INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS PUBLISHING MEASUREMENT SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Meas. Sci. Technol. 16 (2005) R1–R16 doi:10.1088/0957-0233/16/3/R01

REVIEW ARTICLE

The vortex flowmeter: various methods of

investigating phenomena
Grzegorz L Pankanin
Institute of Electronic Systems, Warsaw University of Technology, Nowowiejska 15/19,
00-665 Warsaw, Poland
E-mail: g.pankanin@ise.pw.edu.pl

Received 30 March 2004, in final form 13 October 2004

Published 31 January 2005
Online at stacks.iop.org/MST/16/R1

Abstract
This paper is devoted to the Karman vortex shedding flowmeter—its
physical fundamentals, research, design, optimization and applications. The
flowmeter is currently in a stage of rapid development. Many valuable
discoveries concerning the applied Karman vortex street phenomenon have
been made. In this paper, various aspects of the problems concerning the
vortex meter are described. Fundamental problems and their solutions are
presented based on a description of the principles of operation. The most
important methods of investigating the phenomena that appear in the vortex
meter are described: measured signal analysis, flow field investigations
using a hot-wire anemometer, flow visualization supported by image
processing and numerical modelling. The most powerful achievements in
these fields are also described.
Keywords: Karman vortex street, vortex flowmeter, hot-wire anemometer,
flow visualization, numerical modelling

1. Introduction
The well-known Karman vortex street phenomenon is widely
used in practice. The vortex meter—based directly on an
application of this phenomenon—belongs to the leading group
of devices currently used for flow measurement.
The long history of the vortex meter has not so
far led to a comprehensive understanding of the applied
phenomena because of their exceptional complexity regarding
the generation and growth of vortices. Because of this
complexity, various methods of investigations have been
applied. Each of them allows one to get only partial
information concerning the phenomenon. The methods
differ from each other since the acquired information is of
various kinds. It is necessary to mention, however, that
the results obtained complement each other, and achieving
a comprehensive understanding of the Karman vortex street is
feasible.
Three different types of hydrodynamic instability
flowmeter are known. Apart from the vortex shedding meter
that is the subject of this paper, the swirlmeter and the fluidic
meter should be mentioned.
The principle of operation of the swirlmeter is based on
an application of vortex precession [1–4]. Under certain
circumstances the symmetrical swirling flow in a pipe may
break down into asymmetry. The spiralling vortex is called
vortex precession. Above a given Reynolds number, the
frequency of vortex precession is proportional to the inlet fluid
velocity.
The fluidic meter utilizes the self-induced oscillations
of a bistable wall reattachment amplifier [2, 4, 5]. The
characteristic special structure of the meter allows stable
oscillations to be kept. The frequency of the measurement
signal is nearly linear versus flow velocity. Honda and
Yamasaki suggested in [5] that the fluidic and vortex shedding
flowmeters are complementary. Hence the idea of the unified
approach to both flowmeters.
It is worth emphasizing that, among the flowmeters
utilized where hydrodynamic instabilities are present, only the
vortex meter is widely used in practice. As a background to the

0957-0233/05/030001+16$30.00 © 2005 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK R1

Review Article
Figure 1. The Karman vortex street.
development of the vortex meter, the most significant methods
of investigating the Karman vortex street are described in this
paper.
2. Principle of operation of the vortex meter
2.1. Historical view
Vortex shedding on an obstacle placed in a flowing fluid
duct has been observed since ancient times. Some very
old notes contain the information that wind causes vortex-
induced vibration of wires. In the fifteenth century Leonardo
da Vinci observed vortices created in a river. He sketched a
row of vortices downstream of the obstacle. The next step
in the recognition of the phenomenon was taken in 1878 by
Strouhal [6], who found that the tones generated by a wire
in the wind were proportional to the wind speed divided
by the wire thickness. Lord Rayleigh found later (in 1879)
[7] the existence of lift (accompanying the vortex shedding)
perpendicular to the flow direction. Research carried out by
von Karman (1912) [8] resulted in conclusions concerned the
periodicity of the phenomenon.
The feasibility of using vortex shedding as a principle of
flow measurement was pointed out in 1954 by Roshko [9]. An
early attempt to use this principle was reported by Shiba [10]
in 1960 for measuring the speed of a ship. The first modern
vortex flowmeter for measuring flow in closed conduits was
designed by Yamasaki in 1967 [11].
The first commercial vortex meter was manufactured in
1969 by the Japanese company Yokogawa. A few years later
vortex meters manufactured by American Eastech and other
companies were released [12, 13]. Later, in Europe, the British
company Kent Instruments was the most famed manufacturer
of vortex meters [14].
2.2. Description of the vortex shedding phenomenon
The principle of operation of the vortex meter is based on
vortex shedding on an obstacle placed in the flowing fluid
(figure 1).
Karman’s pioneering study of the stability of vortex streets
[8] was derived from potential theory assuming an inviscid
fluid. The formation of vortex streets or vortex shedding
originates from the viscosity in the real fluid. Because of
the viscosity, a boundary layer grows on a bluff body and is
separated on both sides of it. Vortices are generated alternately
on each side of the bluff body, which is usually a cylinder
placed perpendicularly to the flow direction. The bluff body
should have sharp edges so as to stabilize the separation point
of the boundary layer. Cylinders of various cross-sections are
used in commercially manufactured vortex meters.
R2
0.3
0.2
St
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6
log 10 Re
Figure 2. Strouhal number versus Reynolds number (after Yamasaki
and Rubin [11], reprinted by permission, all rights reserved).
The frequency of generated vortices is directly
proportional to the flow velocity:
v
f = ST (1)
d
where v is the flow velocity, d is the width of the bluff body
and ST is a dimensionless constant called the Strouhal number.
It is of fundamental importance that the vortex shedding
phenomenon is not sensitive to the physical properties of the
fluid like viscosity and density. Hence, the vortex meter is not
sensitive to the temperature and chemical composition of the
fluid.
The vortices appear as disturbances in the local velocity
and pressure. They originate on the surface of the bluff body
and grow rapidly. The diameter of the vortex increases as it
moves downstream, and at a certain distance from its origin it
decays.
The curve of Strouhal number versus Reynolds number
obtained by many researchers is given in figure 2. As is easily
seen, the Strouhal number is in principle constant for a range
of Reynolds number from 3 × 102 to 1.5 × 105. Hence
the feasibility of designing for linear vortex shedding with a
turndown ratio above 100:1.
Vortex shedding is essentially a two-dimensional
phenomenon. In contrast the flow inside the pipe is three-
dimensional. Hence phenomena occurring in the flow such as
turbulence, swirl and velocity gradient unfavourably influence
the vortex shedding. A highly modulated amplitude and
frequency of vortex shedding have been observed. This results
from three-dimensional effects causing varying frequencies
along the length of the bluff body. Cousins [4] pointed out
four ways to solve the problem:
• conditioning of the flow past the bluff body
• introducing end plates on the bluff body
• introducing boundary layer control techniques on the bluff
body
• complex signal processing
It was found that vortex shedding was more regular for short
bluff bodies. Also an increased signal quality has been
observed for bluff bodies having ‘end plates’ [15]. Results
from other researchers show that the presence of walls blocking
the fluid downstream of the bluff body enhances the stability
and strength of the vortex shedding. Cousins et al [16]

