of
appointment as Mansabdars. A great majority
of the Mughal nobles were outsiders who had
come from various parts of Central Asia. But
they were gradually Indianised, although this
Indianisation took place without any coherent
policy of the Empire.
●● The aristocracy was therefore divided into
various ethno-religious groups, the most
powerful among them being the Turani and
the Irani groups. Those who came from the
Turkish speaking regions of central Asia
were called the Turanis, while those who
came from the Persian speaking regions of
present- day Iran, Afghanistan and Iraq were
called the Iranis. The Turanis were Sunnis and
the Iranis were Shias, which lent a religious
colour to their mutual animosity and jealousy.
Though the Mughals belonged to the Turani
ethnic lineage, they did not show any personal
favour to the Turanis.
●● The other groups among the nobility were
the Afghans, Sheikhjadas or the Indian
Muslims and the Hindus. The latter group
mainly consisted of the Rajputs and Marathas,
whose incorporation was because of specific
political needs of the Empire. After Aurangzeb
conquered the two Deccani kingdoms of
Bijapur (1685) and Golconda (1689), the
noble men who were in the employ of those
two kingdoms were absorbed into the Mughal
aristocracy and they came to form the Deccani
group.
●● It was primarily during the last years of
Aurangzeb, due to the incorporation of
the Maratha and Deccani nobles, that the
composition of the Mughal aristocracy
underwent a dramatic change, which brought
to the surface the latent contradictions within
its ranks.
●● Moreover, the concept of Watan in Deccan
meant heritable rights that could not be
taken away even by the Kings. Attempts
at centralization could not eliminate those
rights in the 18th Century, so these powers
contested the centralizing tendency of
the Mughal state, resulting in the rise of
autonomous states. The mutual rivalry and
competition among these groups of nobles,
as it is argued by some historians, came to
a head supposedly because of an eighteenth
century economic crisis.
About four-fifths of the land-revenue income of
the Mughal Empire was under the control of the
Mansabdars; but this income was very unevenly
distributed. In the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury, out of about 8,000 Mansabdars, only 445
controlled 61 per cent of the revenue income of
the Empire. This naturally created jealousy and
tension within the aristocracy, particularly when
the resources of the Empire were stagnant or even
diminishing.
The Jagirdari Crisis of 18th Century
●● This economic situation-known as the
"jagirdari crisis" of the eighteenth century.
The available social surplus was insufficient
to defray the cost of administration, pay for
wars of one type or another and to give the
ruling class a standard of life in keeping with
its expectations".
 The Decline of the Mughal Empire 3
●● This happened because of the unusual increase
in the number of Mansabdars at a time when
the area to be distributed as jagir (paibaqi)
remained stagnant or even declined. Revenue
collection, particularly in the south, fell far
short of the estimated income, diminishing
in turn the real income of the jagirdars in
disturbed areas. To make matters worse,
there was a continuous price rise since the
late seventeenth century, as the supply of
luxury goods flowed towards the European
markets, putting the Mughal aristocracy in
further distress.
●● As too many Mansabdars were now chasing
too few jagirs, many of them had to remain
jagirless for years; and even when a jagir
was assigned, there was no guarantee that
they would not be transferred within a short
period. The entire aristocracy, therefore,
suffered from a tremendous sense of personal
insecurity. This jagir crisis was not, however,
a new phenomenon, as there had always been
gaps between collection of revenue and the
estimated revenue income of a particular jagir.
Deccan wars Accentuated the jagirdai
Crisis Further!
The crisis increased during the last years of
Aurangzeb, mainly because of the Deccan wars.
There was now a rise in the number of Mansab-
dars and the political turmoil made the collection
of revenue a more difficult task. The problem was
to some extent artificial and due to wrong policies
of Aurangzeb, who was constantly expanding the
size of the royal land or khalisa. There was a 23
per cent revenue increase after the conquest of
Bijapur and Golconda. But instead of distributing
this extra income among his Mansabdars, Aurang-
zeb wanted to use these resources to finance his
Deccan campaign.
●● The newly conquered lands were incorporated
into the royal khalisa land, its revenue income
going directly into the imperial treasury to
meet the salary demands of the soldiers
fighting in the south. An opportunity to
solve the jagirdari crisis was thus lost and
therefore this crisis was artificial and not due
to any real scarcity of resources. However,
the revenue collections in the Deccan were
gradually falling.
Principal Reasons for Decline of
the Mughal Empire
There are divergent views about the decline of
the prosperous Mughal Empire in India.
According to hisotrians, and the causes of the
decline of the Mughal Empire can be grouped under
the following heads:
1. 'Intolerant' Religious Policy of
Aurangzeb
●● The most important cause of the downfall of
the Mughal Empire was the religious policy
of Aurangzeb.
●● Aurangzeb alienated the sympathy and sup-
port of the Hindus. He imposed Jaziyah on all
the Hindus in the country. Even the Rajputs
and Brahmans were not spared.
●● He dismissed the Hindu Officials from state
service and allowed only those to continue
who were prepared to embrace Islam.
●● An order of banning the building of new
Hindu Temples in areas directly under Mughal
control was promulgated early in his reign.
●● Though old temples were not to be destroyed
under this order, it was decreed that temples
built since the time of Akbar should be regarded
as newly built temples and on that plea were
desecrated in different parts of the Mughal
Empire and those included the Temples of
Vishwanath at Kashi and the Temple of Bir
Singh Deo at Mathura. A number of schools
attached to the temples were also shut down.
●● In 1679, when the State of Marwar was under
direct imperial administration and the Rajputs
prepared themselves to resist Mughals authority,
old as well as new temples were destroyed in
different parts of the Empire. Thousands of
artisans and labourers were employed to
pull down Hindu Temples and Mosques
were built with their material. After the
death of Raja Jaswant Singh, Aurangzeb tried
to keep Ajit Singh; under his control. Durga
Das managed to remove him and his Mother,
in spite of all the precautions taken by the
Mughal Government. That led to the Rajput
War which continued from 1679 to 1681.
●● Although peace was made, Aurangzeb could
not depend upon the Rajputs. It proved to be a
great handicap when he was busy in the Deccan
Wars. Instead of depending upon the support
4 Master Series : Modern India
of the Rajputs, he had to set apart Mughal
Forces to meet any possible trouble from their
side. The execution of Guru Teg Bahadur
was a blunder. That led to the alienation
of the Sikhs who became a strong military
power under Guru Gobind Singh. Later on,
these very Sikhs gave troubling the Mughal
Emperors in the west. Banda was captured and
put to death after a long resistance, the Sikh
Power was not crushed. It kept on growing day
by day and ultimately the Sikhs were able to
out the Mughals from the Punjab.
●● The same policy of religious persecution led
to the rise of the Marathas under Shivaji.
The persecution of the Hindus hardened their
character and they became the bitter enemies
of the Mughals.
The Deccan of Aurangzeb
●● The Deccan policy of Aurangzeb was also
partly responsible for the downfall of the
Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb was bent upon
crushing the power of the Marathas. He found
that the States of Bijapur and Golconda were
a source of help to the Marathas who were
employed in those states in large numbers.
They occupied important places of trust and
authority in civil administration there. Mara-
tha soldiers were welcomed in those states.
They not only got money but also military
training. Aurangzeb felt that if those states
were annexed, the source of the strength of
the Marathas will be stopped.
●● Moreover, the rulers of those states were Shias
and Aurangzeb, being Sunni led to a distrust
between them. The Marathas were able to get
a lot of booty of raiding those states. It was
maintained that if those states were annexed,
it will not be easy for the Marathas to gain
anything because they shall have to fight
against the might of the Mughal Empire.
●● With that object in mind, Aurangzeb himself
went to the Deccan and annexed Bijapur and
Golconda in 1686 and 1687 respectively. He
might have claimed credit for the destruction of
the Shia States, but he had committed a blunder
in doing so. He should have followed a buffer
state policy towards those states and subordi-
nated his religious zeal to statesmanship. If he
had helped these states against the Marathas he
would have been able to keep the latter in check
with much less expense and waste of energy.
