Paper: Pande et
Paper
Analysis of the compressive strength of masonry
given by the equationfk=K(fL)a (fm)P
G. N. Pande, PhD, DSc, CEng, MICE
Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Swansea
B. Kralj, Dipl. Ing
Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Swansea
J. Middleton, BSc, MSC,FRSA
Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Swansea
Synopsis
It is proposed in EC 6 ‘Design of masonry structures ’ that the
characteristic compressive strength of masonry is given by the
equation in the title of this paper. This equation is based mainly
on the results of physical experiments conducted in many
countries and is known to give satisfactory results for practical
purposes. The aim of the study reported here is to critically
examine the above equation.from the point of view of theoretical
engineering mechanics and to investigate as to which mechanical
parameters describing both masonry units and mortar influence
the compressive strength of structural masonry.
Here, masonry is treated as a composite material, with
masonry units and mortar joints forming its constituents. Each
constituent is assumed to behave as an isotropic linear elastic-
brittle material. No attempt is made to capture the postpeak
behaviour, and it is assumed that microcracks progress rapidly. A
two-stage homogenisation technique is introduced to obtain the
average mechanical response of masonry. Based on this,
numerical tests with idealised boundary conditions are carried
out, and these indicate that the compressive strength of masonry
is not directly influenced either by the compressive strength of the
masonry units or by that of the mortar. The equation of EC 6
appears to lack rationale from the point of view of engineering
mechanics since the parameters that directly influence the
compressive strength of masonry are not accounted for in this
equation. A new equation is proposed in this paper. This
equation, however, is too complex for practical use, and hence a
set of design charts based on the equation are proposed. The use
of the design charts is explained through worked examples.
Introduction
It is proposed in EC 6 that the following equation is used to obtain the
characteristic strength (h)of structural masonry:
fk = Wb’)“(h,, ....(l)
where
h is the characteristic masonry compressive strength
fm is the average mortar compressive strength
$is the normalised unit compressive strength
K, a and p are constants
The normalised unit compressive strength (f b ) is given by the following
equation:
fd = fh4nS.s ....(2)
where
fb is the compressive strengthof masonry unit
6, is the moisture factor (a factor to account for the moisture content
of
the masonry unit)
6, is the shape factor (a factor to account for the shapeofand
the unit)
size
In the above, EC 6 suggests 0.4,0.75 and 0.25 as values of constants K , a
and p, respectively.
The Structural Engineer/Volume 71/No 1/4 January 1994
Stresses in a masonry block subjected to a uniform load
Let us considera masonry wall constructedof solid units* havinga cross-
sectional areaA , which is resting on smooth rollers. This block is subjected
to a uniformly distributed total load W applied through an ideally smooth
rigid platen. The load is progressively increased until failure occurs. Failure
in the masonry is deemed to take place when of any
the constituentsof the
composite (i.e. masonry unit or mortar) fails. This is also the criterion used
in physical tests.
The average vertical stress in the
masonryf, is then givenby elementary
mechanics as:
W
f =- ,..(3)
A
This vertical stress is, however, a ‘notional’ average stress in masonry, and
the actual stresses in the constituent materials are not the same as the avera
stress. In fact, the stateof stress in the masonry block is quite complex and,
to determine it, the following assumptions are made.
Assumptions and their justification
(1) Masonry units are isotropic linear elastic-brittle materials. It is generally
known that masonry units, and particularly those produced by extrusion
process, may not be isotropic. However, if the anisotropic characteristics of
the units are known, it is possible to take this into account in the math-
ematical framework presented herein. Here, we shall consider the units to
be isotropic for the sakeof simplicity. Furthermore, the units may exhibit
some non-linearity in their stress-strain response but, for most practical
purposes, it is reasonable to assume this response to be linear.
(2) Mortar is assumed to be isotropic linear elastic.
(3) There is no slippage between the masonry units and the mortar joints
(bedjoint and perpendjoint).
(4) It is assumed that the perpendjoints are continuous. (This assumption
may appear unrealistic but it has been shown elsewhere’ that it does not
affect the stresses in the constituents to any appreciable degree.)
Mechanical properties of a masonry block
The masonry block being investigated is under uniaxial stress conditions,
i.e. only the stress in the direction of loading is non-zero. This condition,
however, applies only to the ‘average’ or notional stressesin the masonry
and the constituents can have stresses in other directions. For this reason,
in the following, we shall consider all the six components of stress and strain
throughout the domain.
Assuming a Cartesian system of co-ordinates as shown in Fig l , let us
define the ‘average’ stress(G={ CJ, CJ,CJ,T,, T,, T,,}~) as related to ‘average’
strains (E={ E,E,E, E,,E,, E,,}~) in masonryby the equations
-=oc ...
-=c- ....(5 )
where D and C are 6 x 6 elasticity and compliance matrices of masonry,
*The case of a masonry block made of bricks with holesor frogs is discussed later.
7
Paper: Pande et a1

Explicit expressions for these elastic constants are given

in Appendix A.

Stresses in masonry units and mortar joints

As discussed previously, the stress and strain fields
in the masonry units and
mortar joints are not the same as the 'average' stress fieldin the masonry.
However, the stresses and strains in the masonry units and joints mortarare
related to the stresses and strains in masonry through 'structural' matrix Ai
as follows. Here, subscript 'b' is used for masonry units, 'bj' for bedjoints
and 'hj' for perpendjoints.

0 bj = Abj E
gb =AhC ....(9)
ahj
.c
= Ah / -

t With (T = {O f 0 0 0 O}.r the general formof structural matrices 'A' is:

-all a12 a13 0 0 0 -

a22 a23 0 0 0
*31 *23 a33 0 0 0
A= ....(10)
Fig 1. Single leaf wall, co-ordinate system orientation and dimensions 0 0 0 a44 0 0
0 0 0 O a , , O
respectively. It can be shown2,3J.s that the compliance matrix involves nine 0 0 0 0 0 U66
by eqn. (6):
independent elastic constants and has the form given

Explicit expressions for the elements

of the above 'structural' matrixA are
given in Appendix A, and these are functionsof:
- dimensions of the masonry units
- elastic parameters (Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio)of
-1 masonry units
- 0 0
E, - elastic parameters(Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio) of mortar
....(6 )
- thickness of the mortarjoints
0 0 0
It can be shown' that, under a uniformly distributed compressive load, the
masonryblockandits constituents aresubjectedtothe following 3-
dimensional stress states:
- bedjoints:compression/compression/compression
- perpend joints: compression/compression/tension
- masonry units/bricks: tension/compression/tension
The nine independent constants are:
and these are schematically shown in Fig2.
....(7)

with
Compressive strength of masonry
It is evident that the failure
of masonry in compression takes place when any
of the constituents fail due to stresses imposed on them due to an average
....(8) compressive stressin masonry. It is well known from physical experiments
that failureof the masonry is induced dueato tension/compression/tension
stress state which occurs in the masonry units.In fact, the horizontal tensile
"z-hi stresses ( v x and o",)in masonry units are responsible for the failure of
masonry. These stresses are also the principal stresses for the case of
uniaxial loadingof masonry. Assuminga simple maximum principal stress
criterion of failure, itcanbestatedthatthe failure of masonry in
compression takes place when
,,
/ I
L - l

\ uv I hi W:', 0;)max > f," ....(l 1)

wheref," is the characteristic tensile strengthof the masonry unit. Here, the
characteristic tensile strength ofthemasonryunit is thesameasthe
of the material of which thesolid unit is made.
characteristic tensile strength

A new equation for compressive strength

of masonry
We shall now derive systematicallyan equation for the compressive strength
of masonry. The stresses in the masonry unit due to a compressive stressf
in masonry are given by:

(y' = A, E-:.+ A2
I
y- bj E;'&
l 1 f ....(12)
Fig 2. Stress states in masonry constituents due to the unij?lrmlydistributed 1-
vertical loading

