Aersp 312 Project 2 Final Report

CFD Analysis of the RAE 2822 Transonic Airfoil
The Pennsylvania State University

Department of Aerospace Engineering
AERSP 312, Project 2
Instructor: Dr. Kenneth S. Brentner
25 April, 2018
The signatories listed below have completed this collaborative effort with
integrity in accordance with all academic integrity and University
policies as described by University Faculty Senate Policy 49-20.
Edouard Buisson X_____________________________________

Vincent Feng X_____________________________________
Ryan Kimmich X_____________________________________
Adalberto Morales X_____________________________________
Shawn Scroger X_____________________________________
Jacob Taylor X_____________________________________
Nathan Werkheiser X_____________________________________
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Abstract
When designing and developing airfoils, it is necessary to understand the behavior of flow around
the airfoil under differing conditions. Because airfoils are incorporated into the design of aerospace
structures such as wings, it is paramount to create a design that meets the performance
requirements demanded based on the aircraft's use. An efficient design reduces the operating costs
that are accrued while the aircraft is in service. Depending on the specific use of a particular
aerospace structure, different designs for the airfoils could be necessary for the different purposes
of each structure. For example, the designs for an airplane that is meant to fly at incredibly high
speeds will be different from the designs for an airplane meant to carry incredibly large loads. For
this reason, the report will analyze airfoils for many different Mach numbers and angles of attack
in order to examine the responses with respect to lift, pressure, drag and more. This report is
specifically on the aerodynamic analysis of the RAE 2822 airfoil. The analysis is done using
multiple CFD codes and FieldView. Within the report, the theory behind the project will first be
established, mainly boundary layers, shock waves, and aerodynamic forces and coefficients. Using
the data from FieldView, the results will then be formulated.
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction and Theory............................................................................................................4

1.1. The Boundary Layer............................................................................................................4
1.2. Mach Number.....................................................................................................................5
1.3. Density................................................................................................................................6
1.4. Shockwave..........................................................................................................................6
2. Aerodynamic Coefficients & Forces..................................................................................7
2.1.1. Coefficient of Lift & Lift Force..............................................................................7
2.1.2. Coefficient of Drag & Drag Force..........................................................................8
2.1.3. Pitching moment Coefficient..................................................................................8
2.1.4. Coefficient of Pressure............................................................................................9
3. Procedure.................................................................................................................................10
4. Results and Discussion............................................................................................................12
4.1. Boundary Layer..............................................................................................................12
4.2. Mach Number.................................................................................................................16
4.3. Coefficient of Pressure...................................................................................................20
4.4. Density............................................................................................................................28
4.5. Coefficient of Lift...........................................................................................................30
4.6. Coefficient of Drag.........................................................................................................32
4.7. Coefficient of Drag vs. Coefficient of Lift.....................................................................33
4.8. Pitching Moment Coefficient.........................................................................................38
4.9. Stagnation Point..............................................................................................................38
3.10. Streamline Analysis........................................................................................................41
5. Conclusion...............................................................................................................................43
6. Team Member Roles................................................................................................................44
7. Appendix..................................................................................................................................45
7.1. Equations.........................................................................................................................45
7.2. Mach Number Images.....................................................................................................46
7.3. Density Images................................................................................................................52
7.4. Coefficient of Pressure Images.......................................................................................58
7.5. Coefficient of Pressure Plots...........................................................................................65
7.6. RAE 2822 Airfoil Schematic..........................................................................................76
8. Works Cited.............................................................................................................................77
Nomenclature
AOA: Angle of Attack.
Cl = Coefficient of Lift.
Cp = Coefficient of Pressure.
Cm = Pitching moment.
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1. Introduction and Theory
This report's primary goal is to study the effect of Mach number and angle of attack on the Lift
and Drag of a RAE 2822 airfoil. Specifically, how the coefficient of drag and lift are impacted by
Mach number. To find these values a CFD code, flomg, was used and then put into .xyz and .q file
types where FieldView was used to visually and analytically analyze the subject. Additionally, the
flow field around the airfoil was observed using FieldView.
1.1. The Boundary Layer
When observing how flow interacts with a body, many different aspects come into play. One of
the most impactful is whether the flow in the boundary layer is turbulent or laminar. To define the
difference a boundary layer needs to first be understood. A boundary layer is the thin layer of fluid
near the body where the viscous flows effects cannot be neglected. In this region, the flow can
either be laminar or turbulent and the type is dependent on the Reynolds number. In laminar flow
theory, the flow moves parallel to the body due to momentum in only one direction. The path of
laminar flow is very predictable and is prevalent at lower Mach numbers. The thickness of the
laminar boundary layer can be calculated using Equation 2 below. In turbulent boundary layer
theory, the flow is highly time-variant and unpredictable by nature due to its three-dimensional
flow properties called eddies. The thickness of the turbulent boundary layer can be calculated using
Equation 3. Additionally, the flow has very high momentum and therefore high viscous properties.
The high momentum of the flow does allow turbulent flow to remain attached to the body longer
impacting the drag on the subject. Both, laminar and turbulent boundary layers are heavily
impacted by a change in pressure along a body, i.e. the pressure gradient. For example, when the
flow has an adverse pressure gradient, the flow will separate much faster than with a favorable
pressure gradient.
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Equation 1: Reynolds number equation with respect to x distance.
Equation 2: Boundary layer thickness equation with laminar flow.
Equation
Equation 3: Boundary layer thickness equation with turbulent flow.
1.2. Mach Number
Mach number is a dimensionless quantity that defines the speed with respect to the speed of sound
through that fluid. For example, Mach 1 is equal to the speed of sound. The speed of sound is the
speed at which disturbances propagate through a fluid. This essentially means the speed at which
the fluid particles move when they are disturbed. Mach number is also a function of density so has
density increases Mach number increases and vice versa.
Various flow regimes can be defined through the free-stream Mach number. In this report three
flow regimes will be seen, low-speed, subsonic, and transonic. Low-speed flow is defined by a
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free-stream Mach number less than 0.3. In a low-speed flow, compressibility effects are typically
neglected. If the flow is low-speed, Bernoulli's equation is valid.
The next regime is subsonic flow. For subsonic flow, the Mach number is estimated to be less than
0.8. In subsonic flow, compressibility now starts to become important. The flow is not likely to
form shockwaves on the airfoil yet, but now a similarity rule known as the Prandtl-Glauert rule is
needed to relate incompressible flow to compressible.
The third flow regime covered in this report is transonic flow. In the variation of transonic flow in
this report, the flow begins between 0.8<M<1.0, and a shock wave forms in the flow while
traversing the airfoil. If the freestream Mach number is greater than 1.0 a bow shock will likely
appear. This shock wave can prove to be problematic since the shock and adverse pressure
gradient from the airfoil can cause separation in the boundary layer.
1.3. Density
The density of the flow varies along this surface of an airfoil and is analyzed in the FieldView
software. It is expected that the density will vary with the coefficient of pressure and Mach number
as described by the Ideal Gas Law. For low Mach numbers, the density is generally constant on
the upper and lower surfaces of an airfoil, with a spike at the leading edge due to the stagnation
point. For higher Mach numbers such as 0.84 which was tested in this study, a shock wave forms
across the surface with an increase in density across the shock.
1.4. Shockwave
In order to understand a shockwave, two terms must be covered. The first term is adiabatic, this
means that no heat is added to the system. This is a reasonable assumption since heat is not
normally added to an external flow. The second term is reversible, this means that there are no
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dissipative mechanisms in the system. for the case of external flow on an airfoil, viscosity would
be the dissipative mechanism. outside of the thin region near the airfoil, the boundary layer,
viscosity can be neglected. A flow that is both adiabatic and reversible is referred to as an isentropic
flow. During a normal compressible flow, the flow is considered isentropic. This means that there
won't be any instantons changes in the flow. The reason why shock waves are formed is because
of airspeed. As the speed of the flow passes the speed of sound, the speed at which the air waves
propagate, the flow starts compressing onto itself because the speed at which the sound is traveling