concluded that, in the case of a bluff body in the form of a
cylinder mounted transversely across a pipe, the pipe walls
represent both end plates and blockage.
Boundary layer control on the bluff body relies on its
design ensuring good definition of the separation point. This
may be achieved using various techniques. In the vortex
meter designed in 1967 a very small longitudinal notch was
made along the axis of the circular cylinder at the point of
separation [11]. Additionally, just downstream of the cut,
multiple sensing ports were bored through both sides of the
body. Because of alternating lift from the vortex shedding,
the fluid flows through the sensing ports into the forming
vortex, helping to control its formation. In later designs bluff
bodies with sharp edges ensuring boundary layer control were
preferred.
The vortex shedding phenomenon is sensitive to flow
disturbances such as turbulence, pulsations and irregularity
of flow profile. All of these can result from the way the
meter is installed and the flow conditions. In practice many
devices such as pumps, valves etc cause periodic changes
of the flow rate. Hydraulic elements such as pipe elbows
also introduce asymmetries into the flow profile. The most
dangerous accompanying phenomenon is the so-called ‘lock-
on effect’. This manifests itself in switching the vortex
frequency into the pulsation frequency of the fluid, so that
the frequency of the measuring signal depends not on the flow
rate but on the pulsation frequency only. This may result
in considerable errors in the obtained results. Investigations
carried out by Skwarek et al [17] have proved that flow
pulsation greatly disturbs the measuring signal, and in the
case of the highest pulsation amplitudes it can completely
obscure the vortex frequency. It is also worth emphasizing
that the sensitivity of the meter to flow pulsations depends on
the design of the bluff body as well as on the amplitude of the
pulsations [18]. Investigations reported in [19, 20] show that
the existence of swirl in the flowing fluid may also destroy the
vortex shedding phenomenon considerably.
It is also worth mentioning the phenomenon of fluid-
structure resonances. This phenomenon is characteristic of
vortex shedding, but not for the vortex meter. It appears
especially in the case of long thin objects such as long pipes,
chimneys, suspended cables for bridges, power transmission
lines etc. The flow around these cylinders causes vortex
shedding and hence periodic pressure fluctuations. Finally,
if the vortex shedding frequency is equal to one of the natural
frequencies of the object, it may cause the cylinder to vibrate.
This is called vortex-induced vibration. This phenomenon can
be treated as a kind of ‘lock-on’ effect. It could even cause the
complete destruction of bridges, chimneys etc. The problem
has been studied by numerous researchers [21–25].
2.3. Models of vortex shedding
Unfortunately, there is no satisfactory model of vortex
shedding. A few basic approaches are presented below.
Birkhoff [26] modelled vortex shedding as an oscillating
fishtail (figure 3). He equated the hydraulic restoring force
to the inertial forces on the fishtail. The angular oscillation
Review Article
α
Figure 3. Birkhoff’s model (after Birkhoff [26] and Cousins [4]).
of the fishtail with the centre of gravity about the axis of the
cylinder is given by [4]:
d2 α
I + kα = 0 (2)
dt 2
where I is the moment of inertia, α the angle of deflection of
the vortex wake and k the wake restoring force.
The most important conclusion from the Birkhoff model is
the hypothesis that the vortex frequency is directly proportional
to the flow velocity and it is independent of the fluid density
and Reynolds number.
A model for the motion of the boundary layers during
the formation process has been proposed by Gerrard [27] and
subsequently discussed by Lucas and Turner [28] and Bentley
and Mudd [29]. As shown in figure 4, two shear layers SL1
and SL2 alternately roll up, forming vortices downstream of
the bluff body. In the process of generating vortices, three
streams can be distinguished:
• stream A entrained into the growing vortex generated from
the opposite shear layer SL1,
• stream B entrained by the turbulent shear layer SL1,
• stream C directed back into the formation region and
generating a new vortex.
On that basis it can be concluded that, from the point of view of
the strength of vortices, stream C should be maximized, stream
A should be minimized and stream B should be sufficiently
high for the vortex to detach.
The flow region just behind the bluff body plays a
very important part in determining the frequency of vortex
shedding. The importance of this region lies in the fact that
there is a close relationship between its size, the strength of
vortices and the frequency of vortex shedding.
Investigations carried out by Bearman [30] have
confirmed the considerable role in vortex development of the
region lying close behind the bluff body. Tests carried out
using bluff bodies with a splitter plate show that the fully
developed vortex appears only at a certain distance from the
rear face of the bluff body. On the other hand, the existence
of the splitter plate influences the vortex shedding process
considerably. The vortices’ energy as well as the location
of the point of maximum energy depend on the length of
the splitter plate. Suppression of vortices is observed for a
sufficiently long plate.
The vortex shedding phenomenon is accompanied by the
existence of a force perpendicular to the flow velocity vector
[11]. This force L is called the lift and is given by Kutta-
Joukowski’s theorem [11]:
L = ρv (3)
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Figure 4. Streams in the flow during vortex formation (after Gerrard [27], Lucas and Turner [28] and Bentley and Mudd [29]).
© Copyright Cambridge University Press.

Figure 6. A functional diagram of a vortex meter.

3. Designing a vortex meter: fundamental problems

Figure 5. The Karman vortex street (after Yamasaki and Rubin
[11], reprinted by permission, all rights reserved). A functional diagram of a vortex meter is shown in figure 6.
The Karman vortex street is generated on the obstacle
where ρ is the fluid density, v the flow velocity and  the called the bluff body, which is placed in the flowing fluid.
circulation. Because circulation  is proportional to the The main requirement of the bluff body should be fulfilled—
cylinder diameter d, the lift depends on the fluid density ρ and the generation of strong and regular vortices. The bluff
the square of the velocity v of the medium (K is a constant) body forms the main part of the meter. The power and
[11]: regularity of the vortices depend strongly on proper design of
L = Kρdv 2 (4) the bluff body. It is well known that its shape and geometrical
dimensions determine the quality of the vortex signal. It is
Vortices are shed on a cylinder placed in the flowing fluid.
worth mentioning that the primary device should be seen as
Downstream of the cylinder two asymmetrical rows of vortices
not just the bluff body but as the pipe with the bluff body
with an alternating arrangement are formed (figure 5).
Karman [8] has suggested that the arrangement of inserted in. It is necessary to emphasize that the pipe walls
two rows of vortices is unstable unless they satisfy the influence the vortex shedding process considerably.
equation (11) The vortices generated on the bluff body are detected by

 the sensor. Because the frequency is an output quantity of
πh h
sinh =1 or = 0.28 (5) the vortex meter the demands on the sensor’s properties are
l l limited. Its main feature should be a high sensitivity to vortices
where l is the distance between consecutive vortices generated and a resistance to the flow conditions.
on one side of the bluff body and h is the distance between the The complexity of the signal processing system in a
two rows of vortices.
vortex meter depends to a large extent on the signal quality
Wei et al [31] have proved that, in the real case, this
obtained from the secondary device. The first stages of signal
relation may vary by as much as 25%. The differences result
processing are concerned with an unequivocal conversion of
from the fact that Karman’s considerations were based on
a noisy analogue signal into a row of pulses of the same
idealized assumptions.
frequency as the generated vortices. At low measurement
From the point of view of applying vortex shedding in flow
frequencies each vortex must be counted.
measurement, the question of the constancy of the Strouhal
number in relation to the Reynolds number is of the greatest
importance. From Roshko’s investigations [9] this relationship 3.1. Primary device
for Re = 50–150 is expressed by

 The primary device called the bluff body is the heart of
21.2
St = 0.212 1 − (6) the vortex meter. The hydrodynamic instabilities that are
Re generated on the bluff body are the physical basis of the meter’s
Berger and Wille [32] have stated that for Re = 300–15 000 design. The bluff body should ensure the generation of strong
this relationship becomes and regular vortices. Numerous works [16, 29, 33, 34] have