8 The Structural Engineer/Volume 71/No 1/4 January 1994

 Paper: Pande et QI

0.010 , I I I 1 I

0.000

....(13) - 0.010
Sf -0.020

- a030
-0.040
....(14) - 0.050
where
-0.060 '
0.0
l

2.0
I

4.0
I

6.0
I

8.0 10.0
I I

12.0 14.0 16.0

Stiffness ratio

Fig 3. Stressfactors against stimess ratio for t, = 0.05 and variable Poisson'S
ratios (a) t,. - 0.05, (b) ty - 0.10 ( c ) ty - 0.15

....(15)

- 0.010
-a020

-0.030
Expressionsfor Young's moduli and Poisson's ratios for masonry are given Sf
in Appendix A. - 0.040
It should be noted that, in thefailure criterion (eqn. (1l)), tensile stresses -0.050
in masonry units (oxuand G:), given by eqns. (12) and (14), are functions
of the average compressive stress in the masonry f. Thus, compressive -a060
stress in the masonry for which any one of the tensile stress components
-0.070 -
developed in masonry units satisfies the failure criterion (eqn. (1 1)) is
actually the compressive strength of masonryf,. The compressive strength - 0.080 I

of masonry cannow be expressed as: 0.0 2.0 41)8.0 6.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
Stiffness ratio
Fig 4. Stress factors against
stimess ratiofor t, = 0.075 and variable Poisson'S
....(16) ratios as marked on diagrams (a) t,. = 0.075 (b) t,. = 0.15 ( c ) ty= 0.25

and normalised mortarjoint thicknesses t, and ty defined by:

....(17) tx =-
thead joint

lbrick
....(20)
1 - .;,v72

fc2 =
A"
7 ....(18)
The procedure for computing the strength of masonry is thensimplified as
follows:
where (1) Calculate the stiffness ratio Eb/Emfor the materials specified.
(2) For theappropriatejoint thickness and Poisson's ratios of the materials,
using theappropriatedesign chart (Figs 3 and 4) read the value of thestress
factor (sf)
....(19) ( 3 ) The compressive strength of the masonry is then given by:

f k =-
hU ....(21)
Sf
It is seen fromFigs 3 and 4 that there are several factors which influence
Here, eqns. (1 6) - (19) are rational equations based on the mechanics of the the horizontal stress in the masonryunits. These are:
composite media. - mortar thickness
However, theseequations are too cumbersome for practical use, anda set - stiffness ratio Eb/E,,,
of design charts based on eqns. (16)-(19) have been produced and are - ratio of Poisson's ratios
presented in Figs 3 and 4. In these diagrams, a stress factor sf(defined as
the horizontal tensile stress in the masonry when a unit vertical stress is The above factors are directly used to determine the compressive strength
applied on the masonry) is plotted against stiffness
the ratio (EJE,,,)covering of masonry. An increase in the value of the above
factors leads to an increase
a wide range of variation of the properties of the constituents, i.e. in the value ofou,and, consequently,a decrease in thestrength of masonry.
In summary it can be stated that thecompressive strength of masonry is
1.0 - 16.0 a function of the following variables:
- stiffness ratio (Eb/Em):
- Poisson's ratios of brick material: 0.20 and 0.25 - dimensions of the masonryunits
- Poisson's ratios of mortar: 0.20,0.25,0.30and 0.35 - elastic parameters (Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio) of
- thickness of mortar joints: 10 and 15 mm masonry units

The Structural EngineedVolume 71/No 1/4January 1994 9

Paper: Pande et
- elastic parameters (Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio) of mortar
- thickness of the mortar joints
- tensile strength of the masonryunits
To obtain a characteristic value of the compressive strength the values for
all the above parameters should be 'characteristic' with the following
definition:
Characteristic value = average value + l .64X standard deviation
It is noted that, except for the first variable which is accounted for in the
form of the shape factor,no other factor affecting the compressive strength
of masonry appears in eqn. (1) of EC6.
Compressive strengthof masonry withunits having holes andfrogs
The compressive strength of masonryconstructed from units having holes
and frogs is again governed by the tensile strength of units. However, the
tensile strength of units is not the same as that of the material of the units
since it is reduced by the presence of holes or frogs, etc., forming the
geometry. The tensile strength of theunit, along a direction normal to which
the cross-sectional area is reduced, due to the presence of holes or frog is
given by:
h" = h" A,t ....(22)
Agross
wheref;" is the tensile strength of the material of the unit andA,, and A,,
are the net and gross areas of the cross-section, respectively, subjected to
tensile stress.
The shape factors
EC 6 defines shape factors as the ratio of the compressive strength of
masonry units of various sizes to the strength of masonry unitsof 200 mm
x 200 mm x 200 mm cubes. The strength is determined by tests in which
rigid platensare glued at both ends of the unit. Here, an
alternativedefinition
of shape factor(S) is suggested as follows:
S = - h" ....(23)
h"
The shape factordefined as above depends on the geometrical shape and
size of the unit and takes into account the influence of test procedure, i.e.
the influence of glued platens in the testing of the units. The shape factors
for solid units can be determined either experimentally6or numerically7.
Thus eqn. (23) canbe used to determine the strength of the material urn)
and, once this is known, the strength of the unitswith holes or frogs can be
determined from eqn. (22).
Example
In this section an example is given to illustrate the use of thedesign charts
for calculating the compressive strength of masonry.
A panel of standard size brick units is chosen. Dimensions and properties
of the constituents are given as follows:
Brick units (solid):
Mortar:
E, = 5000 N/mm2
V,,, = 0.30
thj = 10 mm ....(25)
tbj = 10 mm
Coefficients txand ty are calculated as:
....(26)
10
while the stiffness ratio Eb/E,,, is computed as 6.0. Using Fig 3(a) a stress
factor sf= 0.07 is obtained and hence, from eqn. (23), the compressive
strength of masonry panel iscalculated as:
h" -- -
f, = - 1.0 = 14.28N/rnm2 .....(27)
0.07
If bricks with holes are used, instead of solid bricks, the tensile strength of
the unitfl is reducedto account for the reductionof the cross-sectionalarea.
This reduction is described by eqn. (12), and is similar to the one used in
BS 5628: Part 1. Assuming that there are 15 holes of12 mm diameter, the
net and gross areas are:
Agross= 22037.5mm2
....(28)
A,, = 20341.04 mm2
giving the unit tensile strength
A" =(h") , Anet 0.1 20341 04 = 0.923N/mm2
;- ..(29)
soltd A,, 22037.5
Introducing this value into eqn. (23) gives the characteristic compressive
strength of the panel:
fk =(fk)solj..* = 14.28. 0.923= 13.18N/mm2 ...,
gross
Conclusions
On thebasis of the mechanicsof composite materials, the factors that affect
the compressive strength of masonry composed of solid units and units
with holes and frogs are identified. Itis concluded that the equation
described in EC 6 for the compressive strength of masonry is not rational
since it does not take into account the factors that directly affect the
compressive strength of masonry.
A new equation based on the theory presented here is proposed. This
equation is quite complex and, for practical applications,design charts have
been prepared for the use of the designer. Examples are given to illustrate
the use of these design charts.
A new definition of shape factors is introduced.
These shapefactorscan be determinedeither experimentally or numerically.
Adopting this approach, it is possible to determine the strength of masonry
units with holes andfrogs.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the Science & Engineering Research
Council for providing the funds to undertakethis research.
References
1 . Liang, J. X. 'A finite element equivalent material modelfor structural
masonry', PhD Thesis, University of Wales, Swansea, 1993
2. Gerrard, C. M.: 'Elastic moduliof rock mass consisting of orthorombic
layers', Int. J. Roc Mech. Min. Sci., 19, 1982, p9
3. Gerrard, C. M.: 'Elastic moduli of rock masses having one, two and
three sets of layers', Int. J. Roc Mech. Min. Sci., 19, 1982, p15
4. Pande, G.N., Liang, J. X., and Middleton,J.: 'Equivalent elastic moduli
of brick masonry', Computers & Geomechanics, 8, 1989, p243
5. Hearmon, R. F. S.: An introduction to applied anisotropic elasticity,
Oxford University Press, 1961
6. Page, A. W., Marshall, R.: 'The influenceof brick and brickwork aspect
ratio on the evaluation of compressive strength', Proc. 7th International
Brick Masonry Conference, Melbourne, 1985, p653
7. Kralj, B., Middleton, J., and Pande, G. N.: 'A numerical study of shape
factors using the finite element method', 3rd International Masonry
Conference, London, British Masonry Society, 1992
Appendix A
Introduction
Explicit equations for calculatingequivalent material propertiesof masonry
are given below. These equations are based on the assumption that there is
no relative slippage between masonry units and perpend joints, thus
assuming perfect bond. It is also assumed that dimensions of any of the
constituents are small compared to the overall dimensions of the masonry
panel.
The Structural EngineedVolume 71/No 1/4 January 1994
 Paper: Pande et a1