is matches the speed at which the flow is propagating which causes a huge increase in pressure
because all the air is ending up at the same location which is how shock waves are formed. After
a shockwave, the flow is adiabatic, but not reversible. Since the entropy changes across the shock
wave, a sudden increase in the pressure, temperature, and density of the fluid is seen.
1.5. Aerodynamic Coefficients & Forces
1.5.1. Coefficient of Lift & Lift Force
The coefficient of lift, annotated as Cl, defines the amount of lift the airfoil can generate at
particular conditions. The importance of the coefficient of lift is that it is a way to compare the
performance of airfoils. It is dependent on the density of the fluid, the speed of the fluid, and the
wing area. Therefore, if the dynamic pressure and wing area are known, Cl can be used to solve
for lift. It is very important to find the Cl for a multitude of reasons. Changing the angle of attack
affects the Cl. An angle of attack that is too low can lead to less lift, while an angle of attack that
is too high can lead to stall. Increasing the Mach number also causes the Cl to increase. However,
there is a point where increasing the Mach number decreases the Cl. Different values of lift lead to
either stable flight, climb, or descent. Therefore, it is important to know the coefficient of lift under
different conditions in order to properly control the aircraft.
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Equation 4: Lift equation.
1.5.2. Coefficient of Drag & Drag Force
The next coefficient analyzed was the coefficient of drag, or Cd. It is used to define a value to the
drag on an object due to the fluid it is traveling in. The drag can be defined as the force on an
object, which acts in the same direction of the flow. Cd is very important for aerospace engineers,
because drag typically should be minimized. When the integration of the equation for the
coefficient of drag is analyzed, it can be seen that it varies with the Reynolds number of the flow;
therefore, the Mach number and the angle of attack both effect the Cd since Mach number changes
the velocity and the angle of attack changes area affected by the flow. If the angle of attack is low,
the body tends to be more streamlined. This leads to the flow having attached boundary layers,
and therefore having a lower Cd. When the angle of attack increases, separation in the flow due to
adverse pressure gradients can be seen. The wake then forms, and the flow quickly becomes to
form eddies, or in other words become turbulent. This means that the larger the angle of attack,
the larger the Cd and drag.
1.5.3. Pitching Moment Coefficient & Pitching Moment
The pitching moment on a plane is the point at which all forces are acted about and the aircrafts
pitch, hence angle of attack is about. For a thin symmetric airfoil, the pitching moment and
aerodynamic center are located at the same point, the quarter chord. In this case the pitching
moment would not need to be determined. However, the airfoil studied is not symmetric and
therefore the pitching moment needs to be determined. If the pitching moment is ahead of the
center of gravity and lift is being generated, a tail is needed to provide additional lift and therefore
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will have and induced drag. Likewise, when the pitching moment acts behind the center of gravity
the tail will have to generate a downward force to counteract the moment applied. In this analysis,
the coefficient of the pitching moment will be utilized because it is a non-dimensional unit and
does not vary as heavily as the pitching moment. Additionally, when the pitching moment is zero,
the center of pressure can be determined.
1.5.4. Coefficient of Pressure
The center of pressure is one of the most critical values calculated during airfoil analysis. This is
because all forces act through this point and it changes with angle of attack. Similarly, to pitching
moment, if the airfoil is thin and symmetric, the center of pressure acts through the quarter chord
point. However, the airfoil is not symmetric and therefore a center of pressure needs to be
determined. To compare pressures between different airfoils, the coefficient of pressure is used
and is defined by Equation 5.
Equation 5: Coefficient of pressure equation.
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2. Procedure
For this computer project two programs where primarily used. The two programs that were used
were FieldView and command prompt. To started this project one needs to first downloading the
required data files from the 312 course folder. The needed files were flomg.exe, rae.grid, rae.inp,
and xyzq.exe. The rae.inp file needed to be by modifying, specifically the Mach number and angle
of attack from generic numbers to the specific numbers that were assigned. The specific numbers
that were assigned are as followed, Mach number: 0.24, 0.54, 0.84 and angles of attack: -2, 0, 2,
4, 6, 8, 10, 2 extra Mach numbers: 0.39, 0.69 were added to try and cover all a wider range of
Mach numbers. The command prompt window was used to calculate the required data needed for
FieldView. In the command prompt, navigate to the folder that the data is saved under and then
run the flomg command for the rae.inp file for each Mach number and angle of attack. To make
the data that was created from the flomg command usable in FieldView it had to be convert it into
xyz and q files. To do this the xyzq command had to be run in command prompt to convert the file
created from the flomg command into xyzq and q files that are readable in the FieldView program.
To create plots in FieldView, the xyzq and q files first need to be import into FieldView by using
the plot3D program and placing the files in the specified location. Then using the computational
surface program in FieldView, the plots of the Mach number, Cd, density, and a surface plot for
Cd vs. X where created. For the first 3 plots of mach number, Cd, and density the smooth display
and scalar coloring option where chosen to show the varying numbers for the airfoil. For the
surface plot of Cd the settings needed to be changed so that I clip minimum equaled 31 and
maximum equaled 287 so that it only accounts for the airfoil and nothing else attached to it. The
default slicing axis needed to be changed from I to J and horizontal axis needed to be changed
from Default to X. To make the graphs readable the min and max for the horizontal axis needed to
be change to –1 and 3 respectively.
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Figures 1 and 2: Shows the needed perimeters and configurations need to produce the surface
plots.
Figure 3: Plot3D program in FieldView where XYZ and Q files are inputted.
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Figure 4: Command Prompt used to compute the needed data.
3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Boundary Layer
Another critical concept in aerodynamic flow is the boundary layer. In FieldView, the boundary
layer and pressure gradient can be observed. In Figure 5, an ideal boundary layer velocity profile
can be observed. The figure shows that on the surface of the subject the skin friction is high and
the flow has a velocity of zero, but when the distance the flow is from the wall is increased the
velocity increases until it reaches free-stream velocity. In Figure 6, the model from FieldView, the
exact same thing can be observed where the velocity is zero at the wall and increases until free
stream is reached.
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Figure 5: Ideal Velocity Profile
Figure 6: Velocity Profile for Upper Surface of 8 degrees AOA, Mach 0.84
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This ideal velocity profile is dependent on the pressure gradient acting on the flow. In Figure 6 a
favorable pressure gradient is pictured that "drives" the flow tangential to the freestream flow.
When the flow is driven by the pressure gradient, it is sped up which causes the Mach number to
increase in the free stream flow. This effect is how an airfoil traveling at subsonic speeds can have
supersonic flow near the surface of the airfoil. In Figure 7, an adverse pressure gradient can be
seen. Under the influence of an adverse pressure gradient, the flow will reverse direction with
respect to the free-stream flow. At the point of flow reversal, separation occurs and impacts how
the flow will act following the separation. Reattachment may occur but often it does not and instead
causes a large increase in drag. Additionally, turbulent flow occurs and eddies form. In Figure 8
the full transition from favorable pressure gradient to no pressure gradient and finally an adverse
pressure gradient and separation is visible, right to left respectively.
Figure 7: Adverse Pressure Gradient on Upper Surface of 8 degrees AOA, Mach 0.84
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Figure 8: Pressure Gradient Transition
In Figure 8, it should be noted that the velocity vectors begin to diverge from tangential to the
surface of the airfoil. This shows how the flow is separating from the surface. In Figure 9 massive
amounts of separation occurs. When separation occurs, the airfoil will begin to lose lift. If too
much separation occurs the airfoil will begin to lose lift very quickly, otherwise known as stall.
Figure 9: Airfoil Separation and Stall
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3.2. Mach Number
Mach number is defined as the speed of the flow divided by the local speed of sound. Across a
shock wave the flow speed changes abruptly. By using FieldView to visualize the values of Mach
number along the flow on the airfoil, shockwaves become visually clear. When an airfoil is placed
in a subsonic flow, the flow is accelerated along the airfoil and can reach supersonic speeds which
is necessary for shockwaves form.
Figure 10: Flow at AOA = 6 degrees, Mach = 0.24
At low Mach numbers, the flow is not accelerated enough for a shockwave to form. This is evident
in Figure 10 above. Here the airfoil is at M=0.24 and an angle of attack of 6 degrees. There are
no shocks in this flow; however, some flow characteristics can still be noted. At the leading edge
the dark blue region is the stagnation point. This is where the flow is isentropically taken to zero
velocity. The legend indicates that the Mach number in the dark blue region is zero at this location,
as it should be at a stagnation point. The yellow-red region on the upper surface of the leading
edge is indicative of flow acceleration. This is resultant of airfoil camber and angle of attack. The
flow is accelerated from Mach 0.24 to 0.392 at its highest. Viscous effects then slow the flow back
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down near Mach 0.24 and remains there for the majority of the flow. There is also a small amount
of separation at the trailing edge shown in the blue region. As the angle of attack increases, the
size of separated flow region will increase as well.
Figure 11: AOA=2, Mach 0.69 Figure 12: AOA=-2, Mach 0.69
Mach number graphs can also be used to indicate regions of lower pressure on the airfoil. In
recognizing the relation between velocity and pressure according to Bernoulli’s equation, the
regions of high Mach number can also be characterized as regions of low pressure which will also
determine the direction of lift. Figure 11 shows the airfoil at M=0.69 and angle of attack of positive
two degrees. Here, the darker red region appears on the upper surface of the airfoil, thus lift is
being generated in an upward direction. However, when the airfoil is at a negative AOA, negative
two in Figure 12, the Mach number will be higher on the lower surface and net lift will likely be
in the downward direction.
The reason that these two figures are not vertically mirror images of each other is because of the
camber in the airfoil. The positive camber is working to accelerate the flow over the upper surface
of the airfoil. Only if this was a symmetric airfoil would the figures be mirror images of one
another.
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Figure 13: AOA=4, Mach 0.54 Figure 14: AOA=8, Mach 0.54
At the low AOA’s, 2 degrees and below, shocks did not appear in the flow until somewhere in
between M=0.69 and 0.84. The flow is not accelerating enough for a shock to form. However, at
angles 4 degrees and above shocks start to form on the leading edge as early as M=0.54. The abrupt
change in Mach number is clear sign of the shockwave. The angle of attack also has a direct
correlation with the size of the shockwave. In Figure 13 the shock is barely noticeable yet at 8
degrees in Figure 14 it is much more pronounced. These two figures also demonstrate the effect
of AOA on flow separation. At AOA of 8 degrees the blue separated region is much larger than at
4 degrees. As the AOA increases, the flow no longer has enough momentum to resist flow reversal
and the resultant separation.
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Figure 15: Various Angles of Attack at Mach Number = 0.84
At Mach 0.84 the shocks are more defined. Figure 15 above shows the Mach number profiles at
angles of attack -2 to +12 degrees. With a constant Mach number, the effect of AOA on Mach
number properties becomes evident.
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The shocks are all preceded by expansion fans near the leading edge. At low angles such as in
Figure 15a, shocks appear on both the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil. As the angle
increases, the lower surface shock starts to disappear. By 8 degrees in Figure 15f, the Mach
number is nearly constant across the lower surface thus there is no shock there.
The shock also moves further towards the leading edge as the angle increases. At zero AOA the
shock does not appear until it is nearly at the trailing edge, but at 10 or 12 degrees the shock is at
or before the half chord point. Shockwaves also seem to be directly related with flow separation,
depicted in the dark blue region of the flow. At every AOA, the flow begins to separate shortly
after the shockwave occurs. The high AOA’s such as 10 and 12 degrees have shocks closer to the
leading edge, thus separation occurs earlier and lift is decreased. This is also supported by the Cl
vs. AOA graphs shown in Figure 30 on page 31. The lift coefficient is maximized at 8 degrees
and starts decreasing after that.
In terms of favorable Mach number characteristics discussed thus far, the flow is highly supersonic
on the upper surface and roughly equal to freestream on the lower surface. As commented on
above, this difference in Mach number is directly related to the pressure on each surface of the
airfoil. Below 8 degrees there is still a shock on the lower surface thus the speed is also higher.
The flow does not separate too far forward in contrast to 10 and 12 degrees. When comparing all
of these factors, it makes sense that the maximum lift coefficient occurs at 8 degrees.
3.3. Coefficient of Pressure
When analyzing airfoils under the effects of different Mach numbers and angles of attack it is very
important to look at the coefficient of pressure, Cp, around the airfoil. The values of Cp are very
significant if not the most significant value when dealing with airfoils. The reason for this is
because Cp is essentially the difference between static pressure and total pressure. Static pressure
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is the pressure that is acting on the airfoil. Cp is directly proportional to static pressure which means
that as Cp increases then static pressure increases and the opposite is the same. The C p being
positive means that the static pressure is greater than the total pressure. Negative C p means that
the static pressure on the airfoil is less than the total pressure. The difference in pressure between
the upper and lower surface of the airfoil is the main reason that planes can fly. The lower surface
of the airfoil having a larger pressure then the upper surface causes an imbalance of forces. The
imbalances of forces being that the lower surface has more force pushing on it then the upper
surface means that there is a net force going upwards which is the whole basis of how planes fly.
In this section the airfoil will be examined for different Mach and angle of attack conditions,
comparing Cp in each case.
Figure 16: Plot of location vs Cp: Mach 0.24, AOA 6
In Figure 16 the Mach number is at 0.24 with an angle of attack of 6 degrees. The red region on
the lower surface of the leading edge of the airfoil indicates the stagnation point because it’s the
location of the highest pressure which is indicative of a stagnation point. This is because stagnation
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pressure is the area where there is zero velocity. Additionally, in Cp surface plots (Figure 158), at
the leading edge of the airfoil a spike can be seen which represents the stagnation point. For flow
to go from Mach 0.24 to zero, a large force is needed. That force is caused by collision with the
airfoil which causes the large increase in pressure. The upper and lower surfaces have an expected
Cp distribution, being that across the upper surface the Cp is lower than that of the lower surface.
This is expected because airfoils are designed to produce a larger pressure on the lower surface
than the upper surface. As discussed previously, this pressure difference is the main reason an
airfoil is able to generate lift.
Figure 160: Alpha = 2 degrees, Mach 0.84
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In Figure 158, the graph as flipped so the negative values are in the upper direction while the
positive value is in the downward. Knowing this, the upper surface (with low pressure) is the upper
line on the plot while the lower surface (with high pressure) is the bottom line; This is done for
ease of visualization. On the upper surface where the slope is positive, a favorable pressure
gradient can be seen. However, when the slope drops drastically, an adverse pressure gradient
occurs and separation is imminent. The peak value on the Cp plot determines the where the
maximum speed is and can help determine shock formation.
Figure 17: Plot of location vs Cp: Mach 0.54, AOA –2
The negative region of Cp displayed in blue in Figure 17 comes from the fact that Cp is static
pressure minus the atmospheric pressure. The negative Cp indicates is that the pressure at that
location is less than the atmospheric pressure. The cause for this is the increase in dynamic pressure
due to the increasing flow velocity. Because the sum of hydrostatic, dynamic, and static pressure
is equal to a constant, as one goes up the others will go down. The increase in dynamic pressure
causes the drop in static pressure which creates a Cp that is negative. The image shows that there
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is a larger portion of the bottom with negative Cp indicates that the airfoil is experiencing
downward lift. The reason for this is that the static pressure on the lower surface is lower than the
upper surface thus creating the larger negative Cp region on the lower surface. An AOA of negative
two degrees is below the zero lift AOA and thus the lift in this case is in the downward direction..
Figure 18 depicts a negative Cp on the upper surface of the airfoil and very nearly zero or positive
on the lower surface. The speed of the flow increases when it hits the leading edge of the airfoil.
This is shown by the drastic change in Cp at the leading edge of the airfoil. After the large change
in speed and Cp at the leading edge of the airfoil, the flow starts slowing down and Cp starts
increasing at it passes along the airfoil at the upper surface. When looking at the lower surface it
is clear that the speed doesn't change very much as it flows pass the airfoil because C p doesn’t
change much if at all throughout the lower surface. This is expected for an airfoil that is going at
this Mach number. The is because as flow passes over a cambered airfoil it accelerates the flow
going over top of it which increases the dynamic pressure and decreases the static pressure. The
lower surface however is unchanged which keeps the pressure the same as freestream.
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In Figure 19 there is a large difference in Cp between the upper and lower surfaces. This is due to
the AOA increase to 6 degrees. Just past the leading edge on the upper surface, the dynamic
pressure is largest. This is because at 6 degrees this is where the flow is turning and accelerating
the most. The Cp starts increasing more as it moves down the airfoil because the flow is slowing
down, which decreases the dynamic pressure and in turn increases the static pressure. The
difference in static pressures of the upper and lower surface creates lift and the larger the difference
the more lift is created. The upper surface has a portion of Cp that is very low with the rest of the
upper airfoil having Cp that is negative or zero. The lower surface on the other hand had Cp near 1
at the leading edge and a range of around 0.5-0.7 for the rest of the lower surface. The blue region
on the leading edge of the upper surface is caused by a shock wave being formed. The fact that the
Cp increases dramatically and then falls off is indicative a shock wave occurring. This is because
through a shock wave, the Mach number decreases abruptly.
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Figure 20 shows the first case where there is a significant shock wave being formed. It is clear that
a shock wave has occurred in this figure due to the abrupt change in Cp at the upper surface. The
flow velocity on the upper surface is increasing because of the angle of attack and camber of the
airfoil. The location of the shock is indicated by the separation of the blue and green region at the
upper surface. This is the location where a shock is formed because the flow across a shock wave
goes from supersonic to subsonic, meaning that the speed of the flow drastically drops. Since
dynamic pressure is directly related to the speed of the flow, if the speed across a shock wave
drastically drops, than the dynamic pressure also drastically drops. This also means that static
pressure drastically increases. This is shown in the figure by the blue region being at a C p around
–2 and then it almost instantaneously changes from blue to green which is a Cp that is close to
zero.
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Figure 21 depicts a unique case for the airfoil. The reason this case is unique is because of the fact
that the lower surface has a lower Cp than the upper surface which means that instead of positive
lift which pushes the airfoil up it has negative lift which brings the airfoil down. This is caused by
the angle of attack that the airfoil is under. Normally at high Mach numbers only the upper surface
experiences a shock wave which is seen in Figure 20. This figure on the other had has a shock
wave produced at both the upper and lower surface. The shock at the upper surface isn't as strong
as the shock at the lower surface. This can be seen from the deep blue regions at the lower surface.
The darker blue region indicates the location where Cp is the lowest. The lower Cp indicates that
at that location the dynamic pressure is higher there. Which means that the Mach number at that
location is also higher. This is abnormal because a normal airfoil at a reasonable angle of attack
and Mach number causes the flow to accelerate at the lower surface which increases the dynamic
pressure which in turn decreases the static pressure which causes the net pressure force acting on
the airfoil to be aimed upwards. This case on the other hand has the flow increasing at a much
greater rate and to a much higher Mach number at the lower surface than the upper surface. This
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means that the static pressure on the lower surface is much lower than the pressure at the upper
surface which will cause a net force from the pressure to be directed down wards causing the airfoil
to fall instead of being lifted up.
3.4. Density
The density of the flow around the airfoils was expected to remain relatively constant across the
airfoil at low Mach numbers, except at the location of any stagnation points. At higher Mach
numbers the compressibility of the flow is more important, thus the density will vary more.
Figure 22: AOA: -2, Mach: 0.54 Figure 23: AOA: 2, Mach: 0.54
Figure 24: AOA: 6, Mach: 0.54 Figure 25: AOA: 10, Mach: 0.54
Figures 22 through 25 show the general affects that the angle of attack has on the density of the
flow around the airfoil. At a Mach number of 0.54, the –2 and 2 degrees angles of attack are similar,
with mostly constant densities along the upper and lower surfaces. The highest densities of these
two angles of attack occur at the stagnation point on the leading edge. For the –2-degree angle of
attack, the highest density is near the upper surface of the leading edge, and for the 2-degree angle
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of attack, the highest density is on the lower surface of the leading edge. This is directly related to
the angle of attack of the airfoils. A very noticeable change in density occurs as the angle of attack
increases further and the flow accelerates more over the upper surface. As explained in previous
sections involving Mach number and pressure coefficients, as the angle of attack varies, the speed
of flow increases or decreases accordingly, causing a respective increase or decrease in Mach
number and pressure across the airfoil. The difference in flow speed across the upper and lower
surfaces of the airfoil causes a change in dynamic and static pressure. Due to this, the density will
also change according to the Ideal Gas Law. In areas where the coefficient of pressure is greater,
the density will also be greater.
Figure 26: AOA=2, Mach 0.54 Figure 27: AOA=-2, Mach 0.69
In Figures 26 and 27 above, the comparison between the density and coefficient of pressure for an
airfoil at the same angle of attack and Mach number is seen. Here, the relationship is clearly
identifiable. Areas of higher density correspond to areas of higher coefficient of pressure. Beyond
changes in angle of attack, significant changes in Mach number lead to noticeable changes in
density as seen in figures 28 and 29 below.
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Figure 28: AOA: 2, Mach: 0.24 Figure 29: AOA:2, Mach: 0.84
As mentioned previously, the flow is accelerated over the airfoil, potentially causing a shockwave.
For a Mach number of 0.24 as shown above, the flow never accelerates enough for the creation of
a shockwave, so the density remains constant across the upper and lower surfaces. However, for a
Mach number of 0.84, the flow speeds up enough for the formation of a shockwave, where the
density will also increase. Across a shockwave, total temperature remains constant while the
pressure increases, which, according to the Ideal Gas Law, will result in a higher density.
3.5. Coefficient of Lift
An important aspect to look at in an airfoil is always the coefficient of lift. As discussed in the
theory section, the coefficient of lift gives benchmarks of the airfoil at different conditions. Using
flomg, all of the lift coefficients were found at each AOA and Mach number. As expected, each
lift coefficient has a linearly increasing region, and then begins to curve at higher AOA's. When
the curve reaches its max lift, stall begins. At each Mach number, the stall angle is the upper limit
for the airfoil effectiveness. For the following analysis, Figure 30 will be used. For every Mach
number except for 0.24, the airfoil begins to stall at an angle of attack of 8 degrees. For Mach 0.24,
Cl is still linearly increasing at angle of attack of 10. This means that for Mach 0.24, stall is at a
higher angle of attack than tested.
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The large difference in Cl between Mach 0.69 and Mach 0.84 should also be noted. Lift drops
drastically as speed is increased from M=0.69 to 0.84. For Mach 0.69 a much higher coefficient
of lift than most of the other Mach numbers is seen. This means that Mach 0.69 is likely the speed
for best L/D, with an angle of attack of 8. At Mach 0.84, the exact opposite of Mach 0.69 is seen.
Mach 0.84 has the lowest coefficient of lift throughout the AOA's tested. In Figure 9, flow
separation can be seen at a Mach 0.84. This separation causes the coefficient of lift to drop
drastically.
Figure 30: Cl versus AOA for Multiple Mach numbers
The lift coefficient of the airfoil varies with respect to the velocity of the freestream. With respect
to the complete data set, the stall angle decreases with Mach number. When M = 0.24, the lift
curve doesn’t show where the stall angle is but continues increasing, implying that it lies beyond
the range of AOA that was used for this analysis. When the flow transitions to compressible, in
the range of 0.3 ≤M ≤ 0.7, the stall angle is the same and the lift curves have similar slopes; as the
Mach number increases up to the high subsonic region, where 0.7 ≤ M ≤ 1, the lift coefficient at a
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given angle of attack increases but the stall angle doesn’t change – this is the case until the high
subsonic region. In the high subsonic region, shocks will develop on the leading edge of the airfoil
and move back to the trailing edge as the Mach number increases. When this first occurs, the lift
coefficient increases sharply, and the lift curve for M = 0.69 shows this behavior graphically. As
the Mach number approaches 1, the lift curve decreases, therefore the lift coefficient in the high
subsonic region is not as great as it is in the regions where the Mach number is lower. This may
be due to the fact that, since the freestream velocity is much higher, flow separation occurs earlier
along the upper surface of the airfoil when it is at high angle of attack, less lift is generated, and
the lift coefficient therefore decreases. It is interesting to note that the stall angle for every Mach
number is about 8 degrees, which is somewhat low since many airfoils will stall anywhere between
10 and 20 degrees.
3.6. Coefficient of Drag
To produce a highly efficient airfoil, the lift must be high but more importantly, the drag must be
low. Through analysis of the RAE 2822 airfoil, specific elements were discovered where this
airfoil would perform better. In Figure 31. The coefficient of drag as a function of angle of attack
is displayed for each Mach number tested. It can be observed that at low Mach numbers the drag
does not increase rapidly with angle of attack but at higher Mach numbers drag is greater and
increases rapidly. Additionally, at Mach 0.84 the coefficient of drag is greater than at any other
point which is consistent with transonic flow. It can be concluded based on drag alone that this
airfoil preforms better at low Mach numbers because of its ability to not increase drag rapidly as
the angle of attack is increased.
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Figure 31: Cd versus AOA for Multiple Mach numbers
3.7. Coefficient of Lift vs. Coefficient of Drag
An important characteristic of an airfoil is the lift to drag ratio or the L/D ratio. It is the ratio of the
amount of lift produced by an airfoil divided by the drag acting on an airfoil. Producing a wing or
aircraft that has a high lift to drag ratio is always an objective when it comes to aeronautical
designing. The reason behind this is because in order to manufacture an aircraft with a better climb
performance, fuel economy, and glide ratio, lift needs to be maximized and drag must be
minimized. A lift to drag ratio can be calculated at any airspeed by evaluating the lift and dividing
it by the drag at that same airspeed or Mach number. The L/D ratio is also equivalent to the ratio
of the lift and drag coefficients. This is due to the only difference in the lift and drag equations
being used are the coefficients.
Equation 6: Lift over Drag
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Figure 32: Coefficient of Lift vs Coefficient of Drag for Multiple Mach Numbers
As it can be seen in Figure 32 above, the Mach number curve with the smallest domain for
coefficient of drag (0.0081 to 0.02666) is at Mach 0.24. The coefficient of lift can also reach a
value of about 1.2 which is the second highest out of all the different Mach speeds calculated. This
means that for a RAE 2822 airfoil, Mach 0.24 is the speed at which the aerodynamic lift and drag
forces will remain relatively the same at the majority of the angles of attack possible. From the
graph it can be observed that the curve for Mach 0.84 is relatively far from all of the other curves.
This displacement confirms that when increasing the Mach number of an aircraft, the closer it is
to stalling. It can be observed from the graph that at this local airspeed, the coefficient of drag
starts off with a value of about 0.06 rather than approximately 0.0081 like for the other curves.
The reason behind this is that when the velocity of the airflow locally exceeds the speed of sound
above the wing, a shock wave is created on the wing and the flow detaches beyond this shock
wave. The supersonic separation of flow eliminates the lift force produced by decrease of pressure
on the upper surface of the wing, therefore the aircraft starts to stall. However, when increasing
Mach number, it must be noted that the curves in the graph above will form more into a sideways
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U-shape. This reveals that when increasing Mach number too much, the aircraft cannot fly at a
high angle of attack or it will eventually exceed its critical angle of attack causing it to have a
lower lift to drag ratio which leads the aircraft to stall. As angle of attack increases, the air starts
to flow less smoothly over the upper surface of the airfoil and begins to separate.
Figure 33: The Lift to Drag Ratio vs AOA for Multiple Mach Numbers
The L/D ratio is also equivalent to the ratio of the lift and drag coefficients. Figure 33 displays the
effect various angles of attack have on the lift to drag ratio of the airfoil. As it was discussed before,
the effect Mach 0.84 has on the lift to drag ratio can be found in this chart. Just like in Figure 32,
the curve for Mach 0.84 is relatively separated from the other curves. It is the only Mach number
to not have a peak and to be almost consistently flat along the x-axis with an L/D value of about
5.59. Due to not obtaining a peak and a critical angle of attack, there is no maximum lift coefficient
at this local airspeed. This further proves that there is a shockwave on the airfoil at this Mach
number.
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The graph shows that the closer the aircraft is to its critical angle of attack (different for each Mach
number), the upper surface flow is more separated and thus the airfoil is producing its maximum
coefficient of lift and maximum lift to drag ratio. Beyond this point is where the aircraft starts to
stall. Once the aircraft exceeds the critical angle of attack (to the right of the peak), the upper
surface flow becomes increasingly more separated and the airfoil produces less lift.
Figure 127: Coefficient of Pressure at Mach 0.24 and AOA 4°
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These three figures verify the results of the L/D vs Angle of Attack chart shows at a constant Mach
number of 0.24 and an increasing angle of attack from 4° to 8°. The top image shows that at an
angle attack of 4°, where the lift to drag ratio is increasing, pressure is present along the whole
upper surface of the airfoil. However, as angle of attack is increased to 6°, where the coefficient
of lift and lift to drag ratio are both maximized, the diagram starts to show pressure present along
about the first half of the airfoil. And then afterwards, the last image with angle of attack of 8°
presents pressure along about only the first quarter of the upper surface of the airfoil which backs
up why the lift to drag ratio decreases after exceeding the critical angle of attack.
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3.8. Pitching Moment Coefficient
Figure 34: Coefficient of Moment vs. Angle of Attack
Pitching moment on an airfoil is the moment produced by the forces on the airfoil. In Figure 34 it
is evident that all the Mach numbers at the varying angles of attack produce a negative Cm which
means that there is a negative moment acting on the airfoil. The negative moment means that the
airfoil is being torqued in the counter clock wise direction. This is very normal because usually on
an airfoil the center of pressure is near the quarter cord location and since the pressure is usually
greater on the bottom and the fact that most of the surface area is to the left of the center of pressure
on the lower surface it generates a greater torque in the counter clock wise direction.
3.9. Stagnation Point
The following topic that will be discussed are based on the airfoil placed at 8 degrees angle of
attack. In Figure 35, the streamlines for the RAE 2822 airfoil is shown at Mach 0.24 where flow
is only laminar therefore there will be two stagnation points, one at the leading edge and one at the
trailing edge. Figure 36 shows a closer view of the leading-edge stagnation point and Figure 37
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shows the Stagnation point at the trailing edge. It should be noted at high Mach numbers there will
be no stagnation point at the trailing edge because the flow will be separated.
Figure 35: Streamline Stagnation point at Mach 0.24
Figure 36: Streamline Leading Edge Stagnation point at Mach 0.24
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Figure 37: Streamline Leading Edge Stagnation point at Mach 0.24
The study of stagnation points was observed at different Mach numbers to determine if the speed
of the flow impacted where the point would be located. It was found that as Mach number increased
the Stagnation point on the leading end moved towards the top of the airfoil. In Figure 38, the
stagnation point for a Mach number of 0.84 is displayed with a red circle approximately around
the stagnation point. In Figure 39 the same is done with a Mach number of 0.24. This showed a
visual difference in Stagnation points and how large of a change can occur.
Figure 38: Stagnation point at Mach 0.84
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Figure 39: Stagnation point at Mach 0.24
3.10. Streamline Analysis

When forward only streamlines are placed on the 0.84 Mach number with 8-degree AOA airfoil
special characteristics of flow can be seen. In particular, rotation and Karman vortex street will be
discussed in this section. In Figure 40, the separation can be seen on the trailing edge between the
green lines. It also can be seen that the separation only last for so long before the flow converges.
In the separation region rotation of the flow which is unpredictable and irregular by nature. This
section can only be estimated by CFD's and gives a relative idea of what is happening. In Figure
41, a Karman vortex street can be observed. It was discovered by placing a seed in the separation
region at two different points and observing the forward direction of the flow. At the two points,
the flow was rotating in opposite directions and in the middle the rotation transition can be seen.
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Figure 40: Streamlines at Mach 0.84, AOA 8 degrees (Separation Region)
Figure 41: Karman Vortex street depiction
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4. Conclusion
The main goal of this analysis was to test and observe the effects of changing the angle of attack
of the airfoil is under and the free stream Mach number that the airfoil is experiencing. After going
through 7 different angles of attack (-2, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10) with 5 different Mach numbers (0.24,
0.36, 0.54, 0.69, and 0.85) each, interesting phenomena were discovered. A major observation was
that the airfoil experienced negative lift when under a –2 angle of attack and at Mach numbers that
are below 0.5. Another interesting observation was the formation of shock waves. All of the shock
waves occurred at a Mach number above 0.69. The reason for this phenomenon is because for a
shock wave to form the flow must be supersonic (local Mach number above 1.2. The camber of
the airfoil can cause a pressure differential that causes the local velocity to speed up to Mach 1.2
while the freestream velocity is subsonic. As air flows past a cambered airfoil it gets accelerated
near the surface. This is explained by streamlines and how airflow follows the stream lines and
can't pass through the stream lines. The cambering of the airfoil reduces the area of the stream line
that is right above the airfoil which shrinks the area that the flow passes through which accelerates
the flow. The flow accelerates because of the law of mass conservation which states that the mass
flux through an air has to be consistent throughout the entire flow. Since flux is area multiplied by
velocity and density, and density goes up slightly, but not enough to counterbalance the decreased
area, and area goes down that means velocity has to go up to compensate for the decreased area.
When looking at the first 3 angles of attack, -2, 0, and 2, near transonic free-stream velocity, shock
waves are formed at both the upper and lower surface which is why lower angles of attack are not
optimal. The reason for this is because a shock wave at both the lower and upper surface means
that the pressure for both drop and the difference will be smaller if there was only a shock wave at
the upper surface. If the upper surface is the only surface that experiences a shockwave that means
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the pressure at the top will lower but the lower surface will be stay the same which means that the
difference in pressure is pretty large which in turn will increase the overall force that is pushing
up on the airfoil which increases the lift that the airplane will experience which is the main goal
and purpose of airfoils.
5. Team Member Roles
 Jacob Taylor: AOA 8, AOA 10, theory of Cm, Cp, Cl, boundary layer, Discussion of
boundary layer, coefficient of drag, stagnation point, streamline analysis, appendix,
formatting, and editing.
 Ryan Kimmich: AOA 2, introduction and discussion of density, abstract, created a guide
for using FieldView for other group members, final edits and formatting, printed and
bounded the final report.
 Adalberto Morales: AOA 0, discussion of lift coefficient versus AOA, general editing and
title formatting.
 Edouard Buisson: AOA 4, discussion on the coefficient of lift versus the coefficient of
drag, and overall editing of format and appendix of the report (table of contents, list of
figures, list of equations)
 Nathan Werkheiser: AOA 10, theory of: shockwaves, Mach number, Cd, Analysis of: lift
vs AOA.
 Shawn Scroger: AOA 6 all Mach numbers, Mach number section, general editing and
formatting
 Vincent Feng: AOA -2 at all Mach numbers, Procedure, Pitching moment, Discussion of
Cp graphs, Equations, Conclusion.
Page 44 of 77
6. Appendix
6.1. Equations
Reynolds number is a non-dimensionalized value that is the ratio between inertia forces and
viscous forces. To calculate Reynolds number, utilize Equation 1:
Boundary layer thickness in laminar flow is the placement of the point measured on the airfoil
divided by the square root of the Reynolds number. To calculate Boundary layer in laminar flow,
utilize Equation 2:
Boundary layer thickness in turbulent flow is the placement of the point measured on the airfoil
divided by the square root of the Reynolds number. To calculate Boundary layer in turbulent flow,
utilize Equation 3: Equation 3:
Lift force is the multiplication of coefficient of lift, density of the fluid, velocity of the fluid, and
area of the wing divided by two. To calculate Lift force, utilize Equation 4:
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Coefficient of pressure is the static pressure minus the freestream pressure divided by the
multiplication of half the freestream pressure by the freestream velocity squared on the airfoil. To
calculate coefficient of pressure, utilize Equation 5:
The lift to drag ratio is the coefficient of lift divided by the coefficient of drag. To calculate the lift
to drag ratio, utilize Equation 6:
6.2. Mach Number Images
6.2.1. AOA: -2 degrees
Figure 42: Mach 0.24 Figure 43: Mach 0.39
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Figure 46: Mach 0.84
6.2.2. AOA: 0 degrees
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Figure 59: Mach 0.54 Figure 60:Mach 0.69
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6.3. Density Images
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6.4. Coefficient of Pressure Images
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6.5. Coefficient of Pressure Plots
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Figure 171 Mach 0.24 Figure 172: Mach 0.39
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6.6. RAE 2822 Airfoil Schematic
Figure 181: RAE2822 Schematic
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Works Cited
Oklahoma State University, www.caselab.okstate.edu/research/validation/rae2822/rae2822.jpg .
“SP-4103 Model Research - Volume 2.” NASA, NASA, history.nasa.gov/SP-4103/app-f.htm.
Page 77 of 77

Aersp 312 Project 2 Final Report

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CFD Analysis of the RAE 2822 Transonic Airfoil

The Pennsylvania State University

Edouard Buisson X_____________________________________

the data from FieldView, the results will then be formulated.

1. Introduction and Theory............................................................................................................4

flow field around the airfoil was observed using FieldView.

1.1. The Boundary Layer

Equation 2: Boundary layer thickness equation with laminar flow.

Equation 3: Boundary layer thickness equation with turbulent flow.

1.2. Mach Number

density increases Mach number increases and vice versa.

neglected. If the flow is low-speed, Bernoulli's equation is valid.

needed to relate incompressible flow to compressible.

across the surface with an increase in density across the shock.

1.5. Aerodynamic Coefficients & Forces

1.5.1. Coefficient of Lift & Lift Force

different conditions in order to properly control the aircraft.

1.5.2. Coefficient of Drag & Drag Force

the larger the Cd and drag.

1.5.3. Pitching Moment Coefficient & Pitching Moment

the center of pressure can be determined.

1.5.4. Coefficient of Pressure

and is defined by Equation 5.

Equation 5: Coefficient of pressure equation.

be change to –1 and 3 respectively.

3. Results and Discussion

pressure gradient and separation is visible, right to left respectively.

Figure 9: Airfoil Separation and Stall

is necessary for shockwaves form.

Figure 10: Flow at AOA = 6 degrees, Mach = 0.24

size of separated flow region will increase as well.

in the downward direction.

and the resultant separation.

number properties becomes evident.

and starts decreasing after that.

3.3. Coefficient of Pressure

comparing Cp in each case.

Figure 16: Plot of location vs Cp: Mach 0.24, AOA 6

airfoil is able to generate lift.

Figure 160: Alpha = 2 degrees, Mach 0.84

maximum speed is and can help determine shock formation.

Figure 17: Plot of location vs Cp: Mach 0.54, AOA –2

Figure 18: Plot of location vs Cp: Mach 0.39, AOA –2

through a shock wave, the Mach number decreases abruptly.

to fall instead of being lifted up.

of flow increases or decreases accordingly, causing a respective increase or decrease in Mach

the density will also be greater.

density as seen in figures 28 and 29 below.

3.5. Coefficient of Lift

higher angle of attack than tested.

Figure 30: Cl versus AOA for Multiple Mach numbers

3.6. Coefficient of Drag

the angle of attack is increased.

3.7. Coefficient of Lift vs. Coefficient of Drag

being used are the coefficients.

Equation 6: Lift over Drag

Figure 127: Coefficient of Pressure at Mach 0.24 and AOA 4°

Figure 132: Coefficient of Pressure at Mach 0.24 and AOA 6°

Figure 34: Coefficient of Moment vs. Angle of Attack

3.9. Stagnation Point

Figure 35: Streamline Stagnation point at Mach 0.24

Figure 36: Streamline Leading Edge Stagnation point at Mach 0.24

Figure 38: Stagnation point at Mach 0.84