12.7 been dedicated to this problem.
St = 0.212 1 − (7)
Re The first modern vortex meter used a circular cylinder as
Analysing equations (6) and (7), it can be seen that the the bluff body [11]. Problems with stabilizing the separation
dependence of Strouhal number on the Reynolds number point of the boundary layer introduced changes in the Strouhal
decreases radically as Re increases. number, causing nonlinearity of the meter. In this first

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flowmeter a small longitudinal notch was made along the axis
of the circular cylinder. Later designs used the bluff bodies
with sharp edges.
Early experiments used trial and error to optimize the bluff
body. They relied on comparison of observed oscilloscope
displays with time-dependent signals from a sensor that was
usually a hot-wire anemometer. Then the bluff body ensuring
the most regular signal was chosen as the best. In spite of
the simplicity of this method, important results were obtained.
Particular progress was made by Cousins et al [16], where
general recommendations were made for the optimal ratio of
bluff body to pipe diameter for particular shapes. Cousins
tested three basic shapes of bluff body: circular cylinder,
triangular cylinder and rectangular cylinder. It was confirmed
experimentally that the pipe walls play a very important role in
stabilizing the Karman vortex street. Hence the optimum bluff
body dimensions were defined in relation to the pipe diameter
as a blockage ratio. For instance, the optimal ratio of bluff
body diameter d to pipe diameter D was between 0.33 and 0.38
for circular cylinders, 0.29 to 0.32 for an equilateral triangular
cylinder and 0.24 to 0.28 for a rectangular cylinder. Cousins
has also tested the sensitivity of the Strouhal number to the
ratio d/D for a rectangular cylinder. He found its minimum
value for the optimal d/D ratio from the point of view of signal
quality.
The recommendations concerning the existence of sharp
edges on the bluff body appeared in various publications
[4, 12, 14, 16, 35]. It should be noted, however, that the
diversity of bluff body shapes is mainly a result of patent
law. The shapes were also restricted partially by the type of
secondary device used if it was mounted inside the bluff body.
Investigations carried out by Igarashi [36–38] have
resulted in a new class of bluff bodies: cylinders with a slit.
But it should be stated that the first experiments with such a
bluff body were carried out by Tsuchiya et al and reported in
1970 [15]. Cylinders with a slit were also tested and optimized
by other researchers, namely Olsen and Rajagopalan [39] and
Pankanin [40]. The existence of a slit in the bluff body has
yielded a considerable improvement in the signal quality.
Introducing the slit into the circular cylinder significantly
altered the intensity and regularity of the vortex shedding
phenomenon. Flow visualization pictures made by Igarashi
show the existence of a flow along the rear surface of the bluff
body. For other bluff bodies the shear layers roll up near the
wake. These results are consistent with the model proposed
by Gerrard (see section 2). He has found that stream C
(figure 4) should be maximized in order to increase the strength
of vortices. Such a flow field distribution in the case of the
circular cylinder with the slit resulted from the phenomena
occurring in the slit and in its neighbourhood.
Flow visualization pictures made by Igarashi [38] show
that boundary layer suction and blowing take place alternately
with a period of vortex shedding at both ends of the slit. In
analysing the phenomenon it should be noticed that the slit is
a kind of information channel. The information concerning
vortex shedding is transmitted through the slit towards the
other side of the cylinder. Hence a transmission medium such
as the oscillating stagnation region in the case of the circular
cylinder (in Birkhoff’s model—see section 2) is not necessary
here and does not exist. Finally, the shear layer C can be very
intensive.
Review Article
Later works by Igarashi [41] with a triangular
semicylinder (consisting of a slit between the two parts of
the bluff body) have led to further design improvements.
Enhancement of the quality of the vortex signal as well as
considerable improvement in linearity have been achieved.
Also the pressure loss was significantly reduced.
Significant progress in the design of bluff bodies was
made by Popiel, Turner and Robinson [34, 42, 43]. A concave
rear surface has been introduced into the circular cylinder with
a slit. This modification has further increased the vortices’
energy. Unfortunately, accidental and momentary breakdown
of the vortex shedding has also appeared. But the introduction
of two splitter plates attached to the end walls directly behind
the cylinder base prevented this problem. It is worth to
emphasizing that the constancy of the Strouhal number over
a surprisingly wide range of Reynolds number (from 300 to
4.5 × 104) has been maintained.
The bluff body with a slit could be treated as an
intermediate form of the dual bluff body design, although the
dual arrangement was invented earlier. The dual arrangement
had already been applied in commercial flowmeters by Fisher
& Porter Company in the mid 1970s [13]. This design truly
enhances the creation of vortices in comparison with the single
body version. The dual bluff body described in [13] consisted
of two parts: a triangular prism body section fixed to the
internal walls of the housing and a tail section free to move.
In this design it was possible to locate the strain gauge sensor
within the compound body and to isolate it completely from
the flowing medium.
Dual and then triple bluff body arrangements were the
subject of diverse, broad and long-term investigations carried
out by Bentley and his co-workers [29, 44–47]. They
investigated an arrangement of low blockage ratio, ensuring
reduced pressure loss of the meter and repeatability high
enough for custody transfer applications. Hence special
attention was paid to the repeatability of their results. In spite
of Cousins’ recommendations concerning optimal blockage
ratio, it was proved that satisfactory signal quality can
also be gained for very low blockage ratio (even 0.08).
Simultaneously, due to the small characteristic dimensions
of the bluff body, a considerable increase in the frequency of
the measuring signal has been obtained. The most important
matter from the point of view of the signal quality is the
determination of proper geometrical parameters of the bluff
body. In particular, the gap between adjacent parts of the bluff
body has been identified as the most critical parameter.
Other methods of improving the measured signal quality
have been also tested by various researchers. Kalkhof [35]
proposed narrowing of the pipe in the close neighbourhood of
the bluff body. This was achieved in two ways: by applying
end plates and by restriction of the flow area.
Valuable work carried out by Hans et al [48] proved
that even small changes in the geometry of the bluff body
cause considerable changes in the vortex signal. They tested
two triangular bluff bodies—one complete, the other with a
truncated downstream tip and they obtained different signal
quality. In the second case a considerable increase (about
10%) in the Strouhal number was observed. Visible distortions
of the measuring signal were found. These have been
explained by secondary vortices appearing among the strong
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(A) (B)
Figure 7. Bluff body without ‘end plates’ (A) and bluff body with
‘end plates’ (B).
21
18
15
12
k-factor
9
d =12 mm
D = 40 mm
6
3
bluff body with end plates (A)
bluff body without end plates (B)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Flow rate (m3/h)
Figure 8. Influence of the ‘end plates’ on the meter factor.
primary eddies. The problem of secondary vortices has not
appeared in earlier papers concerning the vortex meter design
and investigations. Numerical simulations carried out by
Hans et al [48, 49] showed that it was a significant problem.
Secondary vortices develop behind the strong primary vortices
on the same side of the bluff body. This phenomenon appears
only in the case of certain shapes of the bluff body. The
occurrence of secondary vortices results in a decrease in the
quality of the measuring signal only in the case of certain
detection methods. It is worth emphasizing that results gained
from numerical simulation are closely consistent with those
obtained from measurement.
The fact that small geometrical changes in the bluff body
design have a considerable influence on the meter performance
has also been found by Pankanin [40, 50]. In [40] he presented
his own results showing a strong influence of the ‘end plates’
of the bluff body on the factor and linearity of the meter
(figures 7 and 8).
Work carried out by Hans and Windorfer [49] led to the
conclusion that in the case of a triangular bluff body used in the
normal way and with the edge facing inflow, the phenomenon
as well as the signal quality are radically different. It was
noticed in the laboratory investigations that the rotation of
the same bluff body can result in considerable changes in the
quality of the vortex shedding signal. In early papers [16]
it was recommended that the flat side of the triangular or T-
shaped bluff body should be exposed to the inflow. On the basis
of the numerical simulations and the laboratory investigations
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it can be concluded that a 180◦ rotation of these two types of
the bluff body enables secondary vortices to be avoided and
an increase in the Strouhal number is observed. This arises
particularly in the case of low blockage ratio, when we take
care that the pressure loss is low. An attempt to apply an M3
threaded rod as the bluff body in a pipe of 100 mm diameter was
very interesting [49, 51]. Surprisingly, the vortices generated
were very stable and no secondary vortices were observed.
Besides, because of the small bluff body diameter, the vortex
frequency was high. The separation point of the vortices is
quite well defined because of the rough surface of the bluff
body.
It is worth mentioning that, although nearly all bluff
body shapes were designed on the basis of experimental
investigations, the bluff body geometry proposed in [52] was
a result of numerical simulation.
Ring bluff body. The idea of using a ring-shaped bluff body
in the vortex meter has also been tested. The main idea
relied on the conclusion that the flow in the pipe is of 3D
character. So a 3D bluff body generating 3D disturbances
could be most suitable for the flow conditions and will not
generate damaging disturbances. A practical confirmation of
this hypothesis can be found in the works reported in [53–55],
where regular ring vortices generated on the ring bluff body
were presented. Unfortunately, the linearity of the phenomena
16 18
was not satisfactory. Further investigations carried out by
Cousins and Hayward [56] led to the dual-ring bluff body
arrangement, which resulted in considerable improvement of
the meter’s linearity.
Insertion meters. In the case of big pipe diameters, the required
optimal bluff body width is large, since the blockage ratio
should reach a suitable value. It is well known that the pipe
walls influence the vortex shedding process. The application
of bluff bodies of large dimensions will cause high energy
losses as well as a considerable decrease in the vortex shedding
frequency. Hence the idea of insertion meters was introduced:
a pipe section of smaller diameter with a built-in bluff body
is inserted into the actual pipe. In spite of the fact that such a
meter measures the flow rate only in a certain part of the pipe
cross-section, this solution ensures a small pressure loss and
a sufficiently high vortex frequency. Such a solution has been
successfully used in commercial applications [57].
3.2. Secondary device
In considering the feasible methods of detecting vortices,
i.e. processing flow disturbances into an electrical signal,
the physical phenomena accompanying vortex shedding and
development should be analysed. It is well known that vortex
shedding is accompanied by velocity and pressure fluctuations.
When a vortex is shed on the bluff body, an increase in velocity
is observed. Then a periodic increase and decay of velocity is
noticed as the vortex moves away from the bluff body. While
a vortex is seen as local fluid rotation, it can be considered
to have velocity components parallel and perpendicular to
the pipe axis. If there is a variation of velocity, then using
the Bernoulli equation a corresponding pressure fluctuation
180◦ out of phase is observed. It is magnified because it is