●● After the annexation of Bijapur and Golconda,
Aurangzeb tried to crush the power of the
Marathas. Sambhaji, the son of Shivaji, was
captured and put to death under the orders of
Aurangzeb. His son, Sahu, was also captured
and made a prisoner. He continued in Mughal
custody up to 1707. However, the Marathas
carried on their struggle against the Mughals
under the leadership of Raja Ram and his
widow Tara Bai. When Aurangzeb died in
1707, the power of the Marathas was still not
crushed. They were stronger than before.
Deccan as Grave of
Reputation of Aurangzeb
The Deccan was the grave of his reputation as well
as of his body. Aurangzeb had to remain away
from the North for a quarter of a century. The
result was that the whole of the Mughal admin-
istration went out of gear. There was complete
confusion everywhere. As the Emperor was busy
in the Deccan, the Provincial Governors did not
send land revenue to the Central Government.
At a time when more money was required for
the Deccan war, very little was coming from the
provinces. When Bahadur Shah succeeded to the
throne, the treasury was empty. Moreover, an evil
tendency of ijarah or revenue-farming crept in
the Mughal administration during Bahadur Shah
Reign. Instead of collecting land revenue at a fixed
rate as under Todar Mal’s land revenue settlement,
the government began to contract with revenue farm-
ers and middlemen to pay the government a fixed
amount of money while they were left free to collect
whatever they could from the peasant. This led to
increased oppression of the peasant.
●● The Mughal Government being a centralised
despotism, the absence of the Emperor from
the North for a long period encouraged
centrifugal tendencies among the Governors.
After the death of Aurangzeb, those tendencies
continued to grow and as a result various
provinces became independent of the central
authority. Thus, Awadh, Bengal, the Punjab
and the Deccan became independent.
 The Decline of the Mughal Empire 5
●● The Rohillas became independent in
Rohilkhand. The Rajputs also asserted their
independence. Thus, gradually the Mughal
Empire broke up. The failure of Aurangzeb in
the Deccan war destroyed the military prestige
of the Mughals. Too much of expenditure, made
the Mughal Government bankrupt.
2. Revolts in the Provinces of Empire
●● Another cause of the downfall of the Mughal
Empire was the revolts in various provinces
of the Empire. During the Reign of Aurang-
zeb, no provincial Governor could dare to
defy his authority. However, there were many
who were secretly hostile to him. They all
were trying to build up reserves of power and
secure such allies as could help them to real-
ise their ambitions when the aged Emperor
passed away. All the sons of Aurangzeb fell
into this category among officers Bahadur
Khan, Diler Khan and Zulfiqar Khan were
all suspected of harbouring such motives.
After the death of Aurangzeb, the Empire
began to break up and the process of breaking
up was rather rapid.
●● Aurangzeb’s reign witnessed powerful
regional groups like the Jats, Sikhs and
Marathas defying the authority of the
Mughal state in their bid to create kingdoms
of their own. They did not succeed in their
efforts, but each of them influenced the future
course of political events in their respective
regions. Their continuous struggle against the
empire for political ascendancy weakened the
empire considerably.
●● Aurangzeb, and after him Bahadur Shah, by
attempting to suppress the Rajputs, spurred
them to battle against the Mughals. The later
Mughals made an effort to follow a policy of
reconciliation with the Rajputs, but by then it
was already too late. The Rajputs no longer
trusted the Mughals enough to ally with them
for the welfare of the empire.
●● The Marathas too were becoming a
formidable enemy. Their aim was at first
limited only to regaining control over the
region of Maharashtra; but it soon went on
to include getting legal sanction from the
Mughal emperor for collecting Sardeshmukhi
and Chauth (Chauth was comprised of 1/4
of the revenue assessment paid as a fee for
non-molestation. Sardeshmukhi was an
additional levy of 10% of revenue which
Shivaji claimed on being the Sardeshmukh,
i.e; overlord throughout India. They forged
northwards and by 1740 succeeded in
spreading their influence over the provinces
of Gujarat, Malwa and Bundelkhand. The
Rajput struggle against the empire and the
growing ambition and power of the Marathas,
thus, adversely affected the Mughal might.
