Surigao State College of

Technology
Claver extension
P-7 Brgy. Tayaga, Claver, Surigao del Norte

COURSE MODULE
IN
EDUC 3

FOUNDATION OF
SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE
EDUCATION

(FINAL COVERAGE)

Prepared and completed by:

KEVIN M. PAYNANDOS, LPT

Course Code : EDUC 3
Course Description Title : FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE
EDUCATION
Course Credit : 3 units
Pre-requisites/Co-requisites: NONE

Course Description:
This courses shall deal with philosophies, theories and legal bases of
special needs and inclusive education, typical and atypical development of children,
learning characteristics of the students with special educational needs ( gifted and
talented learners with difficulty seeing, learners with difficulty hearing, Learners with
difficulty communicating, learners with difficulty walking/moving, learners with
difficulty remembering and focusing, learners with difficulty with self-care) and
strategies in teaching and managing these learners in the regular class

Course Intended Learning Outcome:

At the end of the course, the students should be able to:

1. Discuss the legal, philosophical, and theoretical foundation of special and
inclusive education.
2. Explain the role of special needs education in inclusive education.
3. Describe the nature and learning characteristics of the students with
additional needs, and
4. Demonstrate general instructional and classroom management strategies
that work best in inclusive classes.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Special Education needs
1.1. Learners with mental Retardation
1.2. Learners with learning disabilities
1.3. Learners who are gifted and Talented
1.4. Learners with emotional and behavioral Disorders
1.5. Learners who are Blind and Low Vision
1.6. Learners with hearing impairment
1.7. Learners with speech and Language disorders
1.8. Learners with Physical Disabilities, Health Impairments and severe
Disabilities
2. Understanding Inclusive Education
2.1. What is Inclusive Education
2.2. Types and methods of Inclusive Education
2.3. Benefits and Barriers of Inclusive Education
 SPECIAL EDUCATION
What is Special Education?

Special education provides students with identified disabilities specialized

instruction designed to meet their unique learning needs, giving them the opportunity
to develop to their fullest potential. In the United States, special education is
delivered, free of charge, through the public education system, thanks to the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

Between 2012 and 2016, the number of school-age students covered under
IDEA has dramatically increased, rising from 5.67 million in 2011 to 5.83 million in
2014. Recent statistics reveal the rapid growth in autism and similar disabilities
account for much of the growth being seen in special education. For example, the
number of 6- to 21-year-olds classified with autism increased a staggering 165
percent nationwide between the 2005-06 and 2014-15 school years.

Where is Special Education Taught?

Most special education takes place in the general education classroom –

consistent with IDEA’s goal of providing children with disabilities special education
services in the least restrictive environment. However, not all special education can
be taught in general education classrooms; therefore, special education teachers and
paraprofessionals must sometimes provide special education in separate classrooms
and, outside of the public school system, in separate residential settings and day
schools.

Most special education students spend at least a portion of their day in a

resource room, where they can receive individualized instruction.

It is also common for some special educators to provide special education

services at home or in community-based settings. Special education teachers in
these settings work with students with severe disabilities, helping them practice
functional daily living skills.
The federal government defines educational placements for students with disabilities
as:
1. Regular classroom: Student receive most of their education in a regular
classroom and less than 21 percent of their day receiving special education
and related services outside of the regular classroom.

2. Resource classroom: Students receive special education and related services

outside of the regular classroom more than 21 percent but less than 60
percent of their day.

3. Separate classroom: Students receive special education and related services

outside of the regular classroom more than 61 percent but less than 100
percent of their day.

4. Separate school: Students receive special education and related services in a

public or private day school for students with disabilities for more than 50
percent of their day.

5. Residential facility: Students receive special education and related services in

a public or privately operated residential facility, where they receive 24-hour
care.
 6. Homebound/hospital: Students receive special education and related services
in a hospital or home-based program.

There some disabilities/impairments that are needs special education such as:

1. Learners with mental Retardation

2. Learners with learning disabilities
3. Learners who are gifted and Talented
4. Learners with emotional and behavioral Disorders
5. Learners who are Blind and Low Vision
6. Learners with hearing impairment
7. Learners with speech and Language disorders
8. Learners with Physical Disabilities, Health Impairments and severe
Disabilities

Mental Retardation
Throughout history, the definition, diagnosis, terminology, and etiology of
mental retardation have changed, influencing services, policy, education, and
prevalence.

Definition and Prevalence of Mental Retardation

Mental retardation is a condition of substantial limitations in intellectual

functioning that impacts performance in daily life. Its diagnosis includes three criteria:
concurrent, significant limitations in both intelligence and adaptive skills that begin in
childhood (birth to age eighteen). The American Association on Mental Retardation's
(AAMR's) 1992 definition specifies limitations of two or more standard deviations in
intelligence (IQ of 70 to 75 or less) with coexisting deficiencies in two or more of ten
adaptive skills: communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use,
self-direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure, and work. These
individuals range broadly in functioning, depending in part on the degree of
limitations but also on the services and support received. Individuals with severe and
multiple disabilities are considered a small subset of this population. Most persons
with mental retardation are capable of achieving self-sufficiency. A 1998 study
indicates that prevalence estimates cluster around 1 percent, with a high of 2
percent.

Brief History of Education

Prior to the 1700s, those with mental retardation suffered greatly. In the 1700s
to the late 1800s, they entered an optimistic period when French educational
methods spread to other Western countries. These methods derived mainly from
Edward Seguin and less so from his predecessor Jean-Marc Itard in the first half of
the nineteenth century. Seguin called his educational methods physiological
education, which consisted of three components: muscular or physical education,
education of the senses, and moral treatment. The goal of Seguin's method was
independence grounded in relationships with other citizens, not isolation from society.
These educational methods produced uneven results and were followed by
disillusionment.

In the late 1800s to the 1960s there was widespread building of institutions to
house individuals with mental retardation. Intelligence tests, developed in the early
1900s, became the tools of the eugenic movement–a period when many people with
low intelligence were sterilized under the assumption that the population would be
improved. Starting in the 1970s the institutional population in the United States was
gradually reduced, primarily because of a reduction in admissions. Many former
residents were relocated to smaller community-based settings, but others remained
in their natural homes with services and supports provided. Of those remaining in
state institutions at the end of the twentieth century, persons over forty with profound
mental retardation and multiple disabilities dominated the population.

Schools' Responses and Goals and Methods of Teaching

Before 1975 when the Education of All Handicapped Children Act was passed
(Pub. L. 94-142) and special education was required, some students with milder
mental retardation attended school until they failed or quit, but others with greater
support needs attended parent-operated schools or remained at home. The number
of individuals with mental retardation in institutions reached its peak in the mid-1960s,
where educational services of widely varying quality sometimes existed. According to
the U.S. Department of Education's statistics, at the end of the twentieth century
students with labels of mental retardation who were enrolled in U.S. public schools
constituted 11 percent of all students with disabilities. The number of students
classified as having mental retardation declined substantially since the 1970s, in part
because of the label's stigma and recognition of intelligence test inaccuracy. Minority
children were overrepresented in school programs serving those with mental
retardation, a fact often accounted for by inaccurate testing.

The primary goal of education for this group is to increase self-sufficiency by

teaching functional academics and other skills needed in everyday life across home,
community, work, and leisure domains. Depending on the student's abilities
(conceptual, social, and practical), needs for support (intermittent to pervasive), and
school placement, the educational focus and methods will vary. The socioeconomic
level of the community influences the quality of special education and the amount of
support an individual receives in school and during adult life.

Issues Trends and Controversies

Although the label of mental retardation brings services, it also brings stigma
and low expectations. The reduction in students labeled as mentally retarded (with a
corresponding increase in those with learning disabilities) from the 1970s to the
1990s serves as evidence. Parents and educators have grappled with this issue.
Some believe the label should be reserved for those with organic etiologies,
assuming the smaller group would be more homogeneous. Others propose a change
in the label and improved education of the public.

Current law requires education in the least restrictive environment with

appropriate services and support. Students with mental retardation have a poor
record for being served in general education classrooms: 46 percent of all students
with disabilities are so served compared with 12 percent of those with mental
retardation. Many believe that educators need to understand better how to serve
these students in the mainstream and also equip them for the transition to adult life.
ACTIVITY 1

MENTAL RETARDATION

1. Give the four levels of mental retardation and classify each level.

2. How can you help a student with mental illness?

3. Give atleast 5 tips on how to teach learners with mental retardation.

 Special needs and learning disabilities
Special education is directed towards students with special needs or with
disabilities such as: communication challenges, learning challenges, physical
disabilities, emotional or mental disorders, behavioral disorders or intellectual
giftedness. Special education differs from the regular type of education through the
format and the delivery of the knowledge that are both designed in such a way that
suits the particular needs of the student that is involved in the process.

Students of special education learn about specific instructional strategies and

about alternative teaching methods that suit the category of students that the
education addresses. They will develop skills like: creativity – as they will have to
apply creative ideas in learning activities, good interpersonal skills, the ability to
identify emotions and physical and psychological needs in order to adapt or change
teaching strategy. Special education students are desirable to have native qualities,
such as: patience, intuition, understanding, flexibility and adaptability.

It is critical to treat the emotional aspects of learning disabilities and special

needs. The interaction of emotional concerns and learning disabilities and their
impact on the child’s functioning is one to take note of as it affects many areas of the
child’s life. In order to determine the best intervention strategy, the different types of
interaction must be recognized. However, it is important to keep in mind that there is
no clear cut relationship between emotional functioning and learning disabilities.

There are five basic ways to conceptualize this relationship: learning

disabilities can lead to emotional distress, learning disabilities can aggravate already
existing emotional concerns, emotional issues can conceal a learning disability,
emotional issues can aggravate already existing learning disabilities, and emotional
health may actually improve the academic performance of a child with learning
disabilities.

Teachers and other professionals can help children deal with emotional
distress, peer relationships, and defiant behaviors by intervening on a situational
basis. When dealing with emotional distress, a teacher can employ teaching
strategies such as educational accommodations, interventions, positive feedback,
and self-confidence boosting activities.

Encouraging peer interactions can be done by involving the student in group

activities which can help build social skills. Defiant behaviors can be addressed
through a behavioral analysis, alterations in routines, or psychoeducational testing.

This course provides specific new skills about:

 Dyslexia
 Dyscalculia
 Dysgraphia
 Aphasia or Dysphasia
 Auditory Processing Disorder
 Visual Processing Disorder

Objectives and learning outputs

 Raise teachers’ awareness of attitudes towards teaching learners with special
educational needs
 Help teachers identify and overcome their own biases and prejudices
 Inform teachers about a range of special educational needs and how they
affect teaching and learning
  Give teachers a set of teaching strategies which promote inclusive learning
and benefit all pupils.
 Guide teachers in developing an inclusive approach in their classroom or
school.
 Support teachers in becoming a more confident teacher when dealing with
learners with special educational needs.

When it comes to learning disabilities, look at the big picture

All children need love, encouragement, and support, and for kids with learning
disabilities, such positive reinforcement can help ensure that they emerge with a
strong sense of self-worth, confidence, and the determination to keep going even
when things are tough.

In searching for ways to help children with learning disabilities, remember that
you are looking for ways to help them help themselves. Your job as a parent is not to
“cure” the learning disability, but to give your child the social and emotional tools they
need to work through challenges. In the long run, facing and overcoming a challenge
such as a learning disability can help your child grow stronger and more resilient.

Always remember that the way you behave and respond to challenges has a
big impact on your child. A good attitude won’t solve the problems associated with a
learning disability, but it can give your child hope and confidence that things can
improve and that they will eventually succeed.

Tips for dealing with your child’s learning disability

Keep things in perspective. A learning disability isn’t insurmountable. Remind

yourself that everyone faces obstacles. It’s up to you as a parent to teach your child
how to deal with those obstacles without becoming discouraged or overwhelmed.
Don’t let the tests, school bureaucracy, and endless paperwork distract you from
what’s really important—giving your child plenty of emotional and moral support.

Become your own expert. Do your own research and keep abreast of new
developments in learning disability programs, therapies, and educational techniques.
You may be tempted to look to others—teachers, therapists, doctors—for solutions,
especially at first. But you’re the foremost expert on your child, so take charge when
it comes to finding the tools they need in order to learn.

Be an advocate for your child. You may have to speak up time and time again
to get special help for your child. Embrace your role as a proactive parent and work
on your communication skills. It may be frustrating at times, but by remaining calm
and reasonable, yet firm, you can make a huge difference for your child.

Remember that your influence outweighs all others. Your child will follow your
lead. If you approach learning challenges with optimism, hard work, and a sense of
humor, your child is likely to embrace your perspective—or at least see the
challenges as a speed bump, rather than a roadblock. Focus your energy on learning
what works for your child and implementing it the best you can.

Focus on strengths, not just weaknesses

Your child is not defined by their learning disability. A learning disability

represents one area of weakness, but there are many more areas of strengths.
Focus on your child’s gifts and talents. Your child’s life—and schedule—shouldn’t
revolve around the learning disability. Nurture the activities where they excel, and
make plenty of time for them.
Recognizing a learning disorder

By understanding the different types of learning disorders and their signs, you
can pinpoint the specific challenges your child faces and find a treatment program
that works.

Helping children with learning disabilities tip 1: Take charge of your child’s
education

In this age of endless budget cuts and inadequately funded schools, your role
in your child’s education is more important than ever. Don’t sit back and let someone
else be responsible for providing your child with the tools they need to learn. You can
and should take an active role in your child’s education.

If there is demonstrated educational need, the school is required by law to

develop an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) that delivers some educational
benefit, but not necessarily one that maximizes student achievement. Parents who
want the best for their kids may find this standard frustrating. Understanding special
education laws and your school’s guidelines for services will help you get the best
support for your child at school. Your child may be eligible for many kinds of
accommodations and support services, but the school might not provide services
unless you ask for them.

Tips for communicating with your child’s school:

 Being a vocal advocate for your child can be challenging. You’ll need superior
communication and negotiation skills, and the confidence to defend your
child’s right to a proper education.
 Clarify your goals. Before meetings, write down what you want to accomplish.
Decide what is most important, and what you are willing to negotiate.
 Be a good listener. Allow school officials to explain their opinions. If you don’t
understand what someone is saying, ask for clarification. “What I hear you
saying is…” can help ensure that both parties understand.
 Offer new solutions. You have the advantage of not being a “part of the
system,” and may have new ideas. Do your research and find examples of
what other schools have done.
 Keep the focus. The school system is dealing with a large number of children;
you are only concerned with your child. Help the meeting stay focused on your
child. Mention your child’s name frequently, don’t drift into generalizations, and
resist the urge to fight larger battles.
 Stay calm, collected and positive. Go into the meeting assuming that everyone
wants to help. If you say something you regret, simply apologize and try to get
back on track.
 Don’t give up easily. If you’re not satisfied with the school’s response, try
again.

Recognize the limitations of the school system

Parents sometimes make the mistake of investing all of their time and energy
into the school as the primary solution for their child’s learning disability. It is better to
recognize that the school situation for your child will probably never be perfect. Too
many regulations and limited funding mean that the services and accommodations
your child receives may not be exactly what you envision for them, and this will
probably cause you frustration, anger and stress.
 Try to recognize that the school will be only one part of the solution for your
child and leave some of the stress behind. Your attitude (of support, encouragement
and optimism) will have the most lasting impact on your child.

Tip 2: Identify how your child learns best

Everyone—learning disability or not—has their own unique learning style.

Some people learn best by seeing or reading, others by listening, and still others by
doing. You can help a child with a learning disability by identifying their primary
learning style.
Is your child a visual learner, an auditory learner, or a kinesthetic learner?
Once you’ve figured out how they learn best, you can take steps to make sure that
type of learning is reinforced in the classroom and during home study. The following
lists will help you determine what type of learner your child is.

Is your child a visual learner?

If your child is a visual learner, they:
 Learn best by seeing or reading
 Do well when material is presented and tested visually, not verbally
 Benefit from written notes, directions, diagrams, charts, maps, and pictures
 May love to draw, read, and write; are probably a good speller
Is your child an auditory learner?
If your child is an auditory learner, they:
 Learn best by listening
 Do well in lecture-based learning environments and on oral reports and tests
 Benefit from classroom discussions, spoken directions, study groups
 May love music, languages, and being on stage

Is your child a kinesthetic learner?

If your child is a kinesthetic learner, they:
 Learn best by doing and moving
 Do well when they can move, touch, explore, and create in order to learn
 Benefit from hands-on activities, lab classes, props, skits, and field trips
 May love sports, drama, dance, martial arts, and arts and crafts
 Studying Tips for Different Types of Learners

Tips for visual learners:

 Use books, videos, computers, visual aids, and flashcards.
 Make detailed, color-coded or high-lighted notes.
 Make outlines, diagrams, and lists.
 Use drawings and illustrations (preferably in color).
 Take detailed notes in class.
Tips for auditory learners:
 Read notes or study materials out loud.
 Use word associations and verbal repetition to memorize.
 Study with other students. Talk things through.
 Listen to books on tape or other audio recordings.
 Use a tape recorder to listen to lectures again later.
Tips for kinesthetic learners:
 Get hands on. Do experiments and take field trips.
 Use activity-based study tools, like role-playing or model building.
 Study in small groups and take frequent breaks.
 Use memory games and flash cards.
  Study with music on in the background.

Tip 3: Think life success, rather than school success

Success means different things to different people, but your hopes and
dreams for your child probably extend beyond good report cards. Maybe you hope
that your child’s future includes a fulfilling job and satisfying relationships, for
example, or a happy family and a sense of contentment. The point is that success in
life—rather than just school success—depends, not on academics, but on things like
a healthy sense of self, the willingness to ask for and accept help, the determination
to keep trying in spite of challenges, the ability to form healthy relationships with
others, and other qualities that aren’t as easy to quantify as grades and exam scores.

A 20-year study that followed children with learning disabilities into adulthood
identified the following six “life success” attributes. By focusing on these broad skills,
you can help give your child a huge leg up in life.

Learning disabilities and success #1: Self-awareness and self-confidence

 For children with learning disabilities, self-awareness (knowledge about
strengths, weaknesses, and special talents) and self-confidence are very
important. Struggles in the classroom can cause children to doubt their
abilities and question their strengths.
 Ask your child to list their strengths and weaknesses and talk about your own
strengths and weaknesses with your child.
 Encourage your child to talk to adults with learning disabilities and to ask
about their challenges, as well as their strengths.
 Work with your child on activities that are within their capabilities. This will help
build feelings of success and competency.
 Help your child develop their strengths and passions. Feeling passionate and
skilled in one area may inspire hard work in other areas too.

Learning disabilities and success #2: Being proactive

 A proactive person is able to make decisions and take action to resolve
problems or achieve goals. For people with learning disabilities, being
proactive also involves self-advocacy (for example, asking for a seat at the
front of the classroom) and the willingness to take responsibility for choices.
 Talk with your learning disabled child about problem solving and share how
you approach problems in your life.
 Ask your child how they approach problems. How do problems make them
feel? How do they decide what action to take?
 If your child is hesitant to make choices and take action, try to provide some
“safe” situations to test the water, like choosing what to make for dinner or
thinking of a solution for a scheduling conflict.
 Discuss different problems, possible decisions, and outcomes with your child.
Have your child pretend to be part of the situation and make their own
decisions.

Learning disabilities and success #3: Perseverance

 Perseverance is the drive to keep going despite challenges and failures, and
the flexibility to change plans if things aren’t working. Children (or adults) with
 learning disabilities may need to work harder and longer because of their
disability.
 Talk with your child about times when they persevered—why did they keep
going? Share stories about when you have faced challenges and not given up.
 Discuss what it means to keep going even when things aren’t easy. Talk about
the rewards of hard work, as well as the opportunities missed by giving up.
 When your child has worked hard, but failed to achieve their goal, discuss
different possibilities for moving forward.

Learning disabilities and success #4: The ability to set goals

 The ability to set realistic and attainable goals is a vital skill for life success. It
also involves the flexibility to adapt and adjust goals according to changing
circumstances, limitations, or challenges.
 Help your child identify a few short- or long-term goals and write down steps
and a timeline to achieve the goals. Check in periodically to talk about
progress and make adjustments as needed.
 Talk about your own short- and long-term goals with your child, as well as
what you do when you encounter obstacles.
 Celebrate with your child when they achieve a goal. If certain goals are
proving too hard to achieve, talk about why and how plans or goals might be
adjusted to make them possible.

Learning disabilities and success #5: Knowing how to ask for help
 Strong support systems are key for people with learning disabilities.
Successful people are able to ask for help when they need it and reach out to
others for support.
 Help your child nurture and develop good relationships. Model what it means
to be a good friend and relative so your child knows what it means to help and
support others.
 Demonstrate to your child how to ask for help in family situations.
 Share examples of people needing help, how they got it, and why it was good
to ask for help. Present your child with role-play scenarios that might require
help.

Learning disabilities and success #6: The ability to handle stress

 If children with learning disabilities learn how to regulate stress and calm
themselves, they will be much better equipped to overcome challenges.
 Use words to identify feelings and help your child learn to recognize specific
feelings.
 Ask your child the words they would use to describe stress. Does your child
recognize when they are feeling stressed?
 Encourage your child to identify and participate in activities that help reduce
stress like sports, games, music, or writing in a journal.
 Ask your child to describe activities and situations that make them feel
stressed. Break down the scenarios and talk about how overwhelming feelings
of stress and frustration might be avoided.

Recognizing stress in your child

 It’s important to be aware of the different ways in which stress can manifest.
Your child may behave very differently than you do when they are under stress.
Some signs of stress are more obvious: agitation, trouble sleeping, and worries that
won’t shut off. But some people—children included—shut down, space out, and
withdraw when stressed. It’s easy to overlook these signs, so be on the lookout for
any behavior that’s out of the ordinary.

Tip 4: Emphasize healthy lifestyle habits

It may seem like common sense that learning involves the body as well as the
brain, but your child’s eating, sleep, and exercise habits may be even more important
than you think. If children with learning disabilities are eating right and getting enough
sleep and exercise, they will be better able to focus, concentrate, and work hard.

Exercise – Exercise isn’t just good for the body, it’s good for the mind. Regular
physical activity makes a huge difference in mood, energy, and mental clarity.
Encourage your learning disabled child to get outside, move, and play. Rather than
tiring out your child and taking away from schoolwork, regular exercise will actually
help them stay alert and attentive throughout the day. Exercise is also a great
antidote to stress and frustration.

Sleep – Learning disability or not, your child is going to have trouble learning if
they are not well rested. Kids need more sleep than adults do. On average,
preschoolers need from 11-13 hours per night, middle school children need about 10-
11 hours, and teens and preteens need from 8½-10 hours. You can help make sure
your child is getting the sleep they need by enforcing a set bedtime. The type of light
emitted by electronic screens (computers, televisions, iPods and iPads, portable
video players, etc.) is activating to the brain. So you can also help by powering off all
electronics at least an hour or two before lights out.

Diet – A healthy, nutrient rich diet will aid your child’s growth and development.
A diet full of whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and lean protein will help boost mental
focus. Be sure your child starts the day with a good breakfast and doesn’t go more
than 4 hours between meals or snacks. This will help keep their energy levels stable.

Encouraging healthy emotional habits

In addition to healthy physical habits, you can also encourage children to have
healthy emotional habits. Like you, they may be frustrated by the challenges
presented by their learning disability. Try to give them outlets for expressing their
anger, frustration, or feelings of discouragement. Listen when they want to talk and
create an environment open to expression. Doing so will help them connect with their
feelings and, eventually, learn how to calm themselves and regulate their emotions.

Tip 5: Take care of yourself, too

Sometimes the hardest part of parenting is remembering to take care of you.

It’s easy to get caught up in what your child needs, while forgetting your own needs.
But if you don’t look after yourself, you run the risk of burning out. It’s important to
tend to your physical and emotional needs so that you’re in a healthy space for your
child. You won’t be able to help your child if you’re stressed out, exhausted, and
emotionally depleted. When you’re calm and focused, on the other hand, you’re
better able to connect with your child and help them be calm and focused too.
Your spouse, friends, and family members can be helpful teammates if you
can find a way to include them and learn to ask for help when you need it.

Tips for taking care of your self

  Keep the lines of communication open with your spouse, family, and friends.
Ask for help when you need it.
 Take care of yourself by eating well, exercising, and getting enough rest.
 Join a learning disorder support group. The encouragement and advice you’ll
get from other parents can be invaluable.
 Enlist teachers, therapists, and tutors whenever possible to share some
responsibility for day-to-day academic responsibilities.
 Learn how to manage stress in your own life. Make daily time for yourself to
relax and decompress.
 Communicate with family and friends about your child’s learning disability
 Some parents keep their child’s learning disability a secret, which can, even
with the best intentions, look like shame or guilt. Without knowing, extended
family and friends may not understand the disability or think that your child’s
behavior is stemming from laziness or hyperactivity. Once they are aware of
what’s going on, they can support your child’s progress.
 Within the family, siblings may feel that their brother or sister with a learning
disability is getting more attention, less discipline and preferential treatment.
Even if your other children understand that the learning disability creates
special challenges, they can easily feel jealous or neglected. Parents can help
curb these feelings by reassuring all of their children that they are loved,
providing homework help, and by including family members in any special
routines for the child with a learning disability.

Authors: Gina Kemp, M.A., Melinda Smith, M.A., and Jeanne Segal, Ph.D. Last
updated: June 2019.
ACTIVITY 1

LEARNERS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

1. Give and define the most common learning disabilities in classrooms today.

2. How does learning disabilities affect a learner?

3. How do you help a learner with learning disability?

 GIFTED AND TALENTED
Gifted Children with Learning Disabilities: A Review of the Issues
By: Linda E. Brody and Carol J. Mills

This article explores the current policies and practices with regard to defining,
identifying, and educating this population. Recommendations are included that would
help ensure that students who are gifted and have learning disabilities receive the
intervention needed to help them achieve their full potential.

When educators first began describing children who showed evidence of

having a learning disability (LD) yet also appeared to be gifted, many viewed this as
contradictory. The stereotype that had prevailed since Terman's (1925) time was that
gifted children score uniformly high on intelligence tests and perform well in school.
How could a child be considered gifted who has serious enough learning problems to
be characterized as having a learning disability?

In 1981, a colloquium held at The Johns Hopkins University convened experts

from the fields of both learning disabilities and giftedness to consider this issue. At
the time, interest in meeting the needs of gifted and talented students, as well as
students with learning disabilities, was evident on many levels, but students who
exhibited the characteristics of both exceptionalities had received scant notice. The
participants agreed that students who are gifted and also have learning disabilities
do, in fact, exist but are often overlooked when students are assessed for either
giftedness or learning disabilities. The colloquium did much to establish students who
are gifted but also have learning disabilities as a population with special
characteristics and needs (Fox, Brody, & Tobin, 1983).

In recent years, the concept of giftedness and learning disabilities occurring

concomitantly in the same individual has become commonly accepted. Several books
have been written on the subject, numerous articles have appeared in journals, and
most educational conferences focusing on either learning disabilities or giftedness
include at least one presentation on the dual exceptionality. We appear to have
reached an understanding that high ability and learning problems can both be
present in the same individual. Nonetheless, empirical research on the characteristics
and needs of this population has been limited, and relatively few students with LD
who are gifted are identified as such or given special services. In this review, we
examine some of the theoretical arguments, regulations, and educational practices
that affect students with LD who are gifted.

Who are these students?

Students who are gifted and also have learning disabilities are those who
possess an outstanding gift or talent and are capable of high performance, but who
also have a learning disability that makes some aspect of academic achievement
difficult. Some of these students are identified and their needs are met. This happens
only rarely, however, unless a school specifically decides to identify and then serve
these students. The majority of students who are gifted with learning disabilities "fall
through the cracks" in the system.

There are at least three subgroups of children whose dual exceptionality

remains unrecognized (Baum, 1994; Baum, Owen, & Dixon, 1991; Fox, Brody, &
Tobin,1983; Landrum,1989; Starnes, Ginevan, Stokes, & Barton, 1988). The first
group includes students who have been identified as gifted yet exhibit difficulties in
school. These students are often considered underachievers, and their
underachievement may be attributed to poor selfconcept, lack of motivation, or even
some less flattering characteristics, such as laziness (Silverman,1989; Waldron,
Saphire, & Rosenblum,1987; Whitmore, 1980). Their learning disabilities usually
remain unrecognized for most of their educational lives. As school becomes more
challenging, their academic difficulties may increase to the point where they are
falling sufficiently behind peers that someone finally suspects a disability.

A second group includes students whose learning disabilities are severe

enough that they have been identified as having learning disabilities but whose
exceptional abilities have never been recognized or addressed. It has been
suggested that this may be a larger group of students than many people realize. In
one study, as many as 33% of students identified with learning disabilities had
superior intellectual ability (Baum, 1985). Inadequate assessments and/or depressed
IQ scores often lead to an underestimation of these students' intellectual abilities. If
their potential remains unrecognized, it never becomes a cause for concern or the
focus of their instructional program. Due to this underestimation or to inflexible
identification and/or instructional expectations in the "gifted program," they are rarely
referred for gifted services.

Perhaps the largest group of unserved students are those whose abilities and
disabilities mask each other; these children sit in general classrooms, ineligible for
services provided for students who are gifted or have learning disabilities, and are
considered to have average abilities. Because these students typically function at
grade level, they are not seen as having problems or special needs, nor are they a
priority for schools on tight budgets. Although these students appear to be
functioning reasonably well, they are, unfortunately, performing well below their
potential. As course work becomes more demanding in later years, and without the
help they need to accommodate their limitations, their academic difficulties usually
increase to the point where a learning disability may be suspected, but rarely is their
true potential recognized.

For all three of these subgroups, the social and emotional consequences of
having exceptional abilities and learning disabilities, when one or both of the
conditions is unrecognized, can be pervasive and quite debilitating, as well as difficult
to address if appropriate diagnosis and programming never take place or are delayed
until adolescence (Baum et al.,1991; Durden & Tangherlini, 1993; Fox, Brody, &
Tobin,1983; Whitmore,1980). With an increasing number of LD researchers
questioning the relevance of a child's aptitude in determining intervention strategies
(cf. Siegel,1989), even fewer students with high potential and learning disabilities will
be recognized or fully served, resulting in a great waste of intellectual potential.

Definitions

The literature is replete with references to individuals with extremely high

abilities and talents who also have a specific learning disability (e.g., Aaron, Phillips,
& Larsen, 1988; Goertzel & Goertzel,1962; Ochse,1990; Thompson, 1971). Some
researchers have even suggested that, at least for some individuals, the learning
disability may be fundamentally associated with a "gift" (e.g., Geschwind, 1982;
West,1991). To most practitioners who work with individuals with disabilities, being
gifted and also having learning disabilities does not appear to be an unfamiliar or
especially problematic condition, at least in theory. Nonetheless, a number of thorny
issues and debates make the understanding and identification of the condition
difficult.

Controversy surrounds what is meant by the terms gifted and learning

disabled. As Vaughn (1989) pointed out, "no two populations have suffered from
more definitional problems than learning disabled and gifted" (p.123). With regard to
students who exhibit the dual exceptionalities simultaneously, legislation defining
special populations has never specifically described this group. When educators and
researchers describe these students as a unique group, they generally talk about
students who exhibit strengths in one area and weaknesses in another (e.g., Ellston,
1993; Fall & Nolan, 1993) and/or show a discrepancy between potential and
performance (e.g., Gunderson, Maesch, & Rees, 1987). For a more formal definition,
however, it has been necessary to rely on the separate prevailing definitions of gifted
children and children with learning disabilities, which are almost always inadequate
for accommodating students who exhibit the characteristics of both groups
simultaneously.

Definitions of learning disabilities

Numerous conceptual definitions of learning disabilities have been proposed

by experts in the field (Hammill, 1990). Most of these allow for the co-occurrence of
being gifted and having learning disabilities, as they set no upper limit on general
intelligence or specific abilities in one or more areas. When the Association for
Children and Adults with Learning Disabilities (1985) proposed a definition that
specifically included the phrase "average and superior intelligence" occurring
concomitantly with the disability, the door was opened wider for recognition of
children with disabilities who are gifted. Some conceptual definitions include a
reference to a discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement, a concept
and practice that is important for identifying many students with LD who are gifted,
though the use of such a discrepancy for defining a learning disability has been
criticized (cf. Lyon, 1989). Although there is nothing in most LD definitions that
excludes students with learning disabilities who are also gifted, the definitions fail to
specifically encourage practitioners to identify students in this subgroup.

Swanson's (1991) review of operational definitions is quite useful in

understanding the issues related to defining and identifying learning disabilities.
Many of the issues and debates he discusses, particularly the concepts of specificity
(which refers to a learning disability being confined to a limited number of academic
or cognitive domains), discrepancy (whereby it is determined that a child's
achievement does not measure up to his or her potential), and exclusion (whereby
the learning disability is distinguished from other handicapping conditions), are
particularly relevant to defining students with academic talents and learning
disabilities. Because operational definitions are so closely tied to identification, these
issues and debates are reviewed later in this article under "Identification."

Definitions of giftedness

In the gifted and talented field, attempts to define giftedness from a conceptual
viewpoint have resulted in little consensus. For example, giftedness has been
defined as high general intelligence (Terman, 1925); high aptitude in a specific
academic area (Stanley, 1976); and the interactions among high ability, task
commitment, and creativity (Renzulli, 1986). (For other examples, see Sternberg and
Davidson,1986.) Perhaps contributing to the difficulty in defining giftedness is the lack
of agreement as to what intelligence is, with proponents of a variety of psychometric,
developmental, and information-processing approaches offering conflicting
viewpoints (Kail & Pellegrino, 1985; Sternberg & Detterman, 1986). Some of these
definitions are more likely than others to accommodate the child with learning
problems. For example, Gardner's (1983) concept of multiple intelligences provides
for showing high ability in one area without requisite corresponding ability in all areas.
In contrast, proponents of the concept of general "g" (Spearman, 1927) have greater
difficulty considering students with learning difficulties as highly able.

A multifaceted view of giftedness, proposed by Marland (1972), has been

adopted by the U. S. Department of Education and a majority of state departments of
education and school systems. Marland described gifted and talented children as
those who demonstrate high achievement or potential in any one of six areas:
general intellectual ability, specific academic aptitude, creative or productive thinking,
leadership ability, visual and performing arts, and psychomotor ability (which was
deleted in subsequent legislation). Recently, a revised definition has asserted that
"outstanding talents are present in children and youth from all cultural groups, across
all economic strata, and in all areas of human endeavor" (U.S. Department of
Education, 1993, p. 26). This recognition of culturally disadvantaged gifted children
was not matched by equal attention to gifted students with learning disabilities.
However, neither federal definition of the gifted child excludes students with learning
disabilities because the definitions (a) specify that a child need not be exceptional at
everything to be gifted, (b) set no lower limits of performance or ability in remaining
areas, and (c) specifically acknowledge that students can be gifted even if they are
not currently performing at a high level, as long as they have the potential.
Unfortunately, however, academic potential independent of performance is a difficult
concept for many to accept.

Conclusion

Attempts to describe students with LD who are gifted have drawn heavily on
definitions of each exceptionality separately; yet, a lack of consensus is evident in
definitions of giftedness or learning disabilities, and the implications of the two
conditions overlapping have not been adequately considered. For example, the
broadbased federal definitions of giftedness, as well as other definitions, recognize
students' abilities in a variety of areas. Thus, a student might exhibit talent in
leadership or the arts but not in academic areas, and be labeled gifted and qualify for
services. If such a student also has a learning disability, he or she might be
considered gifted and learning disabled. The concept that a student might have
different abilities and needs in art than in mathematics is not difficult for most people
to accept or understand.

However, accepting the concept that a student's giftedness and learning

disabilities both lie in related academic areas, such as a student whose reading level
is well above grade level but who has great difficulty with spelling and writing, is more
problematic for most people. And the programming implications for these two types of
students (i.e., those whose talents and disabilities lie in related or unrelated areas)
are very different. Although students whose strengths and weaknesses are in
unrelated areas might be gifted and have a learning disability, it is students whose
talents and disabilities overlap and are both in academic areas who are most likely to
be misunderstood, underserved, and in need of special services.

Descriptions of individuals who are academically talented and individuals who

have learning disabilities should be examined and expanded to include students who
exhibit the characteristics of both exceptionalities simultaneously in related and
unrelated areas. At present, the operational definitions currently used by most
schools to place children in gifted or special education programs exclude many
academically talented students with learning problems who rarely meet the rigid
cutoffs of most identification procedures (Fall & Nolan, 1993). For the few students
who are identified via existing definitions and guidelines, it usually means receiving
services in one or the other area, but not both.

Identification

At present, identifying students for gifted programs and for special education
services for individuals with learning disabilities tend to be mutually exclusive
activities (Boodoo, Bradley, Frontera, Pitts, & Wright, 1989). Unfortunately, too many
students with LD who are gifted fail to meet the eligibility requirements for either
because the identification protocols fail to consider the special characteristics of this
population. For example, research has shown that teachers are much more likely to
refer nondisabled students than students with learning disabilities for placement in
gifted programs (Minner, 1990; Minner, Prater, Bloodworth, & Walker, 1987).
Screening for learning disabilities typically requires evidence of underachievement.
Gifted students who are able to compensate for their learning problems rarely get
referred unless they exhibit behavioral problems (Senf, 1983). At the same time,
because students with LD who are gifted rarely show consistently high achievement,
they often go unrecognized as being gifted. Although a few will qualify for special
education services because of the severity of their disability, and some will qualify for
gifted services because of the type or level of their talent (Baum et al., 1991), most
students with LD who are gifted rarely qualify for multiple services. Unless
operational definitions and identification criteria are modified to accommodate the
characteristics of this subgroup, this situation will, unfortunately, continue.

In an effort to shed light on the pattern of abilities of students with LD who are
gifted, and to simplify identification, many researchers in this area have focused on
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISCR) score patterns (e.g.,
Bannatyne, 1974; Baum et al., 1991; Kaufman, 1979). To date, however, no
consistent pattern of results has come from this research. Although Schiff, Kaufman,
and Kaufman (1981) reported a significant Verbal-Performance (VP) discrepancy
(greater than that found for students with LD with average ability), with Verbal scores
higher, Waldron and Saphire (1990) concluded that a significant discrepancy
between Verbal and Performance scores may not be the best indicator of a learning
disability in gifted students. Barton and Starnes (1989) observed that "the
inconsistencies in magnitude or direction of VP discrepancies among the studies
seem to result from differing patterns of deficits in the samples" (p. 28), and Fox,
Brody, and Tobin (1983) concluded that "more research is needed to determine what,
if any, unique patterns characterize the gifted/LD child" (p. 106).

It is clear that we are dealing with a very heterogeneous group of students

who represent all types of intellectual giftedness and academic talents, in
combination with various forms of learning disabilities. Therefore, trying to find one
defining pattern or set of scores to identify all gifted students with learning disabilities
is probably futile. On the other hand, there are some defining characteristics that
should be considered in identifying these students: (a) evidence of an outstanding
talent or ability, (b) evidence of a discrepancy between expected and actual
achievement, and (c) evidence of a processing deficit.

Evidence of an outstanding talent or ability

To identify a student with LD who might be gifted, one should find evidence of
a special gift, talent, or ability whereby the student exhibits performance at a high
level or the ability to perform at a high level. The talent or gift can be general ability or
a specific talent in any of a variety of areas. However, practitioners need to recognize
that a learning disability can depress the test performance of students who are
academically talented. Thus, if academically talented students with learning
disabilities are to be recognized as gifted, cutoff scores on whatever measures are
used may have to be adjusted downward to accommodate the depressing effect of
their learning disability (Karnes & Johnson, 1991; Silverman, 1989), and, for those
students who manage to meet cutoff scores in spite of their disability, the
extraordinary nature of their ability should be recognized.

When seeking evidence of a student's ability or potential, one often turns to a

standardized intelligence test. However, the use of IQ tests for identification is
problematic and has become increasingly controversial. The issues have to do with
the nature of IQ tests and what they measure, the appropriateness of using them for
certain populations, and whether an IQ score contributes to our understanding of
students or programming decisions for them.

Within the field of gifted education, the reliance on IQ scores to identify gifted
students has been questioned on many fronts. One concern is that intelligence tests
measure a limited range of abilities (RamosFord & Gardner, 1991; Sternberg, 1991)
and thus many gifted students will be overlooked. For example, intelligence tests are
not good measures for identifying students who are creatively gifted (Torrance, 1979)
or mathematically gifted (Stanley, 1974, 1979). The IQ scores of students from
disadvantaged backgrounds may not reflect their true abilities (Baldwin, 1991). And,
with gifted students who have learning disabilities, global IQ measures may be
particularly insensitive to depression of scores caused by the disability (Fox & Brody,
1983).

Another concern is that a global measure of ability is not particularly helpful for
educational programming (Fox & Brody, 1983). Although some children can certainly
be gifted and talented in many diverse areas, identifying students who have
exceptional talent in a specific area (e.g., mathematics, written expression) lends
itself to targeted instruction and programming that is more appropriate and,
ultimately, more justifiable (Durden & Tangherlini, 1993; Stanley, 1974). With just a
global measure of academic potential to work with, only a global and often
academically irrelevant program can be implemented. This is not to say, however,
that IQ tests have no usefulness for diagnostic or intervention purposes.

Fox and Brody (1983) discussed the appropriateness of intelligence tests,

aptitude and achievement tests, teacher nominations, and creativity tests for
identifying strengths and potential in students with LD who are gifted. Torrance
(1982) used the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking to identify creatively gifted
students, some of whom had LD. Behavioral observations and structured interviews
have also been recommended for identifying gifted students with learning disabilities
(Baum et al.,1991). In general, it seems advisable to use a variety of assessments,
including intelligence tests, to measure potential and assess strengths in children
who might be learning disabled and gifted.

In practice, it is rare that giftedness is identified only through IQ scores. The

federal definitions of giftedness require assessment of ability, aptitude, and
achievement in a variety of talent areas. Talent searches conducted by Johns
Hopkins, Duke, and Northwestern universities, the University of Denver, and others
employ Stanley's (1974, 1977) model of using above-grade-level aptitude tests to
assess exceptional reasoning ability in mathematical and/or verbal areas (Cohn,
1991). The gifted field appears to be moving in the direction of identifying specific
subgroups of students who can be more specifically served. Unfortunately,
identification of such discrete subgroups also may result in students being overlooked
whose exceptional abilities and learning disabilities are in closely related areas.

Within the LD community, there is also debate as to whether IQ tests are the
best or most appropriate measure of potential. At a more problematic level, however,
is the question of whether it is necessary or even useful to recognize a child's
potential. As part of that debate, it has been pointed out that two children with very
different IQ scores, both exhibiting problems in learning to read, may not be
fundamentally different in terms of decoding (or phonological processing) skills (cf.
Siegel, 1989; Stanovich, 1986). As Lyon (1989) noted, however, they are
"qualitatively and quantitatively different from each other on tasks assessing a range
of 'intelligent' behaviors" (p. 505) that may be critical to how they learn and adapt.
Furthermore, a child's level of intelligence may influence his or her emotional and
behavioral responses to persistent failure, parent and teacher expectations, and,
most importantly, remediation (Lyon, 1989). For example, Olson (1985) found that
verbally intelligent readers with a learning disability were able to depend less on
labored phonetic coding and more on context and orthographic codes when reading
continuous text. Similarly, French (1982) found that a gifted nonreader was able to
use contextual cues to learn to read. These arguments for recognizing a child's
potential are extremely relevant for students with LD who are academically talented.
The critical issue, of course, for gifted students with learning disabilities is that
without some measure of high ability (whether that measure is an IQ score or
something else), and then recognition of a discrepancy between that ability and
achievement, few will be identified. Although the debate is largely theoretical at
present because IQ is still commonly used in practice when assessing learning
disabilities, the decision to ignore intellectual potential would have major
consequences for students with learning disabilities who are also gifted.

Evidence of an aptitude - achievement discrepancy

Gifted students who have learning disabilities in a related area should show
evidence of a discrepancy between their high ability and their achievement. Students
whose talents and disabilities are in unrelated areas may be considered gifted and
also be diagnosed with learning disabilities, but the performance discrepancy
concept (a discrepancy between expected and actual achievement) does not apply.

Although the concept of a performance discrepancy is common in many

operational definitions of learning disabilities, numerous objections to the use of an
IQ achievement discrepancy to identify students with learning disabilities have been
raised (cf. Lyon,1989; Stanovich,1993). Even though arguments against defining
learning disabilities on the basis of a performance discrepancy have much validity,
seeking evidence of a discrepancy between ability and achievement is particularly
important for identifying students who are academically talented and learning
disabled. This is because the relatively high achievement of many of these students
(compared to that of their chronological age peers) often masks a disability unless
that achievement is compared to the student's ability. Proposals to select students for
intervention solely on the basis of poor achievement- for example, performance in the
bottom 20% or so on an achievement test (Reynolds, Zetlin, & Wang,1993; Siegel &
Metsala, 1992)-will not identify gifted students with learning disabilities who function
at or near grade level. Although a discrepancy between ability and achievement
should not be the only feature for describing gifted students with learning disabilities,
it should be a piece of information that is carefully considered. In general, Graham
and Harris's assertion (1989) that "decisions as to presence and severity of learning
disabilities must ultimately rely on professional judgment ... based on a multifaceted
assessment of which normreferenced IQ and achievement data are only a part" (p.
502) seems appropriate for gifted students with learning disabilities as well.

Evidence of a processing deficit

Although the presence of an aptitude achievement discrepancy may be a

prerequisite for identifying academically talented students with learning disabilities, it
is not sufficient in and of itself, as such a discrepancy may result from very different
causes (Krippner,1968; Silverman,1989; Whitmore,1980). Likewise, uneven profiles
or discrepancies among test scores do not, in themselves, necessarily constitute
evidence of a learning disability (Patchett & Stansfield,1992). Evidence of a
processing deficit, however, can help to distinguish a learning disability from other
causes of underachievement

For example, the identification of a processing deficit (obtained by examining

subtest scores from an IQ test, such as the WISCR, and/or specific processing tests)
can help in differentiating between naturally occurring differences in the development
of specific cognitive abilities (e.g., widely different levels of verbal ability vs.
quantitative ability) and the co-occurrence of intellectual giftedness and a learning
disability. Identification of a processing deficit can also help in differentiating between
a gifted child who is underachieving because of educational placement issues (e.g., a
curriculum that is not sufficiently challenging) and one who is not achieving at a level
commensurate with his or her general ability because of a learning disability (Rimm,
1986; Whitmore & Maker, 1985).
 The idea that a learning disability can and should be distinguished from other
known causes of learning problems (e.g., low intellectual ability, lack of opportunity to
learn, poor teaching, emotional problems) has been challenged in the LD literature by
those who suggest that students with learning disabilities and students with learning
problems due to other causes have more similarities than differences (e.g., Kavale,
1980; Stanovich, 1993; Taylor, Satz, & Friel, 1979). On the other hand, Adelman
(1992) suggested that failure to differentiate under-achievement caused by
neurological dysfunctioning from that caused by other factors has been cited
specifically as a major deterrent to important lines of research and theory and is
certainly a threat to the very integrity of the LD field. (p. 17)

Identifying the cause of a learning problem is particularly important for gifted

students with learning disabilities. Without it, diagnoses separating gifted students
who exhibit learning difficulties into subgroups of those with learning disabilities,
those with normal variation in cognitive development, and those who are unmotivated
for a variety of reasons can be problematic. Differential diagnosis is, of course,
important for decisions regarding the need for intervention, as well as the appropriate
type of intervention (Daniels, 1983). It is important, however, to note that in children
with high abilities, scores on any test (including processing tests) that are "average"
may be sufficient to indicate a "deficit."

Conclusion

The lack of a clear description of gifted students with learning disabilities has
resulted in few of these students being identified. The following points seem to be
evident: (a) There is a rationale for thinking about these students as a separate
subgroup; (b) students with LD who are gifted represent a heterogeneous group with
many different types of gifts/talents and disabilities; (c) a performance discrepancy is
essential for identifying gifted students with learning disabilities; and (d) for
appropriate intervention to take place, it is necessary to establish causal factors for
the learning problems, or at least to rule out other causal factors that could lead to
very different interventions. A complete assessment battery is needed to identify and
plan interventions for gifted students with learning disabilities, including an individual
intelligence test, an achievement battery, indicators of cognitive processing, and
behavioral observations.

Ideally, early identification and appropriate intervention are recommended to

help prevent the development of the accompanying social and behavioral problems
that often result when the needs of a gifted child with learning disabilities are
overlooked (Whitmore, 1980). In addition, the identification of talents and learning
problems should continue as an ongoing process throughout the school years.
Children's abilities and needs, as well as available services, change over time so that
continuous reevaluation is necessary. In particular, one should beware of rigid cutoff
scores for program participation that discriminate against students with the atypical
profiles that characterize gifted children with learning disabilities.

Intervention

The lack of a clear definition that recognizes the unique characteristics and
needs of gifted students with learning disabilities and of a protocol for identification
has resulted in few specific programs being developed in school systems for this
population. For example, a survey in one state found that the majority of school
systems reported having no gifted children with learning disabilities in their district
and no special programming (Boodoo et al., 1989). It has also been noted that some
state policies impede the development of services for gifted children with learning
disabilities because they do not permit school districts to be reimbursed twice for the
same student, inadvertently implying that one cannot simultaneously have two
exceptionalities (Baum, 1994).
 Although the need for studies on effective treatments for gifted students with
learning disabilities was cited in a 1987 report to Congress (Interagency Committee
on Learning Disabilities, 1987), program development and evaluation with regard to
this population has been weak (Vaughn,1989). Recent promising developments,
however, include a commitment by the Maryland Task Force on Gifted and Talented
Education (1994) to meeting the needs of gifted students with learning disabilities,
and the funding of several projects to develop programs for this population under the
Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Education disabilities.

Individualized education programs

Although many gifted students with learning disabilities would be best served
by separate programs developed especially for them, it is likely that the needs of
many could be met through appropriate identification of strengths and weaknesses
and a flexible, individualized approach to using the existing services and resources
available in and out of school. Gifted students with learning disabilities need (a)
highlevel or "gifted" programming in their areas of strength, (b) developmental
instruction in subjects of average growth, (c) remedial teaching in areas of disability,
and (d) adaptive instruction in areas of disability (Fox, Brody, & Tobin,1983; Virginia
Department of Education, 1990). Programs and/or services for average- achieving
students who primarily need age- appropriate instruction, for gifted students who
need accelerated and/or enriched instruction, and for average - ability students with
disabilities could be utilized to develop an optimal Individualized Education Program
to meet the needs of gifted students with learning disabilities.

Ideally, the individualized program would be developed through a team effort

involving the parents, a gifted specialist, a learning disabilities specialist, a
diagnostician, the general classroom teacher, and the child himself or herself
(Silvermars, 1989; Van TasselBaska,1991). In developing the student's unique
educational program, his or her particular strengths and weaknesses, as well as the
resources available in the school, should be considered. The specifications should
depend, of course, on the nature and severity of the student's disability as well as his
or her degree of giftedness; however, there is much consensus that it is important to
focus primarily on the student's strengths rather than his or her weaknesses.
Generally, remediation is not the primary need of these students; instead, attention
should be placed on developing the gift or talent (Baum et al., 1991; Ellston, 1993;
Griffin, 1990). Learning strategies and adaptations can help ensure these students'
success in whatever placement seems appropriate, whether that is in a special class
for gifted students with learning disabilities or another environment.

Special classes for gifted students with learning disabilities

Numerous educators who have studied gifted children with learning disabilities
have found that, ideally, these students should receive instruction as a special group
for at least part of the day from a teacher sensitive to their specific academic, social,
and psychological needs and with peers who share their dual exceptionalities
(Daniels, 1983; Whitmore & Maker, 1985; Yewchuk, 1985). To date, however, few
teachers have received specific training in the characteristics of gifted students with
learning disabilities, and few separate programs for these students exist. Some
schools have developed special classes for this population, and the Javits grants
have stimulated a few additional programmatic initiatives. In some cases the students
stay together all day; in others, a resource room model is used whereby gifted
students with learning disabilities are brought to the resource room with other
students who share their dual exceptionalities.
The separate-class/all-day model for students with LD who are gifted is often
recommended for students with the most serious disabilities. For example, one
school system identified gifted students with varying degrees of learning disabilities
and developed a special self-contained class for gifted students with severe learning
disabilities; those with moderate and mild disabilities received other services (Starnes
et al.,1988). Regardless of the severity of the students' problems, self-contained
classes offer numerous advantages for differentiated learning (Clements, Lundell, &
Hishinuma, 1994); eliminate the movement from classroom to classroom required
when services are provided in a combination of gifted, special education, and general
classrooms (Suter & Wolf, 1987); and may be better suited to meet students'
emotional needs (Suter & Wolf, 1987). Such programs typically try to address issues
related to raising selfesteem and influencing motivation, as well as individualizing
instruction to enhance academic achievement.

An example of a full-time program for gifted students with learning disabilities

can be found at ASSETS, a school in Hawaii for students who are "gifted/at risk,
dyslexic/learning disabled, and gifted/dyslexic" (Clements et al., 1994). The school
utilizes an interdisciplinary approach to instruction in self-contained classes, includes
acceleration and enrichment to challenge strengths while also building basic skills,
and attends to the students' social and emotional needs as well. For other program
models and/or programmatic ideas for separate programs for gifted students with
learning disabilities, see Baldwin and Gargiulo (1983), Baum et al. (1991), Udall and
Maker (1983), and Whitmore (1980).

A part-time resource room model for academically talented students with

learning disabilities is another option for exposing such students to peers who share
their dual exceptionalities. The literature describing these efforts reports several
attempts to modify traditional enrichment programs for this population. For example,
the Schoolwide Enrichment Model (Renzulli & Reis, 1985), a program that
encourages academically talented students to take on indepth projects on topics of
their choice, was used in a class in which the students had all been identified as
gifted with learning disabilities. The teacher was a specialist in both gifted and special
education, and specific strategies were used with this group to augment their
disabilities and compensate for weaknesses (Baum, 1988). Another gifted program
model, Betts's (1985) Autonomous Learner Model, which offers enrichment in an
atmosphere that supports self-advocacy, has also been adapted for gifted students
with learning disabilities (Fall & Nolan, 1993; Nielsen, Higgins, Wilkinson, & Webb,
1994).

Whether full time or part time, special classes for gifted students with learning
disabilities allow the teacher to develop a program unique to this population, one that
is challenging but also provides structure and strategies to accommodate
weaknesses. Students gain support from being with other students who also exhibit
seemingly contradictory strengths and weaknesses. In the other settings, students
must adapt more to the setting; learning to adapt and compete with nonhandicapped
students is also important.

Using and/or adapting existing services

For students with LD who attend schools that do not offer special programs for
gifted students with learning disabilities, or for whom the special program does not
fully meet their needs, consideration should be given to designing an individualized
program from the programmatic options and special services already available in the
school, supplemented by appropriate adaptations that will help ensure success in the
various settings

Instruction in the general education classroom.

As schools move toward inclusion of all students in general classrooms as a
result of the Regular Education Initiative (Will, 1986) and show reluctance toward
grouping students on the basis of aptitude or achievement (Oakes, 1985; Slavin,
1987), the general education classroom is becoming a place where teachers are
expected to meet the needs of a wide range of students. If this arrangement can
successfully challenge all students, including gifted students, average students, and
students with learning problems, gifted students who also have learning disabilities
could be well served.

Whether or not such a diverse group can be optimally served in one

environment is still not clear, however (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1994), as the movement
toward full inclusion is not back by supportive research (Mather & Roberts, 1994).
Problems involved in addressing the needs of students with severe disabilities in a
general classroom have been raised by teachers and others in the field (Kauffman,
1995; Vaughn, Schumm, ballad, Slusher, & Saumell ,1996). Students who function at
or near grade level, even if they are academically talented and have learning
disabilities, are even more likely to be overlooked in an environment that includes
students with more severe underachievement and students with more obvious high
ability. Historically, learning disabilities have been considered an "invisible disorder";
the problems and needs of gifted students with learning disabilities may be the most
invisible of all.

There is also much concern within the gifted community about the impact of
the movement on the policy of grouping students by ability (e.g., Feldhusen & Moon,
1992; Gallagher, 1991; Mills & Durden,1992; Robinson, 1990; Rogne,1993). When
aptitude and achievement are considered before placing students in a general
classroom, large and/or smallgroup instruction can be designed to meet their
particular needs. Although the academic benefits of ability grouping for gifted
students have been well documented (e.g., Kulik & Kulik,1990; Mills & Durden,
1992), the practice has become controversial and consequently less often
implemented in today's schools.

If the general classroom teacher does not recognize and accommodate

individual differences, the gifted child with learning disabilities whose total placement
is that classroom cannot receive an appropriate education. On the other hand, if the
general classroom teacher does accommodate individual differences, or if the
general classroom placement is supplemented by time spent in special programs for
the gifted and/ or for students with learning disabilities, placement in the general
classroom may be appropriate for gifted students with learning disabilities.

In schools that continue to offer separate services and programs for students
identified as gifted and for students with learning disabilities, the general classroom
serves primarily as the place where the curriculum is at or about grade level. For
gifted students with learning disabilities, placement in the general classroom is
appropriate for developmental instruction in subjects of normal achievement,
although some compensatory strategies (such as using a calculator) might be
necessary for optimal performance.

The general classroom teacher needs to be particularly aware that gifts and
disabilities may mask each other and that students who both are academically
talented and have learning disabilities are likely to exhibit variable performance and
social and emotional difficulties (Landrum,1989). The general classroom teacher
should also be the chief source of referral of gifted students with learning disabilities
to special education services and gifted programs in their schools (Boodoo et al.,
1989).

Programs and services for gifted students.

Programs for gifted students vary considerably in form and content. The many
options include differentiated instruction in the general classroom through small-
group or independent instruction, self-contained classes where high - ability students
are grouped together to learn material at a faster rate and/or more advanced level,
and part- time pullout programs. The content may be accelerated or enriched.
Placement with older students for one or more subjects is also an alternative.
Regardless of the type of program, the purpose of differentiated instruction for gifted
and talented students is to provide access to more challenging subject matter than is
normally available in the regular curriculum. When gifted students are grouped
together for instruction, the interaction with other talented students is viewed as
advantageous for learning and peer support. Unfortunately, there is considerable
evidence that we do not provide adequate programmatic options for gifted students in
our country (Maryland Task Force on Gifted and Talented Education, 1994; U. S.
Department of Education, 1993), and recent concerns about such issues as elitism,
opposition to ability grouping, opposition to standardized testing, and a pervasive
climate of antiintellectualism have emerged as "obstacles to renewing our
commitment to gifted and talented students" (Maryland Task Force on Gifted and
Talented Education, 1994, p. 6).

Nonetheless, a variety of programs and services is still available in the

schools, and more may emerge from some of the new initiatives. However, the
problems related to identifying gifted students with learning disabilities, and the
reluctance shown by many teachers of the gifted to accommodate special needs,
result in few students with these dual exceptionalities being included in programs for
the gifted. Although the severity of the learning disability and the nature of the gifted
programming should be considered in determining placement of gifted students with
learning disabilities into classes for gifted children, every effort should be made to
include them if possible.

Acceleration and enrichment are two approaches to meeting the needs of the
gifted. Acceleration can include moving ahead of one's age peers in grade placement
and/or subject matter (Southern & Jones, 1991). Subject matter acceleration may be
particularly beneficial as a vehicle for gifted students with learning disabilities to
receive advanced course work in their areas of strength without having to be placed
at the same level in their areas of weakness. For example, mathematically talented
students might progress rapidly at their own pace through an accelerated
mathematics class (Benbow, 1986), even if learning disabilities pose some problems
for them in creative writing or learning a foreign language. In addition, with moderate
adaptations, such as encouraging the use of calculators, word processors, untimed
tests, and so forth, it is likely that many gifted students with learning disabilities could
succeed in rigorous and/or accelerated courses in their areas of strength. This fact
has been recognized in recent years by selective colleges that realize the benefits of
adapting to the needs of academically talented students with learning disabilities
(e.g., see Brown University, 1990).

Enrichment programs are intended to provide gifted students with a more

varied educational experience, either by modifying the curriculum to include depth
and/or breadth or by offering exposure to topics not normally included in the
curriculum. Numerous models have been developed; one that has been used
specifically with gifted students with learning disabilities, as noted earlier, is the
Schoolwide Enrichment Model (Renzulli & Reis, 1985). This and other pullout
enrichment programs have proven to be successful with this population, allowing
gifted students with learning disabilities to interact with other talented students and to
be challenged in an area of strength (Baum et al., 1991). The value of structuring the
learning experiences of a gifted child with LD around his or her interests and
experiences was cited by Daniels (1983), and this would be provided by many
enrichment programs. Mentorships are another programmatic vehicle for gifted
students that should be considered for those who also have learning disabilities; the
mentors serve as role models while also offering an opportunity for the student to
learn about a subject of interest in a one-on-one environment (Baum et al., 1991).

Some concern has been raised about the possibility that gifted students with
learning disabilities will become frustrated if they fail to compete with
nonhandicapped peers in programs for the gifted (Tannenbaum & Baldwin, 1983), or
that they will have trouble coping with the demands of having to work independently
(Suter & Wolf, 1987). Such issues will have to be evaluated for students on an
individual basis, but adaptive techniques, such as using calculators, word processors,
untimed tests, and tape recorders, can help students compensate and succeed in
challenging gifted programs (if basic reading, writing, or computation skills are
deficient but thinking skills are at a high level; Fox, Tobin, & Schiffman, 1983).
Teachers of the gifted, however, may be particularly guilty of being unwilling to adapt
to the needs of a student who is not a consistently high achiever.

A study of gifted students with learning disabilities found that those receiving a
combination of both gifted and learning disability services or only gifted programming
reported higher self-concept than did those students receiving intense or exclusive
learning disability services (Nielsen & MortorffAlbert, 1989). Thus, there may be
positive social and emotional effects, as well as academic ones, of making
accelerated or enriched academic experiences available to gifted students with
learning disabilities. Given the strong concern among educators that academically
talented students with learning disabilities be challenged in their areas of strength,
placement in a gifted program for at least part of the day seems advisable.

Resources for students with learning disabilities.

Special services for students with learning disabilities typically focus on

helping to remediate weaknesses. This may occur in the general classroom or in a
resource room for students with learning disabilities. Gifted students with learning
disabilities may benefit from some time spent with a specialist who can offer remedial
strategies. A special education resource room setting, however, is unlikely to be the
best environment for providing intellectual stimulation for students with learning
disabilities who are also gifted. The nature, severity, and cause of the gifted student's
disabilities, as well as the student's age, must be considered when evaluating
placement in an LD resource room, even for part of the day; this placement is more
likely to be appropriate for students with more serious disabilities. It is crucial,
however, not to overlook the importance of challenging the student's "gift" (Baum et
al. 1991).

Teacher training can contribute to making teachers, whose primary

responsibility is to remediate students' deficiencies, more aware of the needs of their
students who are also gifted. A program in Connecticut successfully trained special
education teachers to provide challenging enrichment to gifted children with learning
disabilities (Baum, Emerick, Herman, & Dixon, 1989).

Teaching strategies and adaptive techniques

Regardless of the program model utilized or the setting in which it is taught,

the importance of gearing the curriculum to the strengths, rather than weaknesses, of
academically talented students with learning disabilities, and of utilizing a variety of [
strategies, adaptations, and accommodations to help them succeed, is widely
acknowledged (e.g., Baum et al.,1991; Fox, Tobin, & Schiffman, 1983; Hishinuma,
1991; Silverman, 1989; Suter & Wolf, 1987; Waldron, 1991). Carving big tasks into
smaller units; making tasks meaningful; and using praising, peer tutoring, and
cooperative activities are some of the techniques that can help ensure success
(Baum et al., 1991). Role models of successful adults with disabilities can also help
to enhance selfesteem and build aspirations among gifted students with learning
disabilities (Silverman, 1989).

Accommodations, particularly the use of technology, are highly recommended

to help these academically talented students overcome their disabilities (Baum et al.,
1991; Daniels, 1983; Howard, 1994; Suter & Wolf, 1987; Tobin & Schiffman, 1983;
Torgesen,1986). Such techniques may be helpful to many students with learning
disabilities, but they are especially beneficial to those who are also gifted and in need
of moving ahead in their areas of strength. For example, students who are capable of
a high level of mathematical problem solving but who have difficulty with computation
could be given a calculator so that they will not be held back in mathematics. A
microcomputer with a word processing package and a spell checker can be
enormously helpful to a student whose problems lie in writing and/or spelling.
Students who have difficulty taking notes in class might be allowed to tape record
lectures. Tape recorded books and other sources of information that are not
dependent on reading (e.g., films) might also help students with reading problems
whose auditory processing skills are strong. Peer tutors or others might read material
orally to academically talented students with reading problems. Alternative evaluation
methods (such as untimed or oral tests) have also been advocated (Suter &
Wolf,1987), as has the use of multisensory techniques (Daniels, 1983).

Enthusiasm for learning can be enhanced by helping gifted students with

learning disabilities take responsibility for their own learning, exposing them to new
and interesting methods of inquiry, teaching them self-assessment techniques,
providing experiential learning, exposing them to a broad range of topics to
encourage new interests, and assisting them in locating information (Miller, 1991;
Moller,1984; Suter & Wolf,1987). "Because the process of remediating a serious
reading deficit may require several years, the development and pursuit of new
interests should not be postponed until students are capable of independent library
research" (Moller,1984, p.168). One very promising approach for working with gifted
students with learning disabilities is helping them to develop their metacognitive
abilities and strategies (Montague, 1991).

Counselling

The drive to achieve perfection, common in many gifted children, generates

much psychological conflict in academically talented children who have difficulty
achieving (Olenchak, 1994). One survey of gifted students with learning disabilities
found them to be emotionally upset and generally unhappy because of their
frustrations; in particular, "virtually all had some idea that they could not make their
brain, body, or both do what they wanted it to do" (Schiff et al., 1981, p. 403).

Gifted students with learning disabilities may also experience conflict between
their desire for independence and the feelings of dependence that result from the
learning disability, as well as between their high aspirations and the low expectations
others may have for them (Whitmore & Maker, 1985). Low self-concept is a common
problem among gifted students with learning disabilities who have difficulty coping
with the discrepancies in their abilities (Fox, Brody, & Tobin, 1983; Hishinuma, 1993;
Olenchak, 1994; Whitmore, 1980) . Frustration, anger, and resentment can result,
influencing behavior as well as relations with peers and family members (Mendaglio,
1993). In fact, parents of gifted students with learning disabilities are quick to
emphasize the importance of addressing the social and emotional needs of their
children (Hishinuma, 1993).

In planning interventions for students with LD who are gifted, one should not
overlook the importance of providing counseling for these students to address their
social and emotional needs (BrownMizuno, 1990; Hishinuma, 1993; Mendaglio,
1993; Olenchak, 1994; Suter & Wolf, 1987). The benefits of both group and individual
counseling have been identified by researchers (Baum, 1994; Mendaglio,1993;
Olenchak,1994). For example, group counseling can let students see that others
experience problems similar to their own. However, some students may require the
attention to their unique problems and needs that is more likely to occur in one-on-
one individual counseling. The counseling role can sometimes be undertaken by
teachers who understand the needs of gifted students with learning disabilities
(Baum et al., 1991; Daniels, 1983; Hishinuma, 1993). Parents also need counseling
to help them understand the characteristics and needs of their gifted children with
learning disabilities (Bricklin, 1983; BrownMizuno, 1990; Daniels, 1983).

In addition to addressing the social and emotional needs of gifted students

with learning disabilities, counselors advise students on appropriate course-taking,
particularly during the secondary school years, on opportunities to participate in
extracurricular activities and other learning experiences outside of school, and on
postsecondary options. As gifted students with learning disabilities approach the
college years, they need help in identifying colleges that will accommodate their
special needs.

Conclusion

Clearly, students with LD who are gifted have needs that differ considerably
from those of gifted students without disabilities, students without exceptional abilities
who have learning disabilities, and average students whose abilities are more even.
Individualized instruction is optimal for all students so that pace, level, and content
can be geared to ability, interests, and learning style, but it is essential for students
whose abilities are clearly discrepant. Ideally, a continuum of alternative placement
options should be available, so that teachers can develop a plan that builds heavily
on students' strengths but also provides remediation and support for social and
emotional needs.

Discussion and recommendations

Many more students may be learning disabled and gifted than anyone
realizes. In spite of their high intellectual ability, such students remain unchallenged,
suffer silently, and do not achieve their potential because their educational needs are
not recognized and addressed. Unlike the situation in which a learning disability is
accompanied by another "handicap," students with LD who are gifted present a
paradoxical picture of exceptional strengths coexisting with specific deficits.
Curiously, this condition carries with it both a blessing and a burden. On the one
hand, gifted students with learning disabilities can draw on their gifts and talents to
compensate for their disability. With support, understanding, and some instructional
intervention, many are able to overcome their academic difficulties and go on to
productive, satisfying careers and lives. On the other hand, because they are able to
draw on their strengths, for many students the disability is masked while the "drag"
on their academic performance prevents them from consistently achieving at high
levels. Thus, they are often not identified and continue to be a severely
misunderstood and underserved population. When gifted students fail to achieve
their potential, whatever the cause, our nation loses a great deal of talent.

When a learning disability coexists with other handicapping conditions, it is

often difficult to separate the two, in terms of both underlying causal factors and
primacy. This is not an issue in the case of gifted students with learning disabilities.
Rather, the two conditions are often seen as mutually exclusive by definition. This
seeming dichotomy can leave everyone (student, parents, and teacher) feeling
frustrated and puzzled. It has hindered program development, teacher training, and
research on behalf of gifted students with learning disabilities. Who cares about, and
for, these students? In a climate of budgetary concerns, and in light of a growing
population of students with severe levels of underachievement, the problems of
students who fail to achieve their potential but function at or near grade level do not
alarm most educators.

Current regulations and practices for educating special populations need to be

reevaluated, because they often fail to include academically talented students with
learning disabilities. To improve services for this population, we must move away
from using rigid definitions and cutoff scores to specify who receives special
programming. Broader definitions of giftedness and learning disabilities are needed
to allow for students with both exceptionalities, and programming options should be
flexible to meet the individual needs of these students. In actuality, the complex
nature of human abilities suggests that all students would benefit from individualized
programs to build on their strengths and remediate their weaknesses. However, this
is particularly important for gifted students with learning disabilities, whose cognitive
profiles are likely to be more variable than other students. Support for the unique
social and emotional needs of students who must deal with the large inconsistencies
in what they are and are not able to do well is also vital, as is teacher training to
assist teachers in understanding the characteristics and needs of gifted students with
learning disabilities, as well as strategies to facilitate their learning.

The current movement toward including students with a broad spectrum of

abilities and disabilities in the general classroom bears on the issue of meeting the
needs of gifted students with learning disabilities. To truly individualize instruction, a
broad range of options is needed (e.g., a variety of levels of content and pace,
opportunities for remediation and accommodation, etc.). Proponents of inclusion
suggest that all of these options can take place in one setting. At present, we have
no clear evidence that this is possible (Mather & Roberts,1994), and it seems overly
optimistic to expect that gifted students with learning disabilities who function at or
near grade level will be given adequate attention in an environment where others
appear to have greater needs. In schools where inclusion is the instructional model of
choice, it is imperative to evaluate this issue.

Ultimately, providing a selection of settings (e.g., general classroom, gifted

class, LD resource room, special class for gifted students with learning disabilities)
and a multitude of service options (e.g., accelerated course work, enrichment,
individualized instruction, homogeneous grouping) seems to be a better way to meet
the needs of academically talented students with learning disabilities (and perhaps all
students). Whatever options are utilized, students with LD who are gifted deserve to
have every opportunity to develop their talents and achieve their full potential, and
society will benefit from the talents that too often remain unrecognized and
undeveloped in gifted children who have learning disabilities.
LEARNERS WHO ARE GIFTED AND TALENTED
1. Who are the gifted and talented students? Give the difference and similarites between gifted and
talented.

2. What are the characteristics of gifted and talented children?

3. What struggles are usually experienced by the gifted and talented learners?
 EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
Emotional and Behavioral Disorders in the Classroom
by Becton Loveless

"Emotional and Behavioral Disorder" is an umbrella term under which several

distinct diagnoses (such as Anxiety Disorder, Manic-Depressive Disorder,
Oppositional-Defiant Disorder, and more) fall. These disorders are also termed
"emotional disturbance" and "emotionally challenged." According to the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), children with emotional and behavioral
disorders exhibit one or more of these five characteristics:

1. An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health

factors.
2. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers
and teachers.
3. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.
4. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
5. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or
school problems.

IDEA guarantees students access to a Free and Appropriate Public Education

(FAPE) in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) possible. As such, students
diagnosed with emotional disorders (ED) are often included in general education
classrooms. However, severe cases often require students to be taught in special
education "cluster units," self-contained programs, or even separate schools.

Under the umbrella term of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, there are two
categories: Psychiatric Disorders and Behavioral Disabilities.

Psychiatric Disorders

This category encompasses a wide range of conditions. Psychiatric disorders are

defined as mental, behavioral, or perceptual patterns or anomalies which impair daily
functioning and cause distress. Some of the most common examples of these
diagnoses include:
 Anxiety Disorder
 Bipolar Disorder (aka Manic-Depressive Disorder)
 Eating Disorder (such as anorexia, bulimia, and binge-eating disorder)
 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
 Psychotic Disorder

From a teacher's perspective, psychiatric disorders present a profound

challenge for a number of reasons. For one, schools are not hospitals, and teachers
can not be expected to "treat" these disorders. Students who struggle with these
sorts of challenges are often undergoing treatment and may be receiving medication.
Medication can affect people in unexpected ways and, because medical information
is confidential, teachers may be unaware why students are acting the way they are.

This makes it difficult to respond appropriately to certain behaviors.

Additionally, students suffering from these conditions may be simply unable to meet
academic and behavioral expectations. In such cases, students need to receive
special education interventions of some sort, and may need to be moved into a
special education classroom.
Behavioral Disabilities

Children with behavioral disabilities engage in conduct which is disruptive to

classroom functioning and/or harmful to themselves and others. To be diagnosed as
a behavioral disability, the behaviors must not be attributable to one of the
aforementioned psychiatric disorders.

There are two categories of behavioral disabilities: oppositional defiant

disorder and conduct disorder.

Oppositional defiant disorder is characterized by extreme non-compliance,

negativity, and an unwillingness to cooperate or follow directions. Children with this
condition are not violent or aggressive, they simply refuse to cooperate with adults or
peers.

Conduct disorder is much more severe. This disorder is characterized by

aggression, violence, and harm inflicted on self and others. Students with conduct
disorder typically need to be taught in special education classrooms until their
behavior has improved enough to allow contact with the general education
population.
Strategies for Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

As with other conditions, students with emotional and behavioral disorders

need a positive, structured environment which supports growth, fosters self-esteem,
and rewards desirable behavior.

Rules and Routines

Rules need to be established at the beginning of the school year, and must be
written in such a way as to be simple and understandable. The wording of rules
should be positive: "Respect yourself and others" is a better rule than "Don't hurt
anyone." Keep it simple: 6 rules or less.

Consequences for breaking rules should also be established at the beginning

of the school year, and applied consistently and firmly whenever the rules are broken.
The consequences must be consistent and predictable. When administering
consequences, provide feedback to the student in a calm, clear manner. That way,
the student understands why the consequence is necessary. Try to avoid becoming
emotionally reactive when rules are broken. Emotional reactivity gives the student
negative attention, which many children find very rewarding. Remain calm and
detached, be firm yet kind. It's a difficult balance to achieve, but crucially important
for positive results.

Routines are very important for classroom management. Students with

emotional and behavioral disorders tend to struggle with transitions and unexpected
change. Going over a visual schedule of the day's activities is an effective way to
start the day, and helps the students feel grounded.

Techniques for Supporting Positive Behavior

Students with emotional and behavioral disorders often need to receive

instruction in a special education setting because their behavior is too maladaptive
for a general education classroom. Here are a few ideas to guide and support growth
towards more positive, adaptive behavior:
 Token Economy - Students earn points, or tokens, for every instance of
positive behavior. These tokens can then be used to purchase rewards at the
token store. In order for a token economy to be effective, positive behavior
must be rewarded consistently, and items in the token store must be genuinely
 motivating for the student. This takes a fair amount of preparation and
organization, but has proven to be quite effective.
 Classroom Behavior Chart - A chart which visually plots the level of behavior
of every student in the classroom. Students who are behaving positively
progress upwards on the chart; those who are behaving negatively fall
downwards. This makes every student accountable, and helps you monitor
and reward progress. This won't work if difficult students perpetually stay on
the bottom of the chart. Focus on the positive to the fullest degree possible,
and keep them motivated.
 Lottery System - Similar to the token economy, students who behave in
positive ways are given a ticket with their name on it. These tickets are placed
in a jar, and once or twice a week you draw one out. The winner of the lottery
is rewarded with a prize.
 Positive Peer Review - Students are asked to watch their peers, and identify
positive behavior. Both the student who is behaving positively and the student
who does the identifying are rewarded. This is the exact opposite of "tattle-
telling," and fosters a sense of teamwork and social support in the classroom.

Teaching children with emotional and behavioral disorders can be extremely

challenging. Remember: fostering and rewarding positive behavior has proven to be
vastly more effective than attempting to eliminate negative behavior. Punishment and
negative consequences tend to lead to power struggles, which only make the
problem behaviors worse. It is not easy to remain positive in the face of such
emotionally trying behaviors, but don't give up. Your influence could mean a world of
difference to these students who are struggling with an incredibly difficult condition.

ACTIVITY 1

Learners with emotional and behavioural Disorders

1. What are the characteristics of emotional and behavioural students?

2. What are some emotional behavioral disorders? Define each.

3. Give some causes of emotional behavioral disorder.

CAUSES OF
EMOTIONAL
BEHAVIORAL
DISORDER

4. What is special about special education for students with emotional or

behavioral disorders? Write your answer inside the heart shape.
5. As a future teacher, how can you handle a class if some of them having this
kind of special needs?
 STUDENTS WHO ARE BLIND OR HAVE A VISUAL
IMPAIRMENT
Vision impairments can result from a variety of causes, including congenital
conditions, injury, eye disease, and brain trauma, or as the result of other conditions
such as diabetes and multiple sclerosis. A person is considered legally blind if his or
her corrected vision is no better than 20/200, meaning seeing at twenty feet what
others see at two hundred feet or having peripheral fields (side vision) of no more
than 20 degrees diameter or 10 degrees radius. A person is considered visually
impaired when corrected vision is no better than 20/70.

Eighty to ninety percent of legally blind people have some measurable vision
or light perception. A student who is legally blind may retain a great amount of vision.
Many legally blind students are able to read with special glasses, and a few can even
drive. It is also important to note that some legally blind students have 20/20 vision.
Although these students have perfect central vision, they have narrow field or side
vision and see things as though they were looking through a tube or straw. They
often use guide dogs or canes when they travel. Some blind students with only
central vision loss do not require a guide dog or cane. They are able to see large
objects but have great difficulty reading or threading a needle. The term “blindness”
should be reserved for people with complete loss of sight. “Visually impaired” is the
better term used to refer to people with various gradations of vision.

Few Allegheny students are totally blind, but the adaptations and
accommodations needed by blind people can be applied to all students with vision
impairments. Most visually impaired students use a combination of accommodations
for class participation and learning needs, including books on tape, e-text, or voice
synthesizing computers, optical scanners, readers, and Braille.

Blind Students

The National Federation for the Blind estimates, that in 2015, 7.29 million
adults reported to have a visual disability. In 2015, 42% of blind or visually impaired
individuals were in the workforce, but less than 15% had earned a bachelor's degree
at an accredited higher learning institution. In contrast, more than a quarter do not
finish high school. Data also suggests that as many as 29% of people who are blind
or visually impaired currently live below the poverty line.

Individuals who are blind or visually impaired face unique challenges in the
classroom. Instructors can ease these struggles by offering different
accommodations for students with visual disabilities and structuring courses around
these learners. Our guide for students with visual impairments explores the different
accommodations and teaching strategies that allow these learners to receive a
proper education and enter the job market as qualified professionals.

Defining Visual Impairment

First, let's discuss some fundamental terminology. Most individuals with a

visual disability fall under one of three categories:
Technically, legal blindness refers to any level of vision loss that qualifies an
individual for specialized education, job training, accommodating devices, disability
benefits and tax exemption. Individuals who are legally blind can typically use their
vision to some extent.

According to the AFB, "the clinical diagnosis refers to a central visual acuity of
20/200 or less in the better eye with the best possible correction, and/or a visual field
of 20 degrees or less." Visual acuity is a person's ability to distinguish objects from a
certain distance and is measured using a Snellen Eye Chart; the smallest letter
visible from 20 feet away to someone with 20/200 vision is discernible from 200 feet
away to an individual with average vision. Visual field is the total area (in degrees)
visible to an individual when facing forward without moving their eyes from side to
side.

Visually Impaired

The American Foundation for the Blind (AFB) defines vision impairment as "a
visual acuity of 20/70 or worse in the better eye with best correction, or a total field
loss of 140 degrees." Visual impairment may also be affected by limited ability to
adapt to light or darkness, sensitivity to light, light/dark contrasts or glare. Vision that
falls between 20/200 and 20/400 is defined as severely impaired, while vision from
20/500 to 20/1000 is categorized as profoundly impaired.

The Royal Institute for Deaf and Blind Children notes that visual impairment
most commonly affects visual acuity, sharpness or clarity of vision, visual range, and
color perception. Possible causes of impairment include genetic conditions, in utero
infections, birth complications, disease, trauma and old age. Visual impairment is
also known as 'low vision'.

By the time blind students reach college (unless they are newly blind), they
have probably mastered techniques for dealing with certain kinds of visual materials.
Most blind students use a combination of methods, including readers, tape-recorded
books and lectures and, sometimes, Braille materials. Students may use raised-line
drawings of diagrams, charts, illustrations, relief maps, and three-dimensional models
of physical organs, shapes, and microscopic organisms. Technology has made
available other aids for blind people, including talking calculators, speech-time
compressors, computer terminals with speech output, Braille printers, paperless
Braille computer terminals, and paperless Braille machines.

Some blind students who read Braille prefer to take their own notes in class
using a slate and stylus or a Perkins Brailler, though both are being replaced by
laptop computers and other technological devices. Some blind students will get
copies of notes (taken on carbonless paper) from classmates and have someone
type the notes onto disk for them. They then plug the disk into a computer with
speech output to listen to the notes. Other blind students tape record the lecture and
later transcribe notes from the tape into Braille. It is easier for some blind students to
study from tactile copy rather than from recordings, though some blind students are
able to develop strong auditory compensatory skills over a period of time. Either way,
the process of reading and studying requires more time for a blind student than for a
sighted student.

For various reasons, some faculty members may be concerned about their
lectures being taped. It should be noted that federal regulations allow this procedure
as a reasonable accommodation for students who would otherwise be hindered from
having adequate access to the lecture information. The SDS office can provide a
statement of agreement on tape-recorded lecture policy that clarifies the purpose and
limited use of tape recordings.
When a visually impaired student is present in the classroom, it is helpful for
the faculty member to verbalize as much as possible and to provide tactile
experiences when possible. Such phrases as “The sum of this plus that is this” and
“The lungs are here and the diaphragm here” are meaningless to blind students. In
the first example, the faculty member can just as easily say, “The sum of four plus
seven is eleven.” Blind students get the same information as the sighted students. In
the second example, the faculty member may be pointing to a model or to the body
itself. In this instance, the professor can personalize the locations of the lungs and
diaphragm by asking class members to locate them by touch on their own bodies.
Such solutions will not always be possible; however, if the faculty member is
sensitized not to use strictly visual examples, both blind students and the rest of the
class will benefit.

Test adaptation is another concern for blind students. Students will usually
have a preference for taking tests. These preferences often involve either a reader or
a taped Braille test. The student will either type the answers or dictate them to a
proctor to record. Some may prefer to Braille their answers first and then read them
for a scribe to record in longhand. Whatever method is proposed, the student and
faculty member should agree early in the semester about how the student’s
academic work would be evaluated.

Some blind students use guide dogs that are specifically trained and usually
well disciplined. Most of the time the guide dog will lie quietly under or beside the
table or desk. The greatest disruption a faculty member might expect may be an
occasional yawn, stretch, or low moan at the sound of a siren. As tempting as it might
be to pet a guide dog, it is important to remember that the dog is responsible for
guiding its owner and should not be distracted from the duty while in harness (and
therefore working).

Courses that are extremely visual by nature, unless they are considered
essential to a major, can sometimes be handled by substituting other courses.
However, it should not be assumed immediately that such substitutions will be
necessary. Conversations between the student and the faculty member can
sometimes lead to new and exciting instructional techniques that may benefit the
entire class. For example, it is often thought that a blind student cannot take an art
appreciation course. However, the blind student should have an opportunity to
become familiar with the world’s great art. A classmate or reader who is particularly
talented at describing visual images can assist the blind student as a visual
interpreter or translator. It is not impossible for a blind student to have an
understanding of what the Mona Lisa looks like, because the painting can be
described, and there are poems written about it that may be used as teaching aids to
give more insight into understanding the work. Miniature models of great works of
sculpture can be displayed and touched in the classroom. Many modern museums
have tactile galleries and special guided tours for people with visual impairments. The
point is that certain disabilities do not automatically preclude participation in certain
activities or classes. Students, faculty, and advisors must be careful not to lower
expectations solely on the basis of disability.

Visually Impaired Students

Partially sighted students meet the challenge of gaining access to printed

information in much the same way as blind students except for using Braille. They
use taped texts, readers, raised line drawings, talking computer terminals, and other
equipment. In addition, they use large print materials, closed circuit magnifiers, or
other magnifying devices, as well as large print computer terminals, or telescopic
lenses. Partially sighted students may also use large print typing elements for papers.
Some will be able to take their own notes in class by printing large letters with a felt-
tip pen. Others will tape record lectures for later use.
Several difficulties confront the partially sighted student that do not affect the
blind student. For instance, the partially sighted student is sometimes viewed by
faculty member and classmates as “faking it.” Faculty and staff members may have
difficulty believing that partially sighted students need access to printed material
because most of these students do not use canes for travel and are able to get
around like everyone else. Also, depending on the nature of the vision loss, these
students may not be able to read other people’s visual cues, so they sometimes
appear expressionless and seem uninterested when quite the opposite might be true.
 One partially sighted student commented that after having been observed
playing Frisbee by one of her instructors, she was sure the instructor would no longer
believe she was partially sighted. As she explained, she has more peripheral that
central vision and is able to see a red Frisbee. If any other color Frisbee were used,
she could not see it well enough to play. It is difficult for a fully sighted person to
understand that playing Frisbee and reading a printed page present different visual
requirements. In fact, some partially sighted students are able to obtain driver’s
licenses.

Another difficulty that some partially sighted students experience has a more
subtle effect and can be troublesome – the psychological response that large printing
evokes in a sight-reader. Such handwritten communications tend to give the reader
the idea that “a child has written this” and may lead to the conclusion that a student
with this kind of handwriting is immature or childish and that the written
communication is less sophisticated. This problem can also occur when the student
uses a larger font. The assumption is sometimes made that the student is merely
trying to make a paper appear longer when a term paper of a specific length is
required. Stating the number of words required instead of the number of pages
solves this problem.

Potential problems can be obviated if the student and faculty member discuss
the student’s needs early in the semester. The Office of Disabled Student
Development maintains medical information on partially sighted students registered
with the Office of Disabled Student Development that verifies the nature and extent of
visual disability. If faculty members have questions about student’s limitations and the
need for accommodations, this information can be shared with the consent of the
student.

It is usually beneficial for partially sighted students to make use of what vision
they have unless it is not recommended medically (after eye surgery or during an
active inflammation). Sitting in the front of the room, having large print on the
chalkboard, or using enlarged print on an overhead projector may assist partially
sighted students. Overheads can also be reproduced on copy machines. However,
the capacity to read printed materials depends greatly on such conditions as the
degree of contrast, brightness, and color. It is preferable that the student and faculty
member discuss what methods, techniques, or devices may be used to maximum
advantage.

It is important to remember that there are a wide range of abilities among

partially sighted students. Some can benefit from good sources of light; others are
hindered by bright light. Some visual impairments may fluctuate from time to time, as
those of persons who have multiple sclerosis often do; others remain constant. Some
partially sighted students can use printed materials longer than others; some may be
able to read for hours; others can tolerate only a few minutes before the strain
causes their vision and mental alertness to deteriorate.

Most partially sighted students will require some adaptation for taking tests.
Such adaptations may include a large print test, use of closed circuit magnifiers, a
reader, a scribe, or a word processor. Many visually impaired students cannot see
well enough to use a computerized answer sheet and will need to write answers on a
separate sheet for someone else to record on the answer sheet. Partially sighted
students will usually need extra time on their test, especially if they are reading the
test themselves. The SDS coordinator can help faculty members plan appropriate
instructional test accommodations.

Suggested Classroom Accommodations

 Discuss necessary classroom accommodations and testing adaptations early
in the semester (within the first couple of class days).
  Contact the Student Disability Services office to verify a student’s vision
impairment and request accommodation letters if there is question about
eligibility.
 Taped textbooks may be available, but sometimes they can take a few weeks
to arrive. The student should also be familiar with other ways to make print
accessible, such as scanning the book and listening to it with a speech output
system on a computer.
 Be open to students’ taping your lectures; agreement forms are available from
the SDS office.
 Provide appropriate written and verbal descriptions to accompany any visual
aids, diagrams, films, or videos that you might use in class.
 As you are writing on the chalkboard or discussing a diagram, verbalize what
you are writing. When using technical terms, remember to spell them out or
give descriptions if appropriate.
 Try to speak directly to the class, remembering that turning your head away
can muffle sound; body language and gestures cannot be seen.
 Appropriate seating is important for a visually impaired student; since the
student cannot see visual cues, he or she needs to be seated in a position to
receive verbal cues.
 Guide dogs are trained and well behaved. You do not need to worry that they
will disturb your class.
 Guide dogs will need special consideration when you plan laboratory
exercises and field trips.

Accommodated Testing Administration

 Adapted testing procedures generally include the use of readers, scribes, word
processors, and large print magnifying equipment.
 The Student Disability Services Coordinator and the professional staff of the
Learning Commons are available for consultation and assistance in test
administration.
 Tests can be administered by having the questions read to the student by a
reader.
 Reproduce tests in a large print or Braille format. The Learning Commons will
help implement this accommodation.
 Allow extra time for test taking in a separate, quiet setting.
 Use the Learning Commons professional staff and facilities to administer tests.
Discuss testing arrangements with the Learning Commons staff early in the
semester to assure that the process will be smooth when it is actually time to
schedule and administer tests.

Tips for Positive Communication

 Introduce yourself and anyone else who might be present when speaking to a
student with vision impairment.
 Use a normal voice level when speaking; remember a student with a vision
impairment has sight problems, not a hearing loss.
 Speak directly to the student with the vision impairment and address him or
her by name.
 Do not hesitate to use such words as look or see; students with vision
impairments use these terms also.
  When walking with a student with a vision impairment, allow him or her to take
your arm just above the elbow. Walk in a natural manner and pace.
 A guide dog is trained as a working animal and should not be petted or spoken
to without the permission of the handler. A general rule of thumb is that the
dog is working while in harness.
 When offering a seat to a student with a vision impairment, place the student’s
hand on the back or arm of the seat. This gives the student a frame of
reference to seat himself or herself.
 Do not hesitate to ask a student what accommodations, if any, are required in
the classroom. The student is the “expert” about his or her particular needs.

ACTIVITY 1

LEARNERS WHO ARE BLIND AND LOW VISION

1. Differentiate students who are blind and low vision.

What are partially sighted learners? How do visually impaired students learn?

How does blindness and low vision affect learning? How do you accommodate a blind student?
 Hearing Impairments
Hearing impairment as a disability category is similar to the category of
deafness, but it is not the same. The official definition of a hearing impairment by the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is “an impairment in hearing,
whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s educational
performance but is not included under the definition of ‘deafness.'” Thus, knowing the
definition of deafness is necessary to understand what sort of disabilities are
considered hearing impairments. A hearing loss above 90 decibels is generally
considered deafness, which means that a hearing loss below 90 decibels is classified
as a hearing impairment.

Common Traits

The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY)

explains that hearing loss falls into four subcategories: conductive, sensorineural,
mixed and central. These identify the location in the body in which the hearing
impairment occurs. Hearing aids and other sound amplifying assistive technologies
(AT) often work for students with conductive hearing loss, as their impairments stem
from the outer or middle ear. Such does not hold true with sensorineural, mixed and
central hearing losses, as these impairments stem from the inner ear, the central
nervous system or a combination of the two. Typically, hearing loss is categorized as
slight, mild, moderate, severe or profound, depending on how well an individual can
hear the frequencies that are commonly associated with speech.

Educational Challenges

Educational obstacles related to hearing impairments stem around

communication. A student with a hearing impairment may experience difficulty in:
 the subjects of grammar, spelling and vocabulary
 taking notes while listening to lectures
 participating in classroom discussions
 watching educational videos
 presenting oral reports

Underscoring the difficulty that students with hearing impairments may have in
presenting oral reports are the potential language development problems linked to
hearing impairments. Arizona’s Department of Education’s Parent Information
Network notes that, “Since children with hearing impairments are unable to receive
some sounds accurately, they often cannot articulate words clearly.”

Tips for Teachers and Parents

The National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders

(NIDCD) strongly endorses early intervention. This can limit communication hurdles.
Typically, both oral (speech, lip reading and use of residual hearing) and manual
(sign language) communication are used with and taught to children with hearing
impairments. Voice and articulation training is often recommended to help students
learn to form the sounds which they cannot hear.

Designating a note taker can allow a student with a hearing impairment to

concentrate fully on listening to a lecture. A combination of traditional communication,
lip reading, sign language and assistive technology can compensate for issues which
make listening to lectures and participating in class discussions challenging. Children
who read lips often need to sit close to the teacher, while those who use sign
language may use an interpreter. Turning on captions during a video can reiterate
what a student may pick up from his or her amplifying device.

Finally, it’s important that parents and teachers don’t underestimate a child’s
intelligence based on a hearing impairment. Arizona’s Department of Education’s
Parent Information Network warns, “For most children with hearing impairments,
language acquisition and language development are significantly delayed. As a
result, some may incorrectly estimate the child’s intelligence as low.” Avoid this
mistake!

What Teachers Should Know

Some people are born with hearing impairments, while others lose their
hearing through injuries, infections, or even loud noises.

Hearing-impaired students may use hearing aids that fit inside or behind the
ear. Cochlear implants are surgically implanted devices that bypass the damaged
inner ear and send signals directly to the auditory nerve. New technologies are
making it possible for more hearing-impaired students to attend school and
participate in activities with their hearing peers.

Students with hearing impairments may:

 Wear hearing aids, have cochlear implants, or use FM systems, which include
a microphone/transmitter worn by the teacher and a receiver worn by the
student
 Need to use real-time captioning for any audio-visual videos used in the
classroom
 need voice-recognition software on their computers, which can help with note-
taking
 understand speech by watching the speaker's mouth movements, facial
expressions, and gestures, within context. This skill is called speech-reading
or lip-reading.
 use ASL (American Sign Language), Cued Speech, or other sign languages
 need an interpreter to facilitate communication
 require speech therapy due to delayed speech or language development
 need to sit closer to the front of the class to read lips or hear more clearly
 need quiet areas
 need instructions repeated
 Impact of Hearing Loss

The learning processes of students with a hearing loss may be affected in the
following ways:
 Students who have been deafened in early childhood can be very different to
students who have lost hearing later in life in terms of educational
disadvantage. For example, their range of vocabulary may be limited, which in
turn may affect their level of English literacy.
 Deaf and hard of hearing students can sometimes prefer visual learning
strategies. This can be a challenge in an environment where much essential
information is delivered exclusively by word of mouth.
 Students with a hearing loss may need to use assistive technology to
participate in class. This assistive technology can be the laptop where
software such as Skype can be used to deliver Auslan interpreters or
captioning. For some it will be in the form of listening devices. For others it will
 be a combination of technology that includes both listening devices and
computer based software.
 The impact of hearing loss can cause delays in receiving learning material.
Students who need information transcribed from tape must sometimes wait for
a significant period of time for this to happen. This needs to be considered in
terms of developing suitable timelines for the completion of work for each
student.
 Students with hearing loss may appear isolated in the learning environment.
The possibility for social contact and interaction with other students is often
limited, and this isolation or separateness may have an impact on learning.
 Participation and interaction in tutorials may be limited. Students who cannot
hear the flow and nuances of rapid verbal exchange will be at a disadvantage.
 Some students with hearing loss coming straight from the school system have
been familiar with a structured learning environment, and may require a period
of adjustment when entering into the post-secondary learning environment.
Communication difficulties and adjustments may lead to a level of anxiety
about performing in front of others. This may affect participation in tutorials,
particularly for students whose speech development has been impacted by
their hearing loss.

Teaching Strategies
 There is a range of inclusive teaching strategies that can assist all students to
learn but there are some specific strategies that are useful in teaching a group
that includes students with a hearing impairment:
 Encourage students with a hearing loss to seat themselves toward the front of
the lecture theatre where they will have an unobstructed line of vision. This is
particularly important if the student is using an interpreter, lip-reading, relying
on visual clues or using a hearing aid which has a limited range. Be aware that
some students may not be comfortable with this suggestion or have alternate
strategies. Respect their choices.
 Use assistive listening devices such as induction loops if these are available in
the lecture theatre. Hearing aids may include transmitter/receiver systems with
a clip-on microphone for the lecturer. If using such a microphone, it is not
necessary to change your speaking or teaching style.
 Ensure that any background noise is minimised.
 Repeat clearly any questions asked by students in the lecture or class before
giving a response.
 Do not speak when facing the blackboard. Be aware that moustaches, beards,
hands, books or microphones in front of your face can add to the difficulties of
lip-readers. Students who lip-read cannot function in darkened rooms. You
may need to adjust the lighting in your teaching environment. If a sign
interpreter is employed, follow the hints for working with a sign interpreter.
 It is difficult for a student watching an interpreter to also take notes from an
overhead or blackboard. An interpreter is unable to translate concurrently both
your words and any information given on an overhead. It is important therefore
that all information should also be available as handouts.
 Provide written materials to supplement all lectures, tutorials and laboratory
sessions. Announcements made regarding class times, activities, field work,
industry visits etc, should be given in writing as well as verbally.
 Allow students to record lectures or, preferably, make available copies of your
lecture notes. Flexible delivery of teaching materials via electronic media is
also particularly helpful for students who have difficulty accessing information
in the usual ways. For students with a hearing loss, new technology - and the
internet in particular - can be used to bridge many gaps.
 Ensure that lists of the subject-specific jargon and technical terms which
students will need to acquire are made available early in the course. If
interpreters or captioning are being used as an adjustment, make this list
available to the professionals providing the service as early as possible.
 Any videos or films used should, where possible, be captioned. When this is
not possible, you will need to consider alternative ways for students with
hearing impairment to access the information.
 In tutorials, assist students who lip-read by having the student sit directly
opposite you and ensure, if possible, that they can see all other participants.
Control the discussion so that only one person is speaking at a time.
 Students with hearing loss, especially those with associated speech issues,
may prefer to have another student present their tutorial papers.
 Language abilities are often affected by hearing loss, depending on the age of
onset. Students who acquired their hearing loss early in life may have literacy
issues. In some cases, providing reading lists well before the start of a course
for students with a hearing loss can be beneficial. Consider tailoring these
reading lists when necessary, and provide guidance to key texts.
 Allow assignments or reviews to be completed on an in-depth study of a few
texts rather than a broad study of many.
 Using Auslan interpreters and live remote captioning may require some
adjustments in teaching styles, particularly the pace of the learning. Consult
with the providers of the service early to identify any potential changes.
 Where live remote captioning is provided, a transcript of the session can
usually be assessed within 24 hours. It is recommended that these be emailed
directly to the student as an accurate record of reference.
ACTIVITY 1

Hearing impairment

Direction: use 1 whole sheet of paper answer the following :

1. Define hearing impairment?

2. Which are the strategies implied in teaching student that have hearing
impairment?

3. What are the qualifications they must have in order to be good teaching deaf
or hearing impairment students in special school.

4. What is the major effect of hearing loss?

5. As a future teacher, how can you support the deaf and hearing impairment to
overcome the challenges to be educated?

ACTIVITY 2

LEARNERS WITH HEARING IMPAIRMENT

1. What can you do to help students with hearing loss?

2. Is hearing impairment a special educational need?

 3. How does sensory impairment affect learning?

SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DISORDER

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) officially defines speech
and language impairments as “a communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired
articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a
child’s educational performance.” Each point within this official definition represents a
speech and language subcategory. “A communication disorder such as stuttering”
provides an example of a fluency disorder; other fluency issues include unusual word
repetition and hesitant speech. “Impaired articulation” indicates impairments in which
a child experiences challenges in pronouncing specific sounds. “A language
impairment” can entail difficulty comprehending words properly, expressing oneself
and listening to others. Finally, “a voice impairment” involves difficulty voicing words;
for instance, throat issues may cause an abnormally soft voice.

Common Traits

Speech and language impairments tend to emerge at a young age, and the
earlier a child is diagnosed and receives services accordingly, the more likely that
child can outgrow the disability. Speech-language pathologists work with children
with speech and language impairments, as well as with parents and teachers. For
example, a speech-language pathologist might work with a child with impaired
articulation to help him or her learn to pronounce “s” and “z” sounds correctly.

If a child fails to meet the speech and language milestones set by American
Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA), he or she might have a speech and
language impairment.The National Dissemination Center for Children with
Disabilities, commonly referred to as NICHCY, notes that parents are usually the first
to suspect that a child might possess such an impairment. However, it’s important to
note that hearing issues, autism and a number of other disabilities can masquerade
as speech and language impairments, and a child with a suspected impairment
should be evaluated by a speech-language pathologist to avoid misdiagnosis.

Educational Challenges
 The obstacles created by speech and language impairments vary by the
specific case, but because communication is at the core of education, these
impairments can impact a student’s entire educational experience. Some of these
challenges might involve:
 Communicating effectively with classmates and teachers
 Understanding and/or giving oral presentations
 Participating in classroom discussions
 Attaining normalcy within a group
 Tips for Teachers and Parents

NICHCY recognizes early intervention as a helpful tool for children with

speech and language impairments, and working with a speech-language pathologist
during the preschool years can be a game changer. Addressing issues, such as
stuttering and articulation impairments, early can lessen potential communication
difficulties later in a child’s educational career.

It’s worth mentioning that speech and language impairments requiring long-
term attention generally remain manageable. A school’s speech-language pathologist
should work with both teachers and parents to discuss a child’s needs and how to
best meet them.

Bullying is an issue for some children with speech and language impairments;
for instance, peers might mock a stutter or a lisp. Bullying often becomes more than a
social issue as it can distract the student who is the target from his or her classwork.
Taking class time to teach about bullying can help prevent to prevent this.

What kinds of speech and language disorders affect children?

Speech and language disorders can affect the way children talk, understand,
analyze or process information. Speech disorders include the clarity, voice quality,
and fluency of a child's spoken words. Language disorders include a child's ability to
hold meaningful conversations, understand others, problem solve, read and
comprehend, and express thoughts through spoken or written words.

How many children receive treatment for speech and language disorders in the
schools?

The number of children with disabilities, ages 3-21, served in the public
schools under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Part B in Fall
2003 was 6,068,802 (in the 50 states, D.C., and outlying areas). Of these children,
1,460,583 (24.1%) received services for speech or language disorders. This estimate
does not include children who have speech/language problems secondary to other
conditions.

How do speech, language, and hearing disorders affect learning?

Communication skills are at the heart of life's experience, particularly for

children who are developing language critical to cognitive development and learning.
Reading, writing, gesturing, listening, and speaking are all forms of language – a
code we learn to use in order to communicate ideas.
Learning takes place through the process of communication. The ability to participate
in active and interactive communication with peers and adults in the educational
setting is essential for a student to succeed in school.

Why are speech and language skills so critical for literacy?

 Spoken language provides the foundation for the development of reading and
writing. Spoken and written language have a reciprocal relationship – each builds on
the other to result in general language and literacy competence, starting early and
continuing through childhood into adulthood.

What are signs that a communication disorder is affecting school

performance?
 Children with communication disorders frequently perform at a poor or
insufficient academic level, struggle with reading, have difficulty understanding
and expressing language, misunderstand social cues, avoid attending school,
show poor judgement, and have difficulty with tests.
 Difficulty in learning to listen, speak, read, or write can result from problems in
language development. Problems can occur in the production,
comprehension, and awareness of language at the sound, syllable, word,
sentence, and discourse levels. Individuals with reading and writing problems
also may experience difficulties in using language strategically to
communicate, think, and learn.
 How do speech-language pathologists work with teachers and other school
personnel to insure children get the support they need?
 Assessment and treatment of children's communication problems involve
cooperative efforts with others such as parents, audiologists, psychologists,
social workers, classroom teachers, special education teachers, guidance
counselors, physicians, dentists, and nurses. Speech-language pathologists
work with diagnostic and educational evaluation teams to provide
comprehensive language and speech assessments for children.
 Services to students with communication problems may be provided in
individual or small group sessions, in classrooms or when teaming with
teachers or in a consultative model with teachers and parents. Speech-
language pathologists integrate students' communication goals with academic
and social goals.

How can speech-language pathology services help children with speech and
language disorders?

Speech-language pathology services can help children become effective

communicators, problem-solvers and decision-makers. As a result of services such
as memory retraining, cognitive reorganization, language enhancement, and efforts
to improve abstract thinking, children can benefit from a more successful and
satisfying educational experience as well as improved peer relationships. The
services that speech-language pathologists provide can help children overcome their
disabilities, achieve pride and self-esteem, and find meaningful roles in their lives.

ACTIVITY 1

Speech and language disorder

1. How does learning affects those students having speech and language
disorders?

2. Give the weaknesses and strengths of the learners having a speech and
language disorder? By using graphic organizer.

3. Discuss why you classify that answers in weaknesses and in strengths?

 4. As a future teacher what can you contribute in that disorder?

ACTIVITY 2

LEARNERS WITH SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DISORDERS

1. What is the difference between speech disorders and language disorders?

2. What are the 3 types of speech and language disorders? Define each and
put your answers on the edges of triangle.

3. How do you teach students with speech disorders and language disorders?
 Physical and Other Health Impairments
What are the definitions of physical disabilities and other health impairments
as used in special education?

Although primary called physical disabilities, the U.S. Department of Education

uses the term "Orthopedic impairment" in it's formal definition. "Orthopedic
impairment means a sever orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a child's
educational performance. The term includes impairments caused by congenital
anomaly (e.g. clubfoot, absence of some member, etc.), impairments cause by
disease (e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis, etc.), and impairments from other
causes (e.g., cerebral palsy, amputations, and fractures or burns that cause
constractures)" (IDEA 2004, Sec. 300.7).

According to The United States Department of Education IDEA 2004 Individuals

with Disabilities Education Act, a physical disability is categorized under "orthopedic
impairment" and defined as:

"A severe orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a child's educational

performance. The term includes impairments caused by a congenital anomaly,
impairments caused by disease (e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis), and
impairments from other causes (e.g., cerebral palsy, amputations, and fractures or
burns that cause contractors)."

It is important to note that the disability must negatively effect the student's
educational performance to be eligible for services.

What are the major characteristics of students with these disabilities?

Although you should never fall into the trap of stereotyping, you should know
that the view of the wold of persons with theses disabilities, and their interactions with
others, are likely to be a bit different from those of people without. They often have
unique reactions to live events.

The conditions of students with physical disabilities may be relatively mild to

more severe. Different body parts may be affected. Disabilities may be due to central
nervous system damage or muscle or orthopedic impairments.

Students with other health impairments may be weak and sometimes in pain.
Lack of stamina may often be a debilitating factor. They may miss a lot of school due
to their illness.

Other health impairment is defined by IDEA as:

"Having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to

environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational
environment, that--

(i) Is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit
disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart
condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell
anemia, and Tourette syndrome; and

(ii) Adversely affects a child's educational performance".

What are the major characteristics of students with these disabilities?

 The characteristics of a physical disability will vary significantly depending of the
type and severity of the physical disability as well as the body parts affected. Some of
the more common physical disabilities are:

 Cerebral Palsy
 Muscular Dystrophy
 Spina Bifida
 Orthopedic and Musculoskeletal Conditions

The characteristics of students with other health impairments also vary

depending on the health impairment. Students may be weak, tired, or in pain.
Students with other health impairments tend to have more absences due to their
illness. Common health conditions that may classify a student as other health
impaired are:

 Asthema
 HIV/AIDS
 Sickle-Cell Disease
 Epilepsy
 Cancer
 Type 1 (Juvenile) Diabetes
 Cystic Fibrosis (Rosenberg, Westling, & McLeskey, 2011)

How often do physical disabilities and other health impairments occur?

Within the school-age-children, approximately 0.14% are classified as having

a physical disability and 0.59% are classified as having other health impairments
(Rosenberg, Westling, & McLeskey, 2011).

Physical Disabilities

 3 children in 1000 are affected by Cerebral Palsy

 1 in every 3,500 male births inherit Muscular Dystrophy
 1 in every 1,000 births develop spinal bifida
 Other Health Impairments
 Asthma is most common with 6.7 million children under 18 years being
affected.
 Approximately 3 million Americans have epilepsy.
 Approximately 1.1 million Americans live with HIV/AIDS.

What are some important areas of assessment and planning for these
students?

It is important when assessing the needs of students with physical disabilities

or other health impairments to determine the actual intellectual ability of the student
outside of just their physical needs. Remember, the basis of being covered under
IDEA, is that the educational development of the student is being hindered by the
disability or impairment.

Assessment first occurs in the medical area in which condition of the student is
initially diagnosed and medical interventions developed. Second, within schools,
eligibility for special education must be determined based on the extent to which the
condition affects the student's learning ability. If the child meets criteria, an
individualized family service plan may be developed if he or she is served in an early
intervention program, or an IEP if served in public school.
 Third, as part of these plans, related services such as Physical Therapy (PT)
or Occupational Therapy (OT) may be offered. In this case, additional assessments
will be conducted, and plans will be developed to meet the student's needs.

If a student is not eligible for special education services, it is still possible that
a Section 504 plan may be developed in order for the student to participate in school.

Some students with physical disabilities have difficulty communicating. It is

important for educators to determine the intellectual abilities of these students so
teachers can provide students with instruction that is academically challenging. The
following questions should be addressed when educating students with physical or
other heath impairments:

 Where should the student receive services and which accommodations should
be used?
 What curriculum is appropriate and what are the student's individual goals?
 What methods of instruction will provide students with effective learning
opportunities?
 Should adaptive devices be used? If so, which adaptive devices will be used?
 How can school staff ensure they are addressing the physical and health-care
needs of the student?
 How will school staff communicate effectively with the parents, the families,
and the heath-care professionals of the student (Rosenberg, Westling, &
McLeskey, 2011)?
 What special considerations exist for these students with regard to instruction
and related services?

Early intervention is important for both students with physical disabilities and
students with other health impairments. Early intervention can provide students with
physical conditions with therapeutic intervention which can help to improve the
student's strength, posture, and range of movement. Early intervention also helps
parents provide interventions at home. When students are enrolled in early
intervention, school personnel, health-care providers, and social workers offer
support to parents who may be having a difficult time as a result of their child's
physical limitations or illness.

It is important that teachers determine the individual learning needs of the

student. Some students with physical or health impairments may be academically
gifted and some may have other disabilities, including learning disabilities. All
students with disabilities will participate in the general curriculum, but some will
receive modifications or instruction in daily living skills. According to Rosenberg,
Westling, and McLeskey (2011), the following are guidelines when teaching a student
with other health impairments in the general classroom:
 Know the warning signals for students with conditions such as respiratory
problems, heart conditions, or other chronic health problems and how to
respond to students' needs.
 Follow universal precautions to avoid contact with any communicable
diseases.
 Have emergency plans in case of an equipment failure, an emergency
physical problem, or problems occurring due to natural disasters.
 Be aware of routine treatments and who is responsible for carrying them out.
 Know the medication the student takes, who is to administer it, and the
possible side effects.
  Know special nutritional needs such as dietary restrictions, special diets, or
special eating procedures.
 Know how much the student is expected to participate in self-managing his
special physical or health needs. It is essential that the student practice as
much independence as possible (Rosenberg, Westling, & McLeskey, 2011 p.
390).

The following are guidelines when teaching a student with physical disabilities
in the general classroom:
 The school and classroom should be assessed by a physical or occupational
therapist to determine its accessibility.

 School arrangements such as ramp handrails, widening of sidewalks, and

doorways, and adjustment of the heights of equipment might be necessary.

 In the classroom, the teachers should make sure that there is ready access to
all parts of the room, including centers and materials.

 Sometimes classroom temperatures may have to be adjusted to

accommodate a student's heath needs (Rosenberg, Westling, & McLeskey,
2011 p. 390).

What are some major issues related to teaching and providing services to
students with physical disabilities or other health impairments?

There are often added expenses in educating students with disabilities.

Schools are often required to provide medical services for students. The cost of these
services can be significant. There can also be safety risks involved for those
providing the services. Schools may need to set boundaries as to what medical
services will be provided by the school and what medical services will be provided by
heath professionals. Assistive technology is also a very expensive tool. Finding
money in the school budget to provide for the added services of students with
physical disabilities or other heath impairments can be difficult.

It is important to determine the divide between the responsibilities of the

educational system and educators and that of the medical field and health-care
professionals. The lines have been blurred over the years between these two fields
and court rulings have gone in both directions. It is important to note the fact that
students need to be given some form of education but the costs of accommodating
specific students should be considered as well.

It is also important to provide appropriate assistive technology that is beneficial

for the students and helps them be successful. Another issue with AT is the debate
between who should pay for it and who should be responsible for providing it.

What special considerations exist for these students with regard to instruction
and related services?

Students with physical disabilities and health impairments may receive special
education and related services at the preschool level. during school years, and as
they transition into adult years.

Variations of the general curriculum may be provided to students based on

their unique needs, but most participate in the general curriculum.

Most students with physical disabilities and health impairments are in the
general education classroom. Special considerations for their physical and healthcare
needs are necessary for them to participate, and some modification in the physical
structure of the classroom may be necessary. It may be particularly helpful for an OT
or PT to evaluate the classroom in order to better accommodate students.

Conductive education is a special holistic form of education that is sometimes

sought by parents. Research indicated, however, that it is no more effective than
current special education and related services offered in most public schools in the
U.S.

Teachers should especially be attuned to classroom situations that might

endanger the health of some students. An example of this would the effect of chalk
dust and triggering an asthma attack.

Assistive Technology devices can help students participate in the general

education classroom and the general curriculum. Educators should take time to
research which AT devices would be exceptionally beneficial for specific students
and try to implement those into the curriculum or classroom.

Students will need supports as they transition into adolescence and adulthood.
Their unique physical and health-care needs will need to be considered when further
educational and career possibilities are discussed.

According to resources other than our text, what accommodations,

modifications or assistive technology might benefit students with physical
disabilities or other health impairments? (Be certain to cite your source using
APA formatting.)
In an research article published by Duhaney and Duhaney (2000), they write
about some of the largely beneficial assistive technologies available to students with
physical disabilities.

Computers have been found to be largely beneficial for both communication

and completing in-class tasks. "A variety of switches, optical pointers, voice-
controlled devices, and word prediction software have been designed to help
students with physical disabilities (e.g., students with cerebral palsy) who have
difficulty using traditional input devices such as the mouse and keyboard."

References:

Duhaney, D. C., & Duhaney, L. M. G. (2000). Assistive Technology: Meeting the

Needs of Learners with Disabilities. International Journal of Instructional Media,27(4),
393-401.
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004).
Rosenberg, M., Westling, D., & McLeskey, J. (2011). Special Education for Today's
Teachers: An Introduction (2nd ed). Prentice Hall
LEARNERS WITH PHYSICAL DISSABILITIES, HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS AND
SEVERE DISABILITIES
1. What are the characteristics of students with physical disabilities?

CHARACTERISTICS OF
STUDENTS WITH PHYSICAL
DISABILITIES

2. What are the causes of other health impairments?

CAUSES OF OTHER
HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS

3. What strategies in teaching can be used to assist students with severe

disabilities in inclusive settings?
 UNDERSTANDING INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Inclusive education means that all students attend and are welcomed by their
neighbourhood schools in age-appropriate, regular classes and are supported to
learn, contribute and participate in all aspects of the life of the school.

Inclusion in education is an approach to educating students with special

educational needs. ... Inclusion rejects the use of special schools or classrooms to
separate students with disabilities from students without disabilities.

Inclusive education means different and diverse students learning side by side
in the same classroom. They enjoy field trips and after-school activities together.
They participate in student government together. ... Inclusive education values
diversity and the unique contributions each student brings to the classroom.

What is inclusive education?

Inclusive education means different and diverse students learning side by side
in the same classroom. They enjoy field trips and after-school activities together.
They participate in student government together. And they attend the same sports
meets and plays.

Inclusive education values diversity and the unique contributions each student
brings to the classroom. In a truly inclusive setting, every child feels safe and has a
sense of belonging. Students and their parents participate in setting learning goals
and take part in decisions that affect them. And school staff have the training,
support, flexibility, and resources to nurture, encourage, and respond to the needs of
all students. Inclusive education means that all students attend and are welcomed by
their neighbourhood schools in age-appropriate, regular classes and are supported to
learn, contribute and participate in all aspects of the life of the school.Inclusive
education is about how we develop and design our schools, classrooms, programs
and activities so that all students learn and participate together.

Neighbourhood schools are the heart of our communities, and Inclusion BC

believes they are essential for a quality inclusive education system. Therefore we
believe it is important to support a public education system in B.C.

Benefits of Inclusive Education

 All children benefit from inclusive education. It allows them to:

 Develop individual strengths and gifts, with high and appropriate expectations
for each child.
 Work on individual goals while participating in the life of the classroom with
other students their own age.
 Involve their parents in their education and in the activities of their local
schools.
 Foster a school culture of respect and belonging. Inclusive education provides
opportunities to learn about and accept individual differences, lessening the
impact of harassment and bullying.
 Develop friendships with a wide variety of other children, each with their own
individual needs and abilities.
 Positively affect both their school and community to appreciate diversity and
inclusion on a broader level.

Why is inclusive education important?

 Inclusive systems provide a better quality education for all children and are
instrumental in changing discriminatory attitudes. Schools provide the context for a
child’s first relationship with the world outside their families, enabling the
development of social relationships and interactions. Respect and understanding
grow when students of diverse abilities and backgrounds play, socialize, and learn
together.

Education that excludes and segregates perpetuates discrimination against

traditionally marginalized groups. When education is more inclusive, so are concepts
of civic participation, employment, and community life.

Isn’t it better to separate children who need specialized attention?

Separate, special education provides no guarantee of success for children

who need special attention; inclusive schools that provide supportive, context-
appropriate conditions for learning demonstrate far better outcomes. Extracurricular
activities, peer support, or more specialized interventions involve the entire school
community working as a team.

What are the basic elements of inclusive education?

Use of teaching assistants or specialists: These staff have the potential to be

inclusive or divisive. For instance, a specialist who helps teachers address the needs
of all students is working inclusively. A specialist who pulls students out of class to
work with them individually on a regular basis is not.

Inclusive curriculum: An inclusive curriculum includes locally relevant themes

and contributions by marginalized and minority groups. It avoids binary narratives of
good and bad, and allows adapting the curriculum to the learning styles of children
with special education needs.

Parental involvement: Most schools strive for some level of parental

involvement, but it is often limited to emails home and occasional parent–teacher
conferences. In a diverse school system, inclusion means thinking about multiple
ways to reach out to parents on their own terms.

How can we advance inclusive education?

To make inclusive education a reality we need to do the following:

 ensure that educators have the training, flexibility, and resources to teach
students with diverse needs and learning styles
 ensure that kindergartens and schools receive adequate and sustainable
financial support so that all activities and services are fully inclusive
 empower parents to assert their children’s right to education in inclusive
settings
 enable the entire community—including mainstream and special educators,
social workers, parents, and students—to work together and participate in the
design, delivery, and monitoring of education, thereby reframing inclusive
education as a shared responsibility
 hold governments accountable for implementing antidiscrimination legislation,
legal mandates for inclusion, and policies to remove barriers

Is inclusive education expensive?

 Making education inclusive is not a cost-cutting measure. Governments must
be prepared to invest substantial resources at the outset on system reforms such as
teacher and staff training; improving infrastructure, learning materials, and
equipment; and revising curricula to implement inclusive education successfully.
However, by eliminating redundancy and the high costs of running parallel systems,
such investments are an efficient and effective use of funds, and hold the potential to
improve education for all students.

Funding mechanisms must be reformed so that schools that enroll students

with special needs receive the necessary additional financial resources. When
students move from special schools to mainstream schools, the funding should also
follow.

How do Open Society Foundations support inclusive education?

We promote changes to policy and practice in a variety of ways, including the

following:
 advocate for the recognition of children’s legal rights, such as supporting
organizations of parents with children with special educational needs and
disabilities in Armenia
 fund empirical research, including support for an organization of young people
with disabilities in Uganda that is documenting barriers to education
 support sustainable services like networking and learning opportunities for
schools and NGOs, such as teacher associations and parent groups
 strengthen civil society groups that give young people, parents, and educators
a voice, including parent-led organizations advocating for the rights and
inclusion of children with disabilities in Tajikistan
 engage with civil society and other actors in policy development by, for
instance, providing technical support to the development of key inclusive
education–related laws, policies, and strategies at the national level
 support governments and system services to pilot models of successful
inclusive education provision that could be scaled up and replicated
 Developing an Inclusive Education System
 Particular attention needs to be given to developing a more inclusive
education system that provides quality and equitable opportunities to
indigenous and hinterland children and children with disabilities. Gender
equality and equity also need to be integrated as a goal within a truly inclusive
system.

The Ministry of Education understands the need for an education system that
is flexible and accommodates diversity. This means that the MOE has to create the
opportunity for all students to be in regular classes where the education programme
caters for their individual needs and where they are accepted and supported.

The development of an inclusive education system also means that the MOE
has to make the system flexible to cater for children along the entire spectrum from
the very gifted to the severely disabled. The tendency in Guyana however, is to
regard inclusive education as necessary for children with physical disabilities and to
cater less for the gifted and highly talented children UNICEF in a listing of the
“Characteristics of a Rights- Based and Child-Friendly School” supports the provision
of an education opportunity that “meets differing circumstances and needs of children
(e.g. as determined by gender, culture, social class, ability level)”. In Guyana, efforts
have been made to reduce sex stereotyping in education material, to offer a module
in the teacher training program me on gender, to offer males and females the same
program me options and to respond to the needs of the indigenous communities
where English may not be the first language and where cultural norms may be
somewhat different from other communities. In addition it has sought to meet Special
Education Needs. There have been different degrees of success in various areas.
Sex stereotyping in materials has certainly been significantly reduced and although
there are still perceptions in society about traditionally male and female subject
areas, and males and females cluster in different specialities in the higher grades, the
Ministry offers the same curriculum to all students.

There have been limited attempts to respond to the language issue with the
Ministry supporting the use of the children’s mother tongue, where possible, in the
early years of school and giving support to projects such as the Macushi Language
project. These are very preliminary efforts and more needs to be done at the teacher
training level to respond to the needs of different genders or groups.

One of the areas of greatest concern has been the inability to adequately meet
special education needs of children with physical or mental disabilities. Although
some efforts have been made in the last five years to meet special education needs
(SEN) it is probably true that this is one of the most neglected areas in the education
sector. This is reflected in surveys and consultations that were conducted by other
organisations such as the National Commission on Disability (NCD) and the
Volunteer Service Organisation (VSO), from which the education sector has
benefited. In a study carried out under the auspices of NCD with the assistance of
VSO, it was found that of the persons surveyed 15% have never attended school,
42% of which were under 16 years. There are some children with disabilities who are
able to access education in Special Education Institutions; however data shows that
less than 40% of the teachers in these schools have sufficient training. Further
research also reports that persons with disabilities who are mainstreamed in regular
schools have to contend with negative attitudes from other students and teachers.

During the period under review a special education module was developed,
which every teacher trainee at CPCE must take. This is a very basic module however
and there is a critical need for higher levels of specialised training to be offered. It is
also essential to the effective implementation of SEN programmes that the Ministry
appoints a Special Education Coordinator who will drive the process from the level of
Central Ministry; especially since so much inter-ministry and other levels of
coordination is crucially necessary. The Ministry also needs to make several policy
decisions to give direction to the scope and strategies/methodologies of
implementation. These include the management and funding of special schools, level
or scope of inclusion, teacher training, curriculum modification, support services,
levels of parent education and partnership and career paths for teachers. Indeed,
there are few persons willing to work in this area, especially teachers, because the
career path is very limited. The new plan must also address these issues.

Barriers to Inclusive Education

There is a long list of barriers that hinder inclusive education. These are summarised
below.

Attitudes

The greatest barriers to inclusion are caused by society, not by particular

medical impairments. Negative attitudes towards differences result in discrimination
and can lead to a serious barrier to learning. Negative attitudes can take the form of
social discrimination, lack of awareness and traditional prejudices. Regarding
disabled children some regions still maintain established beliefs that educating the
disabled is pointless. Often the problem is identified as being caused by the child's
differences rather than the education systems shortcomings.
Physical Barriers

The vast majority of centres of learning are physically inaccessible to many

learners, especially to those who have physical disabilities. In poorer, particularly
rural areas, the centres of learning are often inaccessible largely because buildings
are rundown or poorly maintained. They are unhealthy and unsafe for all learners.
Many schools are not equipped to respond to special needs, and the community
does not provide local backing. Environmental barriers included: doors,
passageways, stairs and ramps and recreational areas. A major problem identified by
many students is physically getting into school.

Curriculum

In any education system, the curriculum is one of the major obstacles or tools
to facilitate the development of more inclusive system. Curriculum is often unable to
meet the needs of a wide range of different learners. In many contexts, the
curriculum is centrally designed and rigid, leaving little flexibility for local adaptations
or for teachers to experiment and try out new approaches. The content might be
distant to the reality in which the students live, and therefore inaccessible and
unmotivating.

Teachers

Teachers' abilities and attitudes can be major limitations for inclusive

education. The training of staff at all levels is often not adequate. Where there is
training it often tends to be fragmented, uncoordinated and inadequate. If teachers
do not have positive attitudes towards learners with special needs, it is unlikely that
these children will receive satisfactory education.

Language and communication

Teaching and learning often takes place through a language which is not the
first language of some learners. This places these learners, at a disadvantage and it
often leads to significant linguistic difficulties which contribute to learning breakdown.
Second language learners are particularly subject to low expectations and
discrimination.

Socio-economic factors

Inadequacies and inequalities in the education system and are most evident in
areas which have sustained poverty and high levels of unemployment. The impact of
violence and HIV/AIDS can also have adverse effects.

Funding

A major constraint is serious shortages of resources – lack of schools or

inadequate facilities, lack of teachers and/or shortage of qualified staff, lack of
learning materials and absence of support. The inadequacy of resources available to
meet the basic needs in education is a pervasive theme. It is estimated that achieving
education for all will require additional financial support by countries and donors of
about US$ 8 billion per year (Dakar Framework for Action, 2000).

Organisation of the education system

Education systems are often centralised and this can inhibit change and
initiative. Responsibility for decisions tends to be located at the highest level and the
focus of management remains orientated towards employees complying with rules
rather than on ensuring quality service delivery. There is also a lack of information
within many systems and often there is not an accurate picture of the number of
learners excluded from the school system. Only a small percentage of learners who
are categorised as having ‘special needs' receive appropriate education in ordinary
schools or special settings and there is no support available for those learners who
are outside the system. Existing provision after primary school is inadequate to meet
the needs.

Policies as barriers
Policy makers who do not understand or accept the concept of inclusive
education are a barrier to the implementation of inclusive policies. In some countries
there may still exist policies that facilitate the possibility for authorities to declare that
some children are ‘uneducatable'. Usually this practice applies to children with severe
intellectual disability. In some other countries, the education of some specific groups
of learners might the responsibility of another authority than the Ministry of Education.
Very often this leads to a situation where these learners are not expected to
participate in mainstream education and, consequently, they do not have equal
opportunities for further education or employment.
hese are the principles that guide quality inclusive education:All children belong.

Inclusive education is based on the simple idea that every child and family is
valued equally and deserves the same opportunities and experiences. Inclusive
education is about children with disabilities – whether the disability is mild or severe,
hidden or obvious – participating in everyday activities, just like they would if their
disability were not present. It’s about building friendships, membership and having
opportunities just like everyone else.

All children learn in different ways.

Inclusion is about providing the help children need to learn and participate in
meaningful ways. Sometimes, help from friends or teachers works best. Other times,
specially designed materials or technology can help. The key is to give only as much
help as needed.

It is every child’s right to be included.

Inclusive education is a child’s right, not a privilege. The Individuals with

Disabilities Education Act clearly states that all children with disabilities should be
educated with non-disabled children their own age and have access to the general
education curriculum.

Common Misconceptions About Inclusive Education

Some opinions about inclusive education are based on unsound information.

Three common myths about inclusion are:

Myth 1:Separate is better.

Reality: Segregation doesn’t work. Whether children are separated based on

race, ability, or any other characteristic, a separate education is not an equal
education. Research shows that typical children and children with disabilities learn as
much or more in inclusive classes.

Myth 2: Children must be “ready” to be included.

Reality: All children have to the right to be with other children their own age. A
child with disabilities does not have to perform at a certain grade level or act exactly
like the other children in their class to benefit from being a full-time member in
general education.
Myth 3: Parents don’t support inclusive education.

Reality: Parents have been and continue to be the driving force for inclusive
education. The best outcomes occur when parents of children with disabilities and
professionals work together. Effective partnerships happen when there is
collaboration, communication and, most of all, TRUST between parents and
professionals.

Making Inclusion a Reality

What you can do to promote inclusion for your child:

 Encourage your child to participate in activities where she can meet children
her same age with different abilities.
 When looking for activities, consider your child’s interests. The local school,
library, and recreation or community centers are good places to check out.
You also may want to consider national organizations that encourage diversity,
such as 4-H Clubs or Girl Scouts of America.
 Search the Internet for activities or organizations that your child may want to
join.
 Two community Web sites with numerous resources are The Family Village
and Kids Together: Information for Children and Adults with Disabilities.
 Help your child develop friendships with classmates or other neighborhood
children.
 Set up opportunities for your child to be with children he likes or children who
show an interest in him. Teach your child how to make and keep friends. For
other recommendations, visit the article Let’s Play Together: Fostering
Friendships Between Children with and Without Disabilities.
 Share your goals and expectations for your child.
 Before you meet with the school and decide upon your child’s Individualized
Education Plan (IEP), meet with his teachers, therapists and others to discuss
your goals, expectations, and future placement preferences for him.
 Know the rights you and your child have to an inclusive education.

For more information on your rights, visit the article Family Rights: The Educational
Rights of Children with Disabilities.

What schools can do to promote successful inclusive education:

Consider inclusive education first.

Special education services can be provided in many different settings. Schools

are required to consider the general education class before considering any other
setting for your child to receive special education services.

Support each child’s learning.

Teachers support learning in inclusive classrooms in three ways. First, they

teach so that students with differing abilities and learning styles can understand and
participate. Second, they modify assignments when they are too difficult. Third, they
model respect and encourage friendships.

What families can do when they meet resistance in accessing inclusive

education for their children:
Get and share information.

Some schools do not support a family’s desire for inclusion, because they are
used to providing special education services to students in separate classes. Or they
may not understand how to make inclusion work for all children. Visit general
education classes and separate classes for students with disabilities. Carefully
explain to your child’s teachers, principal or IEP team why you believe inclusive
education would be best for your child. Share information with your child’s school
about the benefits of inclusive education.

Enlist the help of others.

Sometimes it is helpful to bring in an expert or advocate. This person will make

sure that your preferences about your child’s placement are heard. This person can
also help explain the benefits of inclusive education and how to make it happen in
your child’s school. You may find someone to help by contacting advocacy
organizations, special education parent groups in your child’s school, and local
colleges with teacher training programs.

Become your child’s advocate.

It takes time and energy to make inclusion happen in a school that is resistant
to change. Stay focused on what you believe is best for your child. Listen carefully to
the arguments against your child’s inclusion in a general education class and use
what you learn to advocate for change. For example, if you are told that your child is
not ready for the general education class, ask what supports could be provided to
help make her successful in the class.

Let us make Innovative aspect to provide equal opportunities to all.

ACTIVITY 1

Direction: In your own word discuss Inclusive education by using

Concept web.

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION