Corrosion Science 50 (2008) 3296–3307

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Corrosion Science
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/corsci

Operational based corrosion analysis in naval ships

M.T. Gudze a,*, R.E. Melchers b
a
Defence Science and Technology Organisation, Maritime Platforms Division, 506 Lorimer Street, Melbourne 3207, Australia
b
Centre for Infrastructure Performance and Reliability, School of Engineering, The University of Newcastle, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Life extension of ageing steel structures such as naval ships requires consideration of plate thickness
Received 4 January 2008 losses due to corrosion, particularly when protective measures such as paint coatings and sacrificial pro-
Accepted 20 August 2008 tection are not entirely effective. Traditionally, corrosion prediction models for ships take no account of
Available online 12 September 2008
the operational profile. Consequently, the corrosion models have an inherently high variability with poor
corrosion prediction capability. A new corrosion model for the prediction of corrosion loss in the seawater
Keywords: ballast tanks of naval vessels has been developed. The model incorporates previously available corrosion
A. Mild steel
models for immersion corrosion and atmospheric corrosion and takes account of operational and envi-
B. Modelling studies
B. Weight loss
ronmental variables. Experimental validation is presented for a trial on an operational naval vessel.
C. Atmospheric corrosion Ó 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
C. Microbiological corrosion

1. Introduction deterioration are important inputs for optimal maintenance and

Increasingly, it is important for corrosion rate analysis to be
performed on steel structures such as ships, offshore platforms
and bridges to determine their safe operating life and for the devel-
opment of effective and efficient maintenance practices. Optimal
timeframes for asset availability and for planned redundancy also
demand information about corrosion rates [1]. Corrosion loss
affects the effective load capacity of steel plating through causing
plating thickness loss. General or ‘uniform’ corrosion as estimated
from mass loss experiments is of main interest. It may involve the
coalescence of multiple corrosion pits, as evident by visual obser-
vation of unprotected mild or low alloy steels as used in the con-
struction of the majority of ships, including naval vessels.
The design of steel ships typically incorporates a corrosion
allowance, i.e. an amount of corrosion loss that can be tolerated
before the structural system is considered compromised. For com-
mercial ships such as bulk carriers and tankers the extent of corro-
sion loss is monitored through classification society ship surveys
[2]. Corrosion protection measures include paint coatings and sac-
rificial anode systems for immersed areas. However, these meth-
ods are not always wholly effective, and continual maintenance
usually is required but not always applied. In extreme cases, repair
and replacement of structural details may be necessary, incurring
very considerable cost penalties due to direct repair costs and to
delay costs. It follows that the estimates of the expected rate of
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 9626 8162; fax: +61 3 9626 8181.
E-mail addresses: matthew.gudze@dsto.defence.gov.au, mgudze@gmail.com
(M.T. Gudze).
repair decisions for ships.
Ships are exposed to a range of corrosion environments and as a
result the patterns of corrosion vary widely. Ballast tanks and void
spaces, and cargo holds in commercial ships such as bulk carriers,
usually are exposed to quite different corrosion environments and
this can influence the rate of corrosion. The structural details and
the orientation and position within the space within a given envi-
ronment also will cause different corrosion patterns and rates [3].
For immersion environments, influences on corrosion include
chemical factors such as salinity, oxygen content, pH and presence
of pollutants; physical factors such as temperature and pressure;
and biological factors such as bacteria and biomass [4]. For ballast
tanks the immersion environment usually is considered the most
critical but in modelling the corrosion process attention might also
need to be given to the occurrence of repeated wet–dry cycles as a
result of the tanks being filled and emptied to adjust the freeboard
trim of the ship [5,6]. In addition, the presence of sacrificial anodes
may have some influence, although they are effective only under
immersed conditions and for uncoated areas. Thus, a de-ballasted
tank will not be protected. It follows that the amount of corrosion
in a ballast tank is a function of the environment, the type of cor-
rosion protection and the tank status. Apart from corrosion protec-
tion and operational practices, the main influence on the
environmental parameters is the result of the conditions encoun-
tered during operations – what might be called the trading route,
including geographical influences [3].
The present paper uses two previously developed corrosion
models to construct a model for the ‘uniform’ corrosion loss to
be expected in seawater ballast tanks of a typical naval vessel.

0010-938X/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.corsci.2008.08.048
 M.T. Gudze, R.E. Melchers / Corrosion Science 50 (2008) 3296–3307
Seawater ballast tanks are of particular interest, since they often
have the highest rates of corrosion due to high internal humidity
and the difficulty of access for maintenance. In order to validate
the proposed corrosion model, an experimental trial was con-
ducted using unpainted mild steel coupons exposed inside the sea-
water ballast tanks of an operational naval ship. Herein results are
presented for the modelling parameters involved as compared
with observed coupon corrosion loss and measured environmental
conditions.
2. Models for estimating corrosion of steel structures
The earliest corrosion models were developed entirely from
empirical data sourced from thickness measurement surveys. Most
data relates to bulk carriers and tankers and was obtained from
many ships and for various locations within ships [7]. Impetus
for this work may have been added by concerns over the ageing
of ships, particularly of bulk carriers, and the numerous marine
accidents resulting in structural failure and serious environmental
consequences [8]. Because of the criticality of these matters, ship
corrosion models increasingly are required to be of high quality
and to produce accurate prediction of likely corrosion loss and its
extent [9].
Earlier corrosion loss models presented corrosion loss in terms
of a constant ‘corrosion rate’, implying a constant rate of plate
thickness reduction over time. The better efforts also included an
estimate of the nominal or calculated variation [5,10]. This allowed
these models to be used in structural reliability analyses [11–14]
although typically these models exhibited a high degree of vari-
ability and thus tended to produce poor estimates of the lifetime
risk of failure.
A more refined approach, still empirically based, took into ac-
count the physical phenomena of the corrosion process. Three
stages were considered: (1) the effective life of the coating before
corrosion begins, (2) the generation of initial corrosion pitting
points, and (3) the subsequent progress of corrosion [15,16]. In
some cases the latter was described by a non-linear function such
as
dðtÞ ¼ a  t b
where d is the depth of pitting or corrosion loss as a function of time
t and both coefficients a and b are obtained from empirical fits to
the data. Sometimes they have been presented as random variables
with probability distributions obtained to obtain a good fit to the
empirical data. Corrosion models that account for the physical pro-
cesses of corrosion, for paint life estimates and for a gradual break-
down of coatings before the onset of non-linear corrosion also were
proposed [14,17,18]. For example, the progression of corrosion was
proposed in the form [17]
dðtÞ ¼ d1 ð1  et=s tÞ
where st is the transition time, d(t) is the thickness of corrosion
wastage at time t and d1 is the long-term thickness of corrosion
wastage.
In all cases the corrosion models require calibration to empirical
corrosion loss data to determine the values of parameters in the
model. For example, data for annual corrosion rates used by
Yamamoto and Ikegami [15] were sourced from 27 very large bulk
carriers with 7581 data points. The coefficient of variation (COV)
ranged from 0.51 to 0.74 [3]. Paik et al. [14,19] applied data from
7503 data points from 44 bulk carriers with a minimum COV of
0.66, however, most were above 1.0. These studies represent a
thorough presentation of corrosion loss data, however, due to the
large variations it has limited value for prediction and assessment
of remaining life [3]. Moreover, since these models are based on
3297
historical data and on data collected from many ships operating
under quite varied operational conditions, they have very limited
capability to be used in predictive studies for any one particular
vessel.
A different approach to corrosion loss modelling is to base the
modelling effort to a greater or lesser extent on the actual pro-
cesses involved in the corrosion process [20,21]. This means that
models must take some levels of account of the various factors
known to be important in the corrosion of steel in natural seawa-
ters, including oxygen concentration [22], marine growth and bac-
teriological effects [23], pit formation and growth [24] and
diffusion of reactants through the rust layer [25–27]. A model that
has been developed along these lines is now available [20]. It has
mean seawater temperature as the main parameter [28] and has
been calibrated to corrosion data obtained for mild and low alloy
steel coupons exposed to near-surface seawater conditions. Tem-
perature is particularly relevant for ships since the effect of opera-
tion at elevated temperatures has been implicated in a number of
catastrophic failures of bulk carrier ships [29]. This model forms
the main part of the model described herein for ballast tank
corrosion.
The other form of corrosion relevant to ship structures and to
ballast tanks is marine atmospheric corrosion. The model proposed
by Gardiner and Melchers [30] accounts for the chemical and phys-
ical processes of ship corrosion in an enclosed atmospheric envi-
ronment and, as is usual for atmospheric corrosion, depends on
temperature, time of wetness and salt deposition, but also on the
voyage time [31]. This model forms the second part of the model
for ballast tank corrosion.
In developing corrosion loss models account must be taken of
the operational profile of the ship, as highlighted by Gardiner
and Melchers [3]. They considered the topside ballast tanks, double
bottom ballast tanks and cargo spaces in bulk carriers. Factors in-
clude tank status, effectiveness of protective coatings and presence
or otherwise of sacrificial anodes. It is considered that a similar ap-
proach is required for the ballast tanks in naval vessels.
3. Models for immersion and enclosed atmospheric corrosion
ð1Þ
3.1. Immersion corrosion
Immersion corrosion occurs when the seawater ballast tanks
are fully ballasted, i.e. fully filled with seawater. Assuming a high
degree of loss of coating protection, the corrosion process may be
represented using the phenomenological marine immersion corro-
sion model proposed by Melchers [20]. The mean value corrosion
loss model as a function of exposure time, and the parameters
describing the model are shown Fig. 1.
The immersion corrosion model consists of five phases [32] that
describe the phenomenon of corrosion progression. Phase 0 con-
ð2Þ
sists of very short-term kinetic and bacterial influences that may
be ignored in practical applications. Phase 1 represents the situa-
tion when the rate of corrosion is controlled by the diffusion of
oxygen from the seawater. It may be modelled, closely, as a
straight line, implying a constant corrosion rate (r0). Phase 2 is
non-linear and controlled by the rate of oxygen diffusion through
the (increasing thickness of the) rust layers, assumed, theoretically,
to be have uniform diffusion properties. Evidently, there is a
smooth transition from Phase 1 to Phase 2. Phase 2 will proceed
until point AP is reached, at which time anaerobic conditions begin
to occur under the rust layers next to the corroding steel. In prac-
tice there is likely to be a smooth transition around AP as not all
points on a corroding surface are precisely at the same stage [20].
Phase 3 is the theoretical start of predominantly anaerobic con-
trolled corrosion, associated with the metabolic activity of sulphate
3298 M.T. Gudze, R.E. Melchers / Corrosion Science 50 (2008) 3296–3307

Table 1
Zero mean uncertainty estimates

Component variability Standard deviation [35]

Coupon (rc) (0.006 + 0.0003T)(t/ta)
Composition (rcomp) (0.016)(t/ta)
Location (rlocn) (0.03)(t/ta)

Table 2
Values of constants for enclosed atmospheric corrosion model [30]

Study k1 k2 k3
1 0.0474 0.00611 0.00629
2 0.688 0.00359 0.028
3 0.146 0.00439 0.00663
4 0.127 0.00787 0.00953
Fig. 1. Marine immersion corrosion model for mild steel for near-surface ‘at sea’ 5 0.08 0.0014 0.00654
conditions [20]. 6 0.005 0.00241 0.00568

reducing bacteria (SRB). At first this activity is high owing to the

4. Ballast tank corrosion model
high availability of nutrients but as this settles down the corrosion
rate slows to the rate described by Phase 4. This may be modelled,
The two corrosion models outlined above were used to develop
closely, as linear with time. The model has been proposed in a
the operational-based ballast tank corrosion model. The key oper-
probabilistic setting with the mean value function for corrosion
ational profile inputs to this model are (i) the geographical sea area
loss given by f(t, T) as a function of time (t) and temperature (T)
of operation of the naval vessel and (ii) the ballast condition. Fig. 2
[20]. Each phase may be described mathematically as follows:
shows the flowchart relating these to corrosion loss. It begins by
8
> r 0 ¼ 0:0539ð2Þ0:1T mm year1 Phase 1 ðaÞ defining the geographical area of operation of the vessel to deter-
>
>
>
< mine the temperature via a sea surface temperature (SST) data
½3ðEt þ FÞ1=3 mm Phase 2 ðbÞ set. Then, depending on the ballast condition, either the immersion
f ðt; TÞ ¼
>
> r a ¼ 0:066 exp ð0:061TÞ mm year1 Phase 3 ðcÞ corrosion model or the enclosed atmospheric corrosion model is
>
>
:
r s ¼ 0:045 exp ð0:017TÞ mm year1 Phase 4 ðdÞ selected to estimate ballast tank corrosion loss. The variability of
ð3Þ the ballast tank corrosion model is derived directly from the zero
mean uncertainly estimates (Table 1) given for the phenomenolog-
The coefficients E and F are functions of temperature [33]. The ical marine immersion corrosion model.
point AP is described by parameters ca and time ta, given by [20] The geographical sea area of operation of the ship, with the time
of year of operation, will determine the average temperature likely
t a ¼ 6:61 expð0:088TÞ ð4Þ to be experienced in the ballast tank. It may be assumed that the
ca ¼ 0:32 expð0:038TÞ ð5Þ internal temperature of the ballast tank is approximately equal
to the external SST, since the ballast tanks are at or below the
Also, the parameter cs is [20] waterline and there is only a (highly conductive) steel plate sepa-
rating the inside of the tank from the external seawater. The SST
cs ¼ 0:075 þ 5678T 4 ð6Þ was obtained from the World Ocean Atlas 1998 [35] and resolved
The parameter functions (Eqs. (3)–(6)) have all been obtained from for each ocean area [36] and for each month. Fig. 3 shows an exam-
fitting long-term corrosion data to the model [20]. Recently [32] ple monthly dataset, with the various ocean areas defined. This
slight modifications have been proposed for Eqs. (1d and 6 but these data was used in both the phenomenological marine immersion
do not significantly affect the results given herein. and enclosed atmospheric corrosion models.
In addition to the mean value corrosion loss curve a zero mean As indicated in Fig. 2 the ballast condition affects the corrosion
uncertainty estimate is available [34]. This was derived from corro- environment and hence the component corrosion model that is ap-
sion coupon weight loss data as summarized in Table 1. plied. In general, it is difficult to predict the status of the ballast
tank for any given period and for the different geographical regions
3.2. Enclosed atmospheric corrosion through which the vessel may travel. The approach taken to esti-
mate this was to consider the log of the ballast condition over a
The model adopted for the atmospheric corrosion inside the period of 70 days for a typical active naval vessel. This indicated
ballast tanks when de-ballasted is that developed by Gardiner that for some 25% of the time the tank is fully ballasted (Fig. 4).
and Melchers [30]. It describes the corrosion loss of unprotected This figure was assumed as indicative for all long-term corrosion
mild steel as a linear function of time and is given by [30] predictions.

Mass loss=voyage ¼ WF  VT  ðk1 þ k2 ½Salt þ k3 TÞ ð7Þ

The units of mass loss are millimetres, WF is the percentage
wetting fraction, VT is the voyage time in years, [Salt] is the salt
concentration in parts per million (ppm), T is temperature (°C)
and k1, k2 and k3 are constants. Table 2 shows a range of sample
values of the constants as derived from published data. It is seen
that there is considerable variability, not attributable to any partic-
ular influencing factor [30].
5. Example 1 – three-year output
As an example, consider now the prediction of the corrosion
loss over a period of three years for a vessel operating in a sea area
located on the eastern Australian sea board. Fig. 5 shows plots of
typical outputs for daily and cumulative corrosion loss for (a)
immersion corrosion only, i.e. for the fully-ballasted tank, (b) en-
closed atmospheric corrosion only, i.e. for the de-ballasted tank
 M.T. Gudze, R.E. Melchers / Corrosion Science 50 (2008) 3296–3307 3299

Fig. 2. Operational simulation program flowchart (based on Gardiner and Melchers [3]).

Fig. 3. Monthly average sea surface temperatures [35] as applied with the sea areas defined by British Maritime Technology [36].

operational area during this period. These outputs of the ballast

tank corrosion model will now be described.
In applying the immersion corrosion model some simplifica-
tions were made. Firstly, a best-fit equation was used to determine
the time of transition between Phase 1 and Phase 2 (Fig. 1). This
point was represented by
t1!2 ðtÞ ¼ 0:003t  0:1814t þ 2:668 ð8Þ
Also, the mathematics for Phase 2 was simplified by determin-
ing a best-fit equation for the coefficients E and F as a function of
temperature (T). The functions are complex and for simplicity they
were simplified by considering only temperatures above 10 °C (as
is realistic for ballast tanks). The functions used were

EðTÞ ¼ 0:0031e0:0471T ð9Þ

Fig. 4. Typical ballast tank usage for a typical active naval ship.
and (c) the combination of these conditions based on simulated
ballast cycles given in Fig. 4. Fig. 5d shows the SST input from this
6 2
FðTÞ ¼ 6e T þ 0:0003T  0:0039 ð10Þ
In applying the atmospheric corrosion model an estimate was
required for the surface salt concentration and the wetting frac-
tion. For the constants (k1, k2 and k3) average values estimated
3300 M.T. Gudze, R.E. Melchers / Corrosion Science 50 (2008) 3296–3307

Fig. 5. Simulated three-year corrosion predictions showing daily and cumulative corrosion loss for operations on the eastern Australian seaboard for (a) 100% immersion
corrosion, (b) 100% enclosed atmospheric corrosion and (c) a mixture of immersion and enclosed atmospheric corrosion based on simulated ballast tank conditions. Sea
surface temperatures (d) for this operational region are also shown and cumulative corrosion loss outputs also exhibit error bars representing variability of one standard
deviation.

Table 3
from Table 2 were used – see Table 3. It should be noted that these Values of constants used in the enclosed atmospheric corrosion model
values were derived from published experimental results with
k1 k2 k3
exposure times of not more than one year [30]. Typical ship ballast
tanks may corrode for longer than this since the minimum time be- Average value from Table 2 0.10523 0.004295 0.010445
tween inspection and repair for navy vessels typically is about 1.5
years.
Since the relative humidity in ballast tanks is typically above
70% for most of the time [30], it was assumed, conservatively, that of steel for 80% of the time. It was also assumed that the ship will
the wetting fraction (WF) was 0.8. This means that there will be be on a continued voyage, so that the voyage time becomes the
sufficient moisture for corrosion to proceed on the exposed areas time of exposure. Thus Eq. (7) simplifies to
 M.T. Gudze, R.E. Melchers / Corrosion Science 50 (2008) 3296–3307
Corrosion lossðmmÞ ¼ 0:8tðk1 þ k2 ½Salt þ k3 TÞ
where t is the exposure time in years.
Finally, as a first approximation a salt concentration of 10 ppm
was used for all predictions. Using this value together with the
other inputs produced an one-year corrosion rate of 0.12 mm/year
at 20 °C. Interestingly, this compares favourably with empirical
values given for tanker ships [37]. To estimate the importance of
the salt concentration level, a sensitivity analysis was carried out.
This showed that the one-year corrosion rate at 20 °C increased
to 0.25 mm/year when the salt concentration was increased to
50 ppm.
Fig. 5 also shows the daily and cumulative corrosion losses for
the simulated ballast conditions, i.e. using tank status data
(Fig. 4) and using outputs for both immersion and atmospheric cor-
rosion. The daily corrosion loss curve is seen to have two parts. The
first part represents the (approximately sinusoidal) change as a re-
sult of the changing seasonal temperatures as relevant for