proportional to the square of the fluid velocity. In the case of
compressible fluids, changes in density are also observed. In
conclusion, sensors sensitive to velocity, pressure and density
(in the case of gases) can be used to detect vortices. The
sensor can detect vortices generated on one side of the bluff
body or on both sides, depending on the type of sensor and its
location.
It is worth emphasizing, however, that taking into
consideration the 100:1 turndown ratio of the meter, the
velocity range of the sensor can be up to 100:1, while
in the case of pressure sensing, the pressure range should
be up to 10 000:1. The sensor must be resistant to
a variety of fluid conditions, high and low temperature,
high pressures, chemically aggressive fluids, contaminants,
vibrations, cavitation etc.
3.2.1. Detection methods
Velocity sensors. Historically, the oldest velocity sensor is
the hot-wire sensor, which can be applied only in laboratory
investigations. Its significant sensitivity to mechanical damage
precludes industrial applications.
Thermistors were used in early commercial vortex meters
[58]. As in the case of the hot-wire sensor, changes in flow
velocity caused by the vortices result in resistance fluctuations
of the sensor.
Thermistors in the solution presented in [58] are applied
as a matched pair on the forward face of the bluff body. One
problem was a proper coating of the sensor to protect it against
the medium. A glass cover layer should be thin enough
to ensure low thermal inertia but a satisfactory frequency
response. To improve the frequency properties, a constant-
temperature regime of work was introduced. The occurrence
of noise in the measuring signal also appears as a significant
problem. For noise reduction, two differentially working
sensors have been used. Since vortices are shed alternately
on each side of the bluff body, the noise reduction was feasible
(noise influences both sensors in-phase).
Ultrasonic detection of vortex shedding may use both
velocity and pressure fluctuations, so in applications for
liquids it constitutes a velocity detector and will be described
here. The ultrasonic detection systems have been applied
in laboratory arrangements [49, 51, 59–62] as well as in
commercial meters.
Flowing vortices interact with the ultrasonic beam passing
across the pipe. Since the vortex constitutes a rotation of the
fluid, its velocity component perpendicular to the pipe axis is
consistent with velocity vector of the beam and then it is of
opposite sign. Hence a phase modulation of the beam can be
gained by the receiver.
A considerable advantage of this method of detection is
the possibility of complete insulation from the medium. Such
a sensor is extremely resistive to any kind of damage. The
presence of a second phase in the liquid (gas or solid particles),
however, appears to be a significant problem in this type of
vortex detection. A considerable volume of gas bubbles or
solid particles may result in complete breakdown of the low
frequency signal [60].
The ultrasonic sensor is usually included in the pipe wall
downstream of the bluff body, so it should be located at the
point of fully developed vortices. A second advantage is the
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fact that there are no restrictions on the shape and dimensions
of the bluff body from the point of view of detecting vortices.
It should be also noted that, in the case of ultrasonic detection,
the wave is modulated by vortices generated on both sides
of the bluff body. This doubles the detection frequency in
comparison with that gained from a pressure sensor located in
the pipe wall.
The ultrasonic system proposed by Coulthard et al [62]
and Menz [60] for detecting vortices is based on cross-
correlation of the signals obtained from the two transmitter–
receiver pairs. This solution is known as a cross-correlation
flowmeter and is based on the application of noise in the
determination of flow rate.
In this case, the vortices generated on the bluff body
are used as a fluid marker. The vortex transit time τ m is
determined from the delay corresponding to the maximum of
cross-correlation. The velocity of the vortex street v and the
flow velocity are calculated from delay time τ m and known
transducer spacing L [62]:
L
v= . (8)
τm
It is worth noting that the flow velocity v calculated on the
basis of equation (8) is not necessarily equal to the averaged
flow velocity. The difference may result from the flow velocity
profile, the vortex’s own velocity etc. Hence, such a flowmeter
design requires in situ calibration. Due to the very high
sensitivity of this method, a bluff body of low blockage ratio
that generates a rather poor quality signal can be used. It
is worth noting that the use of this technique reduces the
relative importance of the bluff body geometry. The results
of investigations carried out by Menz [60] have shown that
this scheme allows considerable expansion of the measuring
range towards small flow rates, even in the case of bluff
bodies with a small blockage ratio. The meter’s performance
when measuring a two-phase medium has also been improved.
Obviously, the complexity of the accompanying electronic
processing system is a disadvantage of this solution.
It is worth describing briefly some very useful and
effective contemporary tools dedicated to vortex flow
investigations: the non-intrusive techniques called LDV (laser
Doppler velocimetry) and PIV (particle image velocimetry),
which are both based on the application of lasers. Recently,
intensively developed PIV has been able to reveal the global
structures in a 2D or 3D flow field without disturbing the flow.
The application of optical techniques has allowed a very high
spatial resolution in velocities ranging from zero to supersonic.
These techniques are particularly useful in investigations of
unsteady and complex flow phenomena. Numerous papers
have been published on vortex shedding studies using these
techniques [63–66].
Pressure sensors. In numerous commercial vortex flowmeters
pressure sensors are often applied to detect vortices. Various
designs of pressure sensor are well known. Asymmetrical and
differential pressure sensors have been applied. Some designs
used asymmetrical sensors working differentially. This was
very favourable because the disturbances occurring in the pipe
are of symmetric character, while vortices are shed alternately
on each side of the bluff body. Hence differential detection
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can considerably improve the signal-to-noise ratio in relation
to the asymmetrical regime of work.
The most classic solution of the pressure sensor has
been applied in the Kent vortex flowmeter [14]. In the
rectangular cylinder two walls of the bluff body (parallel
to the flow direction) are covered by metallic diaphragms.
Vortex shedding on the bluff body causes slight displacement
of the diaphragm. The diaphragms constitute parts of a
capacitor. An immobile common electrode is located inside
the bluff body. The space between the electrodes is filled
with oil. The oil layers are connected by control ports.
Oil, which is incompressible, supports the diaphragms, thus
preventing movements under static pressure and symmetric
disturbances. It is sensitive to vortex shedding, being an
asymmetric disturbance.
It is also feasible to use piezoelectric films glued on the
side surfaces of the bluff body to detect vortices [67]. Tough
piezoelectric plastic films are available in a wide range of
thicknesses. They are characterized by a wide frequency
range from 0 up to 109 Hz, a high dynamic range from
10−8–106 psi and high mechanical strength. The voltage
output is approximately ten times higher than in the case of
piezoceramic sensors. To illustrate the general principle of
operation, the application of this solution is limited to gas
flowmeters only.
Pressure sensor designs based on alternating strain
detection caused by vortices flowing downstream of the bluff
body have been applied in designs of Fischer and Porter [13]
and Foxboro [12]. In both cases a strain sensor was mounted
on an elastic beam joining the fixed part of the bluff body
with the freely moving backward part (tail). In these solutions
sensors were completely isolated from the fluid. It is also worth
emphasizing that detection in such a way ensures stabilization
because of the mechanical movement of the rear part of the
bluff body.
A very interesting solution has been proposed by Eastech
[58]. A small nickel ball was contained in a holder that was
inserted into the bluff body. Alternating pressure forces due
to vortex shedding cause the ball to oscillate in its holder.
The frequency of these oscillations is equal to the frequency
of vortex shedding. The ball’s oscillations are converted into
a voltage in the magnetic pick-up. The pick-up is isolated
from the fluid. Although this shuttle assembly contains a
moving part, this solution is characterized by high reliability
and is especially resistant in corrosive conditions. Also
the application of a magnetic pick-up affords resistance to
mechanical vibrations.
Lift detection. As explained in section 2, vortex shedding on
the bluff body is accompanied by the periodic force called
lift. The frequency of the lift oscillations is equal to the vortex
shedding frequency. The direction of the force is perpendicular
to the pipe axis and the magnitude of the force is proportional
to the square of velocity. While the bluff body is fixed at one
end, the other end tries to move, causing stress. A differential
piezoelectric element inside the vortex shedder is used to sense
the stress caused by vortex shedding. This solution has been
described in [61] and applied commercially by Yokogawa
[68]. Application of two piezoelectric elements working
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differentially enables a considerable reduction in electrical
noise, caused for example by vibrations in the pipeline.
Problem of sensor location. Vortex shedding may be detected
by sensors located at various points. In practice the locations
can be divided into three categories:
• inside the bluff body,
• in the pipe walls,
• outside the bluff body (the sensor constitutes a separate
part located downstream of the bluff body).
Generally speaking, the sensor should be located at the point
of the strongest and most regular vortices. From the literature
and from investigations carried out by the present author, three
stages of vortex development can be distinguished:
• creation and rapid development,
• stabilization,
• decay.
The maximum of the vortex strength and regularity appears
at a certain distance from its origin, usually outside the bluff
body [69, 70]. But in the majority of commercial designs the
sensor and the bluff body constitute a unit. This is probably
a result of the ease of manufacture and the sensor’s principle
of operation. Certainly, in the case of ultrasonic systems, for
example, they can be located downstream of the bluff body at
the optimum distance.
Investigations carried out by Windorfer and Hans [70]
showed that vortex shedding can also be detected in front
of the bluff body. The signal obtained from an ultrasonic
sensor located upstream of the bluff body (and near to it)
is characterized by a spectrum with a clearly distinguished
main spectral line of frequency equal to the vortex shedding
frequency. It must be noted that this effect was observed only
for a triangular bluff body of blockage ratio 0.24. For all T-
shaped bluff bodies the signal was very noisy and the detection
of vortices was difficult.
The problem is much more complicated because the
strength and regularity of vortices depend also on the
location of the sensor in the plane perpendicular to the pipe
axis [71].
Influence of the sensor on the meter’s performance. Generally
speaking, the secondary device—the vortex detector—should
not influence the vortex shedding. This statement is true,
however, only in the case of the non-invasive types of
vortex detector. In this situation, when the secondary device
constitutes a separate mechanical part located in the stream,
the dependence of the quality of the signal as well as the
meter’s parameters on the type and location of the sensor can
be amazingly high [72]. Test results, obtained for a circular
cylinder with a slit as the bluff body and a resistive strain gauge
as the sensor (placed on a beam located at various distances
downstream of the bluff body), prove that the sensor’s location
influences—in a considerable manner—the value of the
k-factor as well as the linearity of the meter. This can be
explained by the fact that the process of vortex generation
takes place not only on the surface of the bluff body but also
in a certain area downstream of the bluff body. Hence the
location of the secondary device as a mechanical part in the

