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Surveying and Mapping in Transition to Geoinformation 7

of electronic tacheometers. The automatic coding of directional and distance


measurements was perfected in the so-called total stations.
Nowadays it is possible to integrate GPS receivers and PC graphic capabili-
ties in a single instrument, the so-called electronic field book, which can be
used effectively for updating vector graphics or for orienting oneself in the field
with the help of digitized and displayed images. For the survey of heights, sim-
ple route survey devices, such as the barometer, are considered to be too inac-
curate according to today’s standards.
Leveling is still the prime source of accurate height data, even though
spirit level devices have gradually been replaced by instruments with auto-
matic compensators assuring a horizontal line of sight by the force of grav-
ity. The optically observed level rods read by the operator have likewise
been automated by digitally coded reading devices to permit more rapid
leveling operations.
Nevertheless, ground surveys without the use of GPS are still considered
very expensive, and they are thus only suitable for the detailed survey of rela-
tively small areas.

Remote Sensing
Remote sensing can be considered as the identification or survey of objects by
indirect means using naturally existing or artificially created force fields. Of
most significant impact are systems using force fields of the electromagnetic
spectrum that permit the user to directionally separate the reflected energy
from the object in images.
The first sensor capable of storing an image, which could be later inter-
preted, was the photographic emulsion, discovered by Nièpce and Daguerre
in 1839. When images were projected through lenses onto the photographic
emulsion, the photographic camera became the first practical remote sensing
device around 1850.
As early as 1859, photographs taken from balloons were used for military
applications in the battle of Solferino in Italy and later during the American
Civil War. Only after the invention of the aircraft in 1903 by the Wright brothers
did a suitable platform for aerial reconnaissance become of standard use. This
was demonstrated in World War I, during which the first aerial survey camera
was developed by C. Messter of the Carl Zeiss Company in Germany in 1915.
Aerial photographic interpretation was extended into many application fields
(e.g., glaciology, forestry, agriculture, archaeology), but during World War II it
again became the primary reconnaissance tool on all sides.
In Britain and Germany, development of infrared sensing devices began,
and Britain was successful in developing the first radar in the form of the plan

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