Unwidely Mughal Empire of
18th Century, Union Integration
In the time of Aurangzeb, the size of the Mughal Empire
became unwieldy. It became physically impossible for
any man to govern the same from one centre when
the means of communication and transport were not
developed. A centralised despotic Government was not
suited to the needs of the time. The Mughal lines of
communication were open to Maratha attacks to such
an extent that the Mughal Nobles found it impossible to
collect their dues from the Jagirs assigned to them and
sometimes made private pacts with the Marathas.
That raised the power and prestige of the Marathas,
led to demoralisation in the nobility and a setback to
imperial prestige. Perhaps Aurangzeb might have been
better advised to accept the suggestion put forward by
his eldest son, Shah Alam, for a settlement with Bijapur
and Golconda, annex only a part of their territories and
let them rule over Karnataka which was away from and
difficult to manage.
3. Weak Successors of Aurangzeb
●● Another cause of Mughal downfall was the
weak successors of Aurangzeb. If they had
been intelligent and brilliant, they could
have stopped the decline that set in during
the Reign of Aurangzeb. Unfortunately, most
of them were worthless they were busy in
their luxuries and intrigues and did nothing
to remedy the evils that had crept into the
Mughal Polity. Bahadur Shah I. He ascended
the throne in 1707 and did not possess the
energy to perform the onerous duties of the
state. He tried to keep the various parties and
courtiers satisfied by offering them liberal
grants, titles, rewards, etc.
6 Master Series : Modern India
●● Rulers like Jahandar Shah (1712-13), Far-
rukh Siyar (1713-79), Muhammad Shah
(1719-48), Ahmad Shah (1748-54), and
Bahadur Shah II (1837-57) were no better.
Some of them were mere puppets in the hands
of their Wazirss. The chronicles of the court
of Delhi after Aurangzeb offer an unbroken
tale of plots and counter-plots on the part of
powerful nobles, culminating at intervals in
open disorder and fighting with the titular
Emperor serving as the sport and plaything
of contending groups.
4. A
 bsence of Law of Primogeniture
in the Matter of Succession
●● The Mughal empire was marked by the absence
of the law of primogeniture in the matter
of succession to the throne. The result was
that every Mughal Prince considered himself
to be equally fit to become the ruler and was
prepared to fight out his claim. The sword
was the grand arbiter of right and every son
was prepared to try his fortune against his
brothers. After the death of Bahadur Shah, the
various claimants to the throne were merely
used as tools by the leaders of rival factions
to promote their own personal interests.
●● Zulfikar Khan acted as the king-maker in the
war of succession which followed after the
death of Bahadur Shah I in 1712. Likewise,
the Sayyid Brothers acted as king-makers
from 1713 to 1720. They were instrumental
in the appointment of four kings to the throne.
After their disappearance from the sconce, Mir
Mohammad Amin and Asaf Jah Nizam-ul-
Mulk acted as king-makers. Undoubtedly, the
absence of the law of succession contributed to
the decline of the Mughal Empire.
5. D
 eteriorating Character of Mughal
Kings
●● Another cause of Mughal downfall was the
gradual deterioration in the character of the
Mughal Kings. It is said that when Babur
attacked India, he swam all the rivers on
the way. He was so strong that he could
run on the wall of a fort while carrying men
in his-arms. Unmindful of the difficulties
confronting him, Humayun was able to win
back his throne after the lapse of many years.
The same hardy character enabled Akbar to
conquer the whole of the Northern India and
a part of the Deccan.
●● After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal
Emperors became ease-loving and coward.
Their harems were full. They went about
in palanquins and were hardly fit to rule a
country where the mass of the people detested
the Mughal rule. Kam Baksh, as a captive
on his death-bed, regretted that a descendant
of Timur was captured alive. But Jahandar
Shah and Ahmed Shah were not ashamed to
be caught up in the tresses of their concubines
who came between them and their duties as
Emperors:
●● The former fooled himself in public with
his Lal Kunwar and the latter buried himself
in his seraglio/harem-which extended over
four square miles-for weeks together without
seeing the face of male.
