Hub

A common connection point for devices in a network.Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of a
LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so
that all segments of the LAN can see all packets.

Switch

In networks,a device that filters and forwards packets between LAN segments. Switches operate at the
data link layer (layer 2) and sometimes the network layer (layer 3) of the OSI Reference Model and
therefore support any packet protocol. LANs that use switches to join segments are called switched LANs
or, in the case of Ethernet networks, switched Ethernet LANs.

 Router

A device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connected to at least two networks,
commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP.s network. Routers are located at gateways, the
places where two or more networks connect. Routers use headers and forwarding tables to determine the
best path for forwarding the packets, and they use protocols such as ICMP to communicate with each
other and configure the best route between any two hosts.

Hub
A hub is the simplest of these devices. Any data packet coming from one port is sent to all other ports. It
is then up to the receiving computer to decide if the packet is for it. Imagine packets going through a hub
as messages going into a mailing list. The mail is sent out to everyone and it is up to the receiving party to
decide if it is of interest.

The biggest problem with hubs is their simplicity. Since every packet is sent out to every computer on the
network, there is a lot of wasted transmission. This means that the network can easily become bogged
down.

Hubs are typically used on small networks where the amount of data going across the network is never
very high.

Bridge
A bridge goes one step up on a hub in that it looks at the destination of the packet before sending. If the
destination address is not on the other side of the bridge it will not transmit the data.

A bridge only has one incoming and one outgoing port.

To build on the email analogy above, the bridge is allowed to decide if the message should continue on. It
reads the address bob@smith.com and decides if there is a bob@smith.com on the other side. If there
isn’t, the message will not be transmitted.

Bridges are typically used to separate parts of a network that do not need to communicate regularly, but
still need to be connected.
Switch
A switch steps up on a bridge in that it has multiple ports. When a packet comes through a switch it is
read to determine which computer to send the data to.

This leads to increased efficiency in that packets are not going to computers that do not require them.

Now the email analogy has multiple people able to send email to multiple users. The switch can decide
where to send the mail based on the address.

Most large networks use switches rather than hubs to connect computers within the same subnet.

Router
A router is similar in a switch in that it forwards packets based on address. But, instead of the MAC
address that a switch uses, a router can use the IP address. This allows the network to go across different
protocols.

What is the difference between distributed systems and network.?

"systems connected on a network" only says that the computers CAN exchange information. a
"distributed system" implies that the computers are sharing information to accomplish a purpose, for
example, to provide for a program or application where parts of it run on different computers. An
example of a distributed system is one where the database runs on one computer, the accounting software
that uses the database runs on another computer, and the user who wants to enter data into the system runs
on a third computer. Computers that are merely on the same network together may not have all the
software pieces in place to achieve this kind of cooperation.

In distributed computing, all elements which are interconnected operate under one operating system. To a
user, it appears as a virtual uni-processor system. In a computer network, the user has to specify and log
in on a specific machine. Each machine on the network has a specific address. Different machines
communicate by using the network which exists among them.

32. What are the concerns of the Physical Layer?

Physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium.
a. Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
b. Representation of bits
c. Data rate
d. Synchronization of bits
e. Line configuration
f. Physical topology
g. Transmission mode

33. What are the responsibilities of Data Link Layer?

The Data Link Layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link and is
responsible for node-node delivery.
a. Framing
b. Physical Addressing
c. Flow Control
d. Error Control
e. Access Control

34. What are the responsibilities of Network Layer?

The Network Layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of packet possibly across
multiple networks (links).
a. Logical Addressing
b. Routing

35. What are the responsibilities of Transport Layer?

The Transport Layer is responsible for source-to-destination delivery of the entire message.
a. Service-point Addressing
b. Segmentation and reassembly
c. Connection Control
d. Flow Control
e. Error Control

36. What are the responsibilities of Session Layer?

The Session layer is the network dialog Controller. It establishes, maintains and synchronizes the
interaction between the communicating systems.
a. Dialog control
b. Synchronization

37. What are the responsibilities of Presentation Layer?

The Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between
two systems.
a. Translation
b. Encryption
c. Compression

38. What are the responsibilities of Application Layer?

The Application Layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. It provides
user interfaces and support for services such as e-mail, shared database management and other types of
distributed information services.
a. Network virtual Terminal
b. File transfer, access and Management (FTAM)
c. Mail services
d. Directory Services

What is difference between Switch & Hub?

Switch:
Switches operate at Layer 2 Data Link Layer
Address Learning
Forward / Filter decision using MAC address
Loop Avoidance
Breakup collision domains
Switches create separate collision domains but a single broadcast domain
Hub:
Hub operates at Layer 1 Physical Layer
No Filtering
No Addressing
Hub creates single collision domain and single broadcast domain
Make forwarding to all the ports when signal is arrived
What is Brouter?
It’s a Hybrid device that combines the features of both bridges and routers.
What is MAC address?
The address for a device as it is identified at the Media Access Control (MAC) layer in the network
architecture. MAC address is usually stored in ROM on the network adapter card and is unique.
What is the difference between TFTP and FTP application layer protocols?
TFTP – Trivial File Transfer Protocol
A stripped down version of FTP, easy to use and fast. TFTP has no Directory browsing, no
Authentication and insecure it can only send and receive files.
FTP – File Transfer Protocol
The TCP/IP protocol used for transmitting files between network nodes. FTP allows access to both
Directories and files, manipulating directories, typing file contents and copying files between hosts.
What is RIP (Routing Information Protocol)?
Rip run on any Routers hence called as Open Standard Distance Vector Routing Protocol.
It’s a classful routing protocol meaning when updates are sent they send only IP address but not subnet
mask.
What is protocol? How many types of protocols are there?

A protocol is set of rules to communicate between computer & her owe system and two computers....
Protocols are three types- 
1)Non Routed , 
2)Routed & 
3)Routing.

Why do we use subnet mask? What are its uses?

Creating multiple indepedentnetworks from a single a network..

Network is a joining of two or more computer or networking devices through wire or wireless network in
order to share resources like hardware and software.

What is a dns ? How it works ?

DNS is a server for resolving the name or we can say name to IP address  of the system in domain.

DNS means DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM,IT,works for converting name to IP address,and IP address to
name,Conversion needs for user friendliness because user is difficult to keep in mind IP address of web
sit...

What is dhcp server?

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a client/server protocol that automatically provides an
Internet Protocol (IP) host with its IP address and other related configuration information such a...

What is MAC address?

It is the 48 bit hardware address of LAN card. MAC address is usually stored in ROM on the network
adapter card and it is unique.
What are the differences between FAT and NTFS ?
FAT NTFS
Doesn't provide local security Provide local security
Doesn't provide disk quota Provide disk quota
Doesn't provide file compression Provide file compression
Doesn't provide other security Provide other security
feature feature
What is a subnet mask?
Subnet mask is a 4 byte (32 bit) number used to identify the sub-network ID and the host ID from an IP
address. All the hosts in a sub-network will have the same subnet mask. E.g. 255.255.255.0,
255.255.127.0, 255.255.0.0
What is topology?
A topology defines how the devices are connected. Further it is divided in physical and logical topology.
What's the benefit of subnetting?
Reduce the size of the routing tables. 
Reduce network traffic. Broadcast traffic can be isolated within a single logical network. 
Provide a way to secure network traffic by isolating it from the rest of the network.

What is the difference between a hub and a switch?

i. Hub – Broadcasts data it receives to all devices connected to its ports.

ii. Switch – Establishes a direct connection from the sender to the destination without passing the data
traffic to other networking devices.
CSMA CA vs CSMA CD
Carrier Sense Multiple Access or CSMA is a Media Access Control (MAC) protocol that is used to
control the flow of data in a transmission media so that packets do not get lost and data integrity is
maintained. There are two modifications to CSMA, the CSMA CD (Collision Detection) and CSMA CA
(Collision Avoidance), each having its own strengths.

CSMA operates by sensing the state of the medium in order to prevent or recover from a collision. A
collision happens when two transmitters transmit at the same time. The data gets scrambled, and the
receivers would not be able to discern one from the other thereby causing the information to get lost. The
lost information needs to be resent so that the receiver will get it.

1.CSMA CD takes effect after a collision while CSMA CA takes effect before a collision.
2.CSMA CA reduces the possibility of a collision while CSMA CD only minimizes the recovery time.
3.CSMA CD is typically used in wired networks while CSMA CA is used in wireless networks.

Difference Between WiMAX and Wi-Fi

WiMAX IEEE 802.16 and Wi-Fi 802.11.

1.“WiMAX” stands for “Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access”; “Wi-Fi” stands for
“Wireless Fidelity.”

2.WiMAX provides wireless broadband connectivity for long ranges; Wi-Fi provides short-range,
wireless broadband connectivity mostly within an office or home.

3.WiMAX is more controlled and requires a licensed spectrum; the service is deployed by the service
providers. Wi-Fi can work in a less controlled environment; it works in an unlicensed environment and is
less controlled. Moreover, the end users have to buy the devices.

4.WiMAX uses MAC protocol which is connection oriented; Wi-Fi uses connection-based or
connectionless protocol called CSMA/CA.

Difference between pure aloha and slotted aloha?

A shared communication system like ALOHA requires a method of handling collisions that occur when
two or more systems attempt to transmit on the channel at the same time. In the ALOHA system, a node
transmits whenever data is available to send. If another node transmits at the same time, a collision
occurs, and the frames that were transmitted are lost. However, a node can listen to broadcasts on the
medium, even its own, and determine whether the frames were transmitted.

1) Pure Aloha is a Continuous time system whereas Slotted Aloha is discrete time system. 

2) Pure ALOHA doesn't check whether the channel is busy before transmission. 
Slotted ALOHA send the data at the beginning of timeslot. 

3) Pure aloha not divided in to time .Slotted aloha divided in to time.