close neighbourhood of the bluff body can disturb the process.
These results confirm the existence of an area downstream of
the bluff body that takes part in the vortex generation and is
very sensitive to all disturbances.
The sensor design can also influence the meter’s
properties. Investigations carried out using various sensors
based on piezoelectric elements show that the properties of the
measured signal (signal quality and stability of signal period)
depend strongly on the sensor design [73].
3.3. Signal processing systems
The type and complexity of the signal processing systems
depend strictly on the applied sensor. Typical electronic
circuits that cooperate with sensors have usually been applied.
General requirements for the circuits, however, can be
formulated. It should be underlined firstly that the vortex
shedding frequency is an output quantity. Secondly, the
frequency is rather low (up to hundreds of Hz). Thirdly, the
vortices are rather weak. Overall, it can be said that the signal
processing should be characterized by high sensitivity and
should count each vortex.
It is worth to noting that the pulse character of the output
signal reduces the requirements for stability of amplification
etc. Although the signal processing system is generally passive
with regard to the meter’s properties, certain solutions in the
system design can improve it.
For instance, it is known that thermal sensors were used in
the early stages of developing vortex meters. The application
of an electronic circuit ensuring constant-temperature-rise
operation allowed a considerable increase in the higher
frequency limit [29].
It is well known that pressure sensors are sensitive to
external vibrations. This sensitivity can be considerably
reduced by subtracting signals from two sensors working
out-of-phase [74]. This scheme is effective since the low-
frequency structural vibrations introduce in-phase noise to the
signals obtained from the two sensors. The signal quality can
be enhanced considerably.
Ultrasonic detection requires relatively complicated
signal processing systems. The ultrasonic wave frequency
is modulated by the vortices. The low frequency signal
must be extracted. This can be done typically with
analogue techniques, e.g. phase-locked loops. The method
of digital signal processing proposed in [48] is based on the
undersampling effect. Digital signal processing requires a
sampling frequency more than twice as high as the ultrasound
carrier frequency because of Shannon’s sampling theorem. In
some circumstances when narrow-band signals are sampled
(as in the case of the vortex signal) the sampling theorem need
not be fulfilled. The algorithm uses the sampling frequency,
which exactly equals the ultrasound carrier frequency fs
[48]. By applying an algorithm, fs can be converted into a
DC part (f = 0) and the modulation frequency fv can be
gained directly through the fast Fourier transform. Finally,
considerable noise reduction can be obtained.
The problem of frequency determination of pulse signals
seems to be very easy. Unfortunately, the vortex shedding
signal is characterized by a random pulse variation of
significant magnitude. Hence some interpolation methods
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have been proposed to determine the vortex frequency [75].
A considerable increase in accuracy in comparison with the
classic method has been obtained. This works especially when
the number of counted pulses is rather low.
Another method of signal processing has been used by
Clarke and Ghaoud [76]. The application of dual phase-
locked loops covers the whole range of signal frequency. Their
proposed solution ensures better accuracy and tracking ability
than the conventional zero-crossing algorithm.
4. Methods of investigation
4.1. Measuring signal analysis
As mentioned previously, in the early stages of the
development of vortex meters, i.e. in the 1970s, the observation
of the signal measured by the sensor was used for optimization.
The trial-and-error technique was used in designing vortex
meters. This relied on making the bluff bodies of various
shapes and dimensions. Later the measuring signal obtained
from the secondary device was observed on an oscilloscope
display. The bluff body that provided the most regular signal
was regarded as the best obstacle.
It is worth emphasizing that no quality parameter has been
used. The bluff body has been evaluated only on the basis of
the signal observation. It is easy to see that that approach was
time-consuming and also did not ensure the optimal design of
bluff body.
4.1.1. Spectral analysis of the measuring signal. In the
vortex meter, the frequency is directly proportional to the flow
velocity. The ‘optimal’ measuring signal should contain only
one spectral component. In fact, many disturbing components
are observed. Hence the idea of spectral analysis of the
measuring signal.
Considerable progress in the optimization of bluff bodies
has been made by defining quality parameters of the measuring
signal. Some researchers have applied a simple signal-to-noise
ratio [28, 44] and Miau et al used a slightly modified one [77].
The quality coefficient Sq defined by Miau et al was based on
the same idea as the signal-to-noise ratio but it was expressed
by another formula:


PS
Sq = 10 ln (9)
PN
where PS is the energy residing within the frequency band
between 0.96 fs and 1.04 fs , and PN is the energy of residual
components.
The main spectral line has been assumed to be broad
enough to cover the fluctuations in vortex shedding frequency.
This approach has greatly facilitated investigations and has
allowed comparison of results gained for various bluff bodies.
The approach proposed by Pankanin [78] went further: it
took into consideration not only the content of the noise in
the signal but also its frequency distribution. It is worth to
noting, however, that the frequency distribution of the noise
is not neutral from the point of view of signal processing.
Components more distant from the main spectral line are easier
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to filter than nearer ones. Hence this feature has been taken into
consideration in the quality parameter M defined by Pankanin:
P0
M = n (10)
 Pi 
i=1  fi 
ln f 
0
where P0 is the power contained in the main spectral line, Pi
the power contained in interval i, fi the mean frequency of
interval i and f0 the central frequency.
The idea of the quality parameter M is based on division of
the analysed frequency band into a certain number of intervals.
Each interval is characterized by the power it contains and by
the central frequency. The noise of frequencies more distant
from the fundamental frequency influences the parameter
value to a lesser degree than the noise of frequencies closer to
it. This is consistent with the properties of filter systems.
The results of investigations carried out with the
application of the quality parameter M presented in [78] are
length and also on the flow rate. These investigations also
have shown the dependence of the signal quality on various
geometrical parameters of the bluff bodies such as the apex
angle of a triangular cylinder or the width of the rear part of a
T-shaped bluff body.
4.1.2. Stability of the vortex signal period. The problem
of stability of the vortex signal period is seldom mentioned
[35, 80]. Yet it is a fundamental problem. The frequencies of
vortices generated in the vortex meter are known to range from
several Hz to several hundred Hz. In this range of frequency,
measurement should be made indirectly through measurement
of the period. This indirect method ensures high accuracy of
the measurement in this range of frequency. Proper accuracy is
only feasible in the case of deterministic signals characterized
by a stable period. The relative standard deviation RSD of the
vortex signal period is expressed by
closely consistent with experimental data based on signal
observations presented earlier by Cousins [16]. Maximum
values of the quality parameter for blockage ratios of about
0.33 for a circular cylinder and 0.31 for a rectangular cylinder
have been obtained.
A further version of this parameter, the so-called Modified
Quality Coefficient [79], relies on the application of a Gaussian
weighting function for the frequency components of the
measuring signal:
P0
Mmod = n (11)
i=1 Pi wi
where
 
exp −2.83 ffi − 1 2 for fi
f0
wi =
0
exp −2.83 f0 − 1
2  for fi > f0 . has been confirmed. The sensor’s location also influences the
fi
Laboratory investigations carried out with the parameter Mmod
confirmed that it ensures a smaller variance in the obtained
results than the weighting function used previously.
It was also found that the Quality Coefficient may be
applied to optimize the location of the secondary device.
Results obtained from the laboratory tests carried out on the
measuring apparatus have given the quality of the signal along
the pipe axis [69, 79].
On the basis of the results obtained it can be concluded that
the defined quality parameter Mmod enables the determination
of the optimal sensor location. It is worth remarking that the
best quality signal appears at a certain distance downstream of
the bluff body.
As it was proved in [73] the quality parameter can also be
used to evaluate the sensor design from the point of view of
signal quality. Four different piezoelectric sensors have been
tested. Considerable differences were visible in the obtained
values of the quality coefficient. An advantage was seen in
designs based on applying a beam; this is because the sensor
can be located at the best position for vortex development, i.e.
a certain distance from the bluff body. On the other hand, the
existence of the beam stabilizes the obtained signal.
Other researchers have also used their quality parameters
to optimize the meter. Lucas and Turner [28] found the optimal
splitter length in a T-shaped bluff body. They discovered
that the signal-to-noise ratio depended strongly on the splitter
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n
i=1 (Ti − T )
1 2
n
RSD = × 100% (12)
T
where T is the mean vortex signal period and Ti the value of
period i.
It was seen from a few papers addressing the problem
that the variation of the signal period might be considerable.
Results of experimental investigations carried out by Kalkhof
[35] show that the minimal value of the standard deviation of
the vortex signal for a T-shaped bluff body is 3%. Furthermore,
from the laboratory tests carried out by Pankanin [81] it
is seen that the value of the RSD depends strongly on the
geometrical dimensions of the bluff body. An increase in the
bluff body diameter causes a decrease in the RSD. In this
way the stabilizing role of the pipe walls on the vortex street
stability of the signal period [81]: for greater x-values (x is the
distance between the sensor and the bluff body) the stability
decreases considerably.
4.2. Hot-wire anemometer investigations of the flow field
Although the hot-wire played an important role as a sensor in
the early stages of the development of vortex meters, it was
relatively seldom used as the research tool for investigating
phenomena.
The hot-wire anemometer is a useful tool for investigating
the Karman vortex street. Components of local velocity
vectors of chosen points or in the whole plane can be
determined. Also, the turbulence distribution can be
calculated. The mobility of the hot-wire probe and the small
disturbances of the flow field that it introduces ensure that
the measurements can be reliable and can yield a lot of very
interesting information.
The principle of operation of the hot-wire anemometer
method relies on detecting the cooling of the wire by
the flowing fluid. Originally the method was intended for
measuring steady velocities. In the vortex meter the situation
is very different because vortices are generated and then
flow in the fluid. Nevertheless, the low thermal inertia of
the hot-wire sensor ensures local velocity tracking. Each
vortex is represented by two velocity components: parallel
and perpendicular to the pipe axis. Hence, downstream of