6. Degeneration of the Mughal Nobility
●● There was also the degeneration of the
Mughal nobility. When the Mughals came to
India, they had a hardy character. Too much
of wealth, luxury and leisure softened their
character. Their harems became full. They got
wine in plenty. They went in palanquins to
the battle-fields. Such nobles were not fit to
fight against the Marathas, the Rajputs and
the Sikhs. The Mughal Nobility degenerated
at a very rapid pace.
●● The eighteenth century also produced a large
number of capable nobles and distinguished
generals. Their personal ambitions were
unlimited and they preferred to carve out
independent principalities for themselves
rather than serve the Mughal Emperors loy-
ally and devotedly.
●● The reason for the degeneration of the
nobility was that it gradually became a
closed corporation. It gave no opportunity
of promotion of capable men belonging to
other classes. The offices of the state became
hereditary power just went to few families.
 The Decline of the Mughal Empire 7
Corrupt Mughal Nobility
The Mughal Nobility was corrupt and with no
transparency and honest in administration By giv-
ing suitable bribes, any Government rule could be
evaded or any favour secured. The interests of the
Mughal Empire did not appeal to them. The British
regularly bribed Mughal Nobles for getting their
work done. Even the highest nobles took bribes
which were called Peshkash or presents. That low-
ered the tone of administration. With the passage
of time, corruption and bribery became rampart.
●● The decline of the army became more palpa-
ble, as there was no fresh technological input
or organizational innovation. The nobles were
more interested in carving out autonomous
or semi-autonomous principalities for them-
selves, which resulted in a virtual fragmen-
tation of the empire.
●● Factionalism kept on growing till it extended
to all branches of administration, the two
major causes of functionalism were struggle
for Jagirs and personal advancement
and struggle for supremacy between the
Wazir and the monarch. Thus faction fights
weakened the monarchy, gave a chance to the
Marathas, Jats, etc. to increase their power
and to interfere in the court politics which
prevented the Emperors from following a
consistent policy. Factionalism became the
most dangerous bane of the Mughal Rule
from 1715 onwards.
7. D
 eterioration and Demoralisation
of the Mughal Army
●● There was gradul deterioration and demoral-
isation in the Mughal Army. The impotence
of the Mughal Armies was declared to the
world when the Mughals failed to recapture
Qandhar in spite of three determined efforts
made by them. In AD 1739, Nadir Shah not
only plundered the whole of Delhi but also
ordered wholesale massacre. When such a
thing happened without any effort on the part
of the ruler to stop it, he forfeited the right
to command allegiance from the people. The
Mughal States was a police state and when it
failed to maintain internal order and external
peace, the people lost all their respect for the
Government.
●● It is contended that their weapons and
methods of war had become frost-grown
and outmoded. They put too much reliance
on artillery and armoured cavalry. The
artillery was local in action and ponderous
in movement. It was rendered stationary by
huge tail of camp which looked like a city
with its markets, tents, stores and baggage.
All kinds of people, men and women, old
and young, combatants and non-combatants,
besides elephants, cattle and beasts of burden,
accompanied the Mughal Army.
●● On the other hand, the Maratha cavalry was
swift and elusive like wind. They suddenly
erupted on Mughal Camps and damage attacks
on their posts. Before the Mughals could get
time for recovery, the Marathas, "like water
parted by the oar," closed and fell on them.
8. Intellectual Bankruptcy of Mughals
●● The Mughals suffered from intellectual bank-
ruptcy. That was partly due to the lack of an
efficient system of education in the country
which alone could produce leaders of thought.
The result was that the Mughals failed to pro-
duce any political genius or leader who could
provide a new leadership in the country.
9. M
 ughal Empire Faced Financial
Bankruptcy
●● After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal
Empire faced financial bankruptcy. The
beginning had already been made at the
time of Aurangzeb and after his death; the
system of farming of taxes was resorted to.
Although the Government did not get much
by this method, the people were ruined. They
were taxed to such an extent that they lost all
incentive to production.
●● Shah Jahan had increased the state demand
to one-half of the produce. The extravagant
expenditure by Shah Jahan on buildings was
a crushing burden upon the resources of the
country. The venality of the officials and the
tyrannical caprice of the Mughal Governors,
8 Master Series : Modern India
added to the misery of the people who had
little or no means, for obtaining redress.
The financial collapse came in the time of
Alamgir II who was practically starved by
his Wazir Imad-ul-Mulk. It is stated that
Alamgir II had no conveyance to take him
13. N
to the Idgah and he had to walk on foot.
10. W
 idespread Corruption in the
Administration
●● There was the widespread corruption in
the administration. The exaction of official
prequisites from the public by the officials
and their subordinates were universal and
admitted practice. Many officials from the
highest to the lowest took bribes for doing
14. F
undeserved favour.
●● Even the Emperor was not above it.Emper-
ors shared the money which their favourites
charged as Peshkash from people desirous of
getting a post or seeking a transfer.Offices
were reserved for old families of clerks and
accountants and outsiders were not allowed
to come in. Such a state of affairs was det-
rimental to the highest interests of the state.
11. Mansabdari System Degenerated
●● The Mansabdari System degenerated at the
time of Aurangzeb and his successors. There
was corruption and oppression on all sides.
In the later years of Aurangzeb's reign, the
treasury was empty, the wars were ceaseless,
the army was disorganised and officers were
discontented and disloyal. There were great
ministers and generals but the mass of the
people were human sheep.
12. I
nvasions of Nadir Shah and
Ahmad Shah Abdali
●● The invasion on India by Nadir Shah and
Ahmad Shah Abdali gave a serious blow to
the already tottering Mughal Empire. The
easy victory of Nadir Shah and the repeated
invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali exposed
to the world the military weakness of the
Mughal state.
●● The invaders sacked Delhi and carried away
with them huge booty. This affected adversely
the prestige of the Mughal Empire and the
people lost all faith in the capacity of the
Mughal Rulers to protect them against foreign
invaders. This also encouraged the Indians to
assert their independence.
 egligence in the Development
of the Navy
●● The Mughals neglected the development of
the Navy and that proved suicidal for them.
The later Mughals did not pay any attention
to sea power and left their coast-line com-
pletely undefended. That was exploited by the
Europeans who ultimately established their
rule over India.
 ailure to Satisfy the Minimum
Expectation of the People
●● The cause of the downfall of the Mughal
Empire was that it could no longer satisfy the
minimum needs of the people. The condition
of the Indian Peasant gradually worsened
during the 17th and 18th centuries. In the 18th
century, his life was "poor, nasty, miserable
and uncertain". The burden of land revenue
went on increasing from the time of Akbar.
●● The constant transfer of Nobles from their
Jagirs led to great evil. They tried to extract
as much from a Jagir as possible in the short
period of their tenure as Jagirdars. They made
heavy demands on the peasants and cruelly
oppressed them, often in violation of official
regulations. After the death of Aurangzeb, the
practice of Ijarah or farming the land revenue
to the highest bidder became more and more
common both on Jagir and Khalisa (Crown)
Lands.
●● That led to the rise of a new class of revenue
farmers and Talukdars whose extortions from
the peasantry often knew no bounds. There
was stagnation and deterioration in agriculture
and impoverishment of the peasant. Peasant
discontent increased and came to the surface.
There were instances of the peasants leaving
the land in order to avoid the payment of taxes.
●● Peasant discontentment found an outlet in
a series of uprisings such as the Satnamis,
 The Decline of the Mughal Empire 9
the Jats and the Sikhs and that weakened the century. They played the role of king-
stability and strength of the Empire. Many makers at the Delhi Court. They acted as
peasants formed roving bands of robbers and the defenders of the country against foreign
adventurers and thereby undermined law and invaders like Ahmad Shah Abdali. It is true that
order and efficiency of the Government. the Marathas did not succeeded in their great
mission but their conquests in Northern India
15. Rise of the Great Marathas
in the 18th century gave a death-blow to the
●● Another important factor which contributed Mughal Empire.
to the decline of the Mughal Empire was
●● The territorial gains of the English East
the rise of the Marathas under the Peshwas.
India Company destroyed all chances of the
They consolidated their position in Western
revival of the Mughal Empire. The British
India and then started entertaining plans for a
won the Battle of Plassey and continued to
Hindupad Padshahi or a Greater Maharashtra
expand their Empire in the Deccan and in the
Empire. The dream could be realised only at
Gangetic Region. With the passage of time,
the cost of the Mughal Empire. They gains of
they were able to establish their hold over the
the Marathas were the loss for the Mughals.
whole of India and there could be not chance
●● The Marathas became the strongest power for the revival of the Mughal Empire.
in the Northern India in the mid-eighteenth

Analysis of Decline of Mughal Empire

●● The decline and downfall of the Mughal Empire was a combined effect of economic, social, political
and institutional factors. Akbar's measures helped to keep the forces of disintegration in check
for some time, but it was not possible for him to effect fundamental changes in the structure of
society. By the time Aurangzeb came to the throne, the socio-economic forces of the disintegration
necessary to effect fundamental changes in the structure or to pursue policies which could reconcile
the various competing elements. Aurangzeb was both a victim of circumstances and helped to create
the circumstances of which he became a victim.
●● India lagged behind the world in the field of Science and Technology and the Mughal Ruling class
remained blind to this development. It was more concerned with matters of immediate concern than
matters which would shape the future. The Mughal Empire had already reached the limits of its
development. The feudal aristocratic nature of the state and the neglect of science and technology
by the ruling class were placing limits to the economic turn around of the country.
●● Thus, the roots of the disintegration of the Mughal Empire may be found in the Medieval Indian
Economy; the stagnation of trade, industry and scientific development within the limits of that
economy; the growing financial crisis which took the form of a crisis of the jagirdari system and
affected every branch of state activity; and, consequently, the struggle of factions and the bid of
ambitious nobles for the independent dominion.
●● We may, however, conclude by saying that the idea of 'decline' is perhaps an inadequate theme for
understanding the eighteenth century in lndian history. The Mughal system continued even long after
the de facto demise of the empire, which was followed by the emergence of a number of regional
powers. The eighteenth century in Indian history is not a dark age, nor an age of overall decline. The
decline of one pan-Indian empire was followed by the rise of another, the intervening period being
dominated by a variety of powerful regional rulers.
10 Master Series : Modern India
Modern India Master Exercise
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
1. Which of the following Mughal Mughal Emperor
has reinnposed Jaziyah on all the Hindus in the
the country?
(a) Farukh Siyar (b) Anrangzeb
(c) Jahandar Shah (d) Ahmad Shah
2. When did Nadir Shah invaded India?
(a) 1719 (b) 1739
(c) 1747 (d) 1748
3. ‘Hereditary grant of Jaigirs‘was one of the
features of Mansabdari system.
This statement is :
(a) True (b) False
4. Which European traders first came to India
during Mughal Period?
(a) Portugues (b) Dutch
(c) English (d) Danish
5. The religion of Akbar known as ‘Din-i-Ilahi’
mean –
(a) One religion for all
(b) Universal faith of God
(c) Divine faith
(d) Ultimate peace
1
Subjective type questions for Main
Examination
1. Discuss the major factors responsible for the
decline of Mughal Empire
2. Discuss Deccan policy of Mughal rulers from
Akbar to Aurangzeb?
3. Expansion of Mughal Empire in Deccan brought
about its decline. Discuss
4. Spanish ulcer ruined Napolean Bonapart and
Deccani ulcer ruined Aurangzeb.Comment
5. The very basis of the disintegration of Mughal
Empire has its roots in medieval age. Elucidate
6. The Third battle of Panipat was fought in 1761.
Why were so many empire-shaking battles
fought at Panipat? UPSC 2014
7. Examine the subsequent failure of Mansabdari
and Jagirdari system in the 18th century.
8. With special reference to the Deccan in the 18th
century, discuss the causes of the rise and growth
of regional kingdoms.
Answers to MCQs
1. (b)
2. (b) 1739, On 13 February 1739, Nadir Shah
crushed the Mughal army in less than three
hours at the huge Battle of Karnal.
3. (b)
4. (a)
5. (c)