One layerof masonry units with perpend joints and a set of parameters as:
One layer of masonry units with perpend joints will be considered first.
Dimensions of masonry units and perpend joints are given in Fig1, together
with the orientationof the co-ordinate system.
Relative dimensions of masonry units and perpend joints are defined as:

....(A.9)

....(A.2)
Defining:

a=am+a1
....(A.3)
Equivalent mechanical properties of the panel can now be obtained:

-c
v- - -
-
a
- ac
Poisson's ratios canbe calculated as:
y
vzy = x -

vxy=a--XC
....(A.4) P

- aP-C2
Ex =- (A. 10)
P
....(AS)

Other Poisson's ratios can be calculated using eqn.(8):

Using identitiesdefined by eqn. (8) other Poisson's ratios canbe obtained:

....(A.6)

(A.1 1 )

Shear moduli of this layer are:

..(A.7) Finally, shear moduli are given as:

Stack of layers of masonry units and perpend jointsand bedjoints

Solving the mechanical properties of one layerof masonry units and perpend (A.12)
joints a layer of bedjoint can be added. New relative dimensions are now
defined as:

tbj
tm =-
hb +tbj
Using these material properties (with the bar) stress field ina panel of an
.(A.@ arbitrary shape under arbitrary loading conditionsbecan calculated. Instead
of treating the panel material as
a composite material it can be treated asa
homogenous one with the above defined orthotropic properties.

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Paper: Pande et d

Appendix B with
Explicit equations for calculating stresses in constituentsare given below.
Co-ordinate system orientation is as shown in Fig 1 , and all mechanical ....(B.4)
properties are as defined in AppendixA.

Stresses in bedjoints
Coefficients aii of the structural matrixfor bedjoints (see eqn.(10))are:
Mutiplying this matrix (A') by 'partial structural matrices' for masonry
units (pb) and perpendjoints (phj) leads to the structural matrices
Ab and A,.
Coefficients of these partial structural matrices are given as:

a22 = 1.0

....(B . l )

....(B.5)

a+, = 1.0
a55 = 1.0

= 1.0

G;
P55 = 7
GYZ
where
1 PM = 1.0
cm=- ....(B.2)
l -v; with
1
c. =- ....(B.6)
l l-v;
Stresses inmasonry units and perpend joints
First, a structural matrix A' will be introduced with the following Index i takes values b and hj.
coefficients:
Finally, structural matrices for masonryunitsandperpend joints are
calculated as:

This definition of structural matrices

Abj, Ab and Ahj introduced into eqn.
(9)
allows direct evaluation of stresses in any constituent due to the arbitrary
(averaged) stress field in masonry panel.

....(B.3)

12 The Structural Engineer/Volume 71/No 1/4 January 1994