the bluff body—besides the steady velocity—variations in the
velocity vector components caused by moving vortices are
observed. A much more complicated situation exists in the
area of where vortices develop, i.e. very near to the bluff body.
Because of the time-dependent components of the
measured velocity vector, a specific approach to the problem of
the flow velocity investigations using a hot-wire anemometer
had to be worked out [82].
As a result of the investigations using a hot-wire
anemometry system, two parameters can be determined:
average velocity and turbulence. Both parameters are
calculated for each component of the velocity vector. It is
worth emphasizing that investigations are based mainly on the
determination of integral parameters.
In some parts of tested region of the vortex meter the
situation may occur where the variable velocity component
is dominant and the periodic alternation of velocity sense
influences the hot-wire probe. As is known, the hot-wire probe
cannot distinguish the sense of the velocity vector. Hence
the ‘full bridge rectifier’ effect is observed. This means that
the average velocity calculated by the measuring system is,
in fact, the average value of the absolute velocity. Also, the
turbulence cannot be interpreted as the root mean square value
of a variable velocity component.
Investigations of the Karman vortex street using a hot-wire
anemometer require a special arrangement of the measuring
stand. Especially important is the system for the hot-wire
probe displacement. The module described in [82] ensures
probe movement in two directions: downstream of the bluff
body and perpendicular to its axis. Hence it was feasible to
investigate the flow velocity downstream of the bluff body
along the pipe axis as well as to scan the whole flow field.
Vortex flow field investigations using a hot-wire
anemometer have been carried out by Pankanin et al [82,
83] and yielded very interesting results. Tests carried out
for a circular cylinder and a circular cylinder with a slit have
confirmed the considerable role of the slit in vortex shedding
and its development. 3D plots of transverse and longitudinal
velocities presented in [82] show their spatial distribution
downstream of the bluff body. Significant differences are
clearly visible in the flow field between bluff bodies with a
slit and those without one. The stagnation region identified
for a circular cylinder has been considerably reduced in the
case of a bluff body with a slit. This means that the existence
of a slit allows vortices to develop strongly near to the bluff
body. Frequency analysis of the signal obtained from the hot-
wire anemometer proposed in [82] allows a considerably more
detailed interpretation of the results.
Results of the investigations carried out by Terao
et al using a hot-wire anemometer [84] have confirmed that
Karman vortices shed in a circular pipe are much stronger than
those shed in a free stream. It was also found that areas of
extremely high vorticity are observed near the pipe wall. The
considerable influence of the pipe walls on vortex shedding has
been confirmed. Later work [85] led to the very significant
conclusion that in the Karman vortex street the ratio of the
transverse spacing of the vortices to streamwise spacing in a
pipe is smaller than in a free stream. Karman has suggested
[8] that this ratio is 0.281. Terao et al found this value to be
0.11 [85].
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4.3. Flow visualization and image processing
Various methods of flow visualization are applied in practice
[86]. Methods such as numerical modelling or investigations
based on a hot-wire anemometer are rated among flow
visualization techniques. Because of the significance of these
methods and their specificity, they are considered in separate
sections in this paper.
In principle, the flow visualization techniques can provide
pictures of complex fluid flow processes that allow a
qualitative physical understanding. However, developments
in image processing have made it feasible to gain quantitative
information.
4.3.1. Visualization of the Karman vortex street. Major
advances in fluid mechanics have been greatly helped by flow
visualization. In particular, flow visualization has been applied
from the very beginning to investigations of phenomena used
in the vortex meter. In the 16th century Leonardo da Vinci
used flow visualization in observing the flow in a river. He
clearly sketched the profiles of free jets and the formation of
eddies at abrupt expansions and in wakes. Later, the theory
and practice of vortex shedding were strongly connected
with flow visualization. For instance, Hiemenz’s repeated
experimental observations on a double row of alternating
vortices downstream of a circular cylinder led von Karman
to the theoretical development of the vortex street in 1911.
Numerous researchers have since applied it as an additional
(complementary) method of investigation. It has enabled
confirmation of certain hypotheses and indicated numerous
accompanying effects [55, 87].
In investigations of the Karman vortex street [88] flow
visualization is used not as the sole method but as a
complementary one. Although flow visualization does not
provide great accuracy, it does allows observation of the whole
area of interest at one moment. Hence, it is possible to observe
vortices at consecutive phases of development. For instance,
flow visualization makes it possible to observe and analyse
both the stagnation region appearing downstream of the bluff
body in its close neighbourhood as well as the vortices’
trajectory.
Igarashi, in his investigations of a circular cylinder with a
slit [37, 38], used flow visualization as one of the fundamental
methods of research. His tests carried out in a smoke wind
tunnel led to the determination of flow patterns for various
inclination angles of the slit. Considerable differences were
found. In particular, comparison with a circular cylinder
showed the significance of the existence of a slit in the cylinder.
Igarashi has also used flow visualization for a detailed analysis
of the flow along rear surface of the bluff body (circular
cylinder without and with a slit) [38].
Bentley and Mudd [29] have used flow visualization to
analyse vortex shedding in the case of single and dual bluff
bodies. This made it possible to analyse the flow at consecutive
stages of vortex development. The significance of the second
part of the bluff body arrangement has been also found.
The flow visualization experiments carried out by Popiel,
Turner and Robinson [34–36] were very important. The
phenomena appearing in consecutive phases of the vortex
shedding could be observed and explained. The sucking
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and blowing movement of the fluid in the slit considerably
increases the vortex energy. The suction process cuts off
the boundary layer whereas the blowing process increases the
amount of rotated fluid. The flow visualization enabled them
to design a new bluff body such that the shape of its rear part
was consistent with the fluid movement.
Investigations carried out by Pankanin et al [83, 89, 90]
were based on the application of the direct injection tracer
technique with air bubbles and a dyed fluid as markers. The
method relies on the injection of a marker (air bubbles or dyed
fluid) into the flowing fluid. The choice of both the point
of injection and the pressure of injection is very important
in the flow visualization process. Direct observation is out
of the question because of the relatively high frequency (for
human eyes) of the vortex shedding phenomenon. Only
making photographs or films allows pictures to be analysed.
Film should be divided into consecutive frames by using a
specialized computer card with dedicated software.
Flow visualization allows the Karman vortex street to
be observed at consecutive phases of the development of
vortices [83]. The existence of the stagnation region near
a circular cylinder has also been confirmed. A ‘low motion’
area downstream of the bluff body had already been suggested
by Birkhoff [26] as a factor that was conducive to vortex
generation. Results presented in [83] show that the length
of the stagnation region depends strongly on the existence of
a slit in the bluff body. In the case of a circular cylinder, a
stagnation region of considerable length was noticed. The slit
in the bluff body causes dramatic changes in the picture of
the Karman vortex street. The stagnation region becames very
short and the generated vortices are considerably stronger.
In principle, flow visualization does not include the
irregularity of the vortex shedding. However, an evaluation
of disturbances introduced by various structural elements is
feasible and relatively simple. The secondary device housing
located downstream of the bluff body could be mentioned as
an example of such an element. Moreover, an indication of
the most suitable location for the secondary device is feasible
since the whole flow area in the region of vortex shedding is
displayed.
4.3.2. Image processing. Pure flow visualization permits
qualitative evaluation of phenomena in the vortex meter.
The application of image processing in analysis of the flow
visualization pictures permits quantitative investigations of
the Karman vortex street, especially the determination of
its geometrical parameters. Parameters such as the distance
between consecutive vortices and the length of the stagnation
region may be found. It is possible to determine these
parameters because of the application of software dedicated
for this purpose.
A practical application of image processing in
determining the geometrical parameters of the Karman vortex
street has been presented in [90]. The proposed technique is
based on analysis of individual pictures. Statistical processing
has been applied to increase the reliability of the results.
Dedicated software containing specialized procedures for
image processing has been created. The fundamental problem
is to isolate individual vortices as separate objects. Two-colour
visualization is helpful in such a separation.
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It is feasible to determine the distances between pairs of
consecutive vortices and the convection velocity of vortices can
be calculated. Changes in convection velocity as a function
of distance from the bluff body have been calculated [91]. A
decrease in the local convection velocity near the bluff body
has been confirmed. This is closely consistent with the results
obtained in numerical modelling [92].
The wavelength of the Karman vortex street can be also
determined. The wavelength in this case is defined as the
distance between consecutive vortices generated on the same
side of the bluff body. The calculated ratio of the wavelength
to the diameter of the bluff body (4.09 for the 10 mm
diameter bluff body) was in amazingly good agreement with
the theoretical value of 4.3 calculated by Alejski [93].
It should be emphasized that flow visualization with the
application of image processing constitutes a very effective
tool for investigating the vortex shedding phenomenon. It
allows both qualitative and quantitative studies. Note
that statistical processing is necessary for quantitative
investigations with the application of image processing.
4.4. Modelling
Numerical modelling seems to be the most powerful method
of recognising phenomena inside the vortex meter. However,
the final result of numerical modelling should exactly reflect
all phenomena appearing in the vortex meter. Only such a
model can be useful.
Although the Navier–Stokes equations describing
phenomena occurring in the vortex meter have been well
known for a long time, no analytical solution is yet known.
Attempts to find a numerical solution date from 1963 [94].
The lack of computers with enough speed and memory has
been a considerable difficulty in gaining interesting and useful
results for many years. Some authors have even declared that
there is no possibility of numerical modelling being usefully
applied in the design of vortex meters [4, 56].
Meanwhile, other methods of numerical modelling (not
based on the Navier–Stokes equations) have been tried. The
method applied by Chaplin [95] is based on potential flow
around the bluff body. Boundary layers and shear layers were
superimposed in the form of discrete vortices. The strengths
of the vortices were calculated from laminar boundary-layer
theory. Similar work has been conducted by Abernathy and
Kronauer [96], Gerrard [97], Sarpkaya [98] and Laird [99].
It must be noted that the rapid development of
computational techniques in the last ten years, including
considerable improvement in the speed of calculations and
growth of available memory, has enabled considerable
progress in numerical modelling of the vortex meter. These
possibilities were successfully applied by researchers at
University of Essen. They tried to find solutions of real
problems appearing in the vortex meter. Their numerous
papers and articles show the power of numerical modelling
in recognising phenomena appearing in the vortex meter
in various aspects. This recognition made optimization
of the meter much easier. During these simulations, the
existence of secondary vortices in the Karman vortex street
was discovered [48, 100] and the irregularity in the measuring
signal was explained. It was also discovered that the truncated

downstream tip of a triangular bluff body is responsible for the
appearance of secondary vortices. The investigations reported
in [101] allow a deeper understanding of the phenomena
related to the application of a triangular bluff body. It was
proved that locating the body with its edge facing the inflow
causes the generation of a regular Karman vortex street but
of considerably smaller width than in the case of the normal
location. So, in ultrasonic detection the measured signal is
strong and regular, while for a pressure sensor located in the
pipe wall the signal is very weak. It was also discovered that a
T-shaped bluff body of small blockage ratio (0.1) can be used
as a vortex generator. Furthermore it has been stated that it
is more profitable to locate the body with the bar facing the
inflow. In the papers mentioned above, results of simulations
have been compared with signals obtained experimentally.
Good agreement has been obtained. The most significant
result from the modelling is a new shape of the bluff body
design [49], ensuring a strong and regular vortex street that is
well suited for signal processing. So, the dreams of designers
have been fulfilled.
It is worth mentioning that a commercially available CFD
software package called FLUENT—a Navier–Stokes equation
solver—is capable of handling unsteady, compressible
and incompressible viscous flows over a wide range of
applications. Investigations carried out with the FLUENT
application are reported, for example, in [102, 103]. On
the basis of the results presented in [103] we can conclude
that modelling of slight deviations in the meter geometry is
possible at present. Moreover, the phenomena accompanying
the deviations can be recognized because of the modelling.
The shape of the measured signal can also be anticipated.
Other approaches to the problem of modelling the
phenomena appearing in the vortex meter should be
also mentioned. Phenomenological models based on the
observation of physical phenomena appearing in the vortex
meter and then their description with simple equations have
been proposed by Ahlborn et al [104] and by Pankanin et al
[92, 105, 106]. In spite of a simplified approach to the
problem, their results make possible further recognition of
the phenomena and hence their better understanding.
5. Conclusions
The generation of the Karman vortex street is a very
complicated process. Apart from the deterministic behaviour,
random effects are observed. The complexity of the problem
is a major difficulty because the phenomenon is very sensitive
to the geometrical parameters of the vortex generator (bluff
body) and the pipe. Hence there is a need for comprehensive
recognition of phenomena by the application of various
research methods.
In analysing the historical development of the vortex meter
it is worth noting that the application of various research
methods has led to a deeper recognition of phenomena.
The feasibility of verifying a hypothesis or results obtained
earlier has allowed a proper interpretation of phenomena.
Eminent researchers—beginning with Leonardo da Vinci—
have contributed to the development of the vortex meter.
Because of their ingenuity, keenness and the analysis and
Review Article
experiments they carried out, we now know more about the
phenomena than we did 30 years ago or even three years ago.
It should be stated that methods described in this paper
are not unique to research into the Karman vortex street, but
in the author’s belief they are the most significant for the
understanding and development of the vortex meter.
It is very difficult to point out all the important
achievements in the investigations of phenomena. It
seems that the confirmation of certain theoretical hypotheses
formulated by numerous researchers can be treated as real
achievements. For instance, the existence of the stagnation
region downstream of the bluff body had already been
suggested by Birkhoff in 1953. The discovery of new effects
like secondary vortices (due to numerical modelling) should
be also appreciated. The role of the pipe walls is also very
important in the development of the Karman vortex street. The
width of Karman street is considerably smaller than the value
suggested by Karman for a free stream. But in the course of
reducing the pressure loss, research on the application of small
bluff bodies has been intensified.
The application of modern computers has enabled more
efficient numerical modelling in recent years. These methods
have lately been very successful in recognizing phenomena.
A new optimal shape of the bluff body has been developed.
The main trends in the development of the vortex meter
are a reduction in pressure loss through decreasing the
characteristic dimension of the bluff body, an improvement
in regularity and an increase in the vortices’ energy through
application of multipart bluff bodies of small d and the aim for
a reduction in measurement uncertainty for custody transfer
applications.
Acknowledgments
Mr Berlinski and Mr Chmielewski are gratefully
acknowledged for their collaboration in research carried out
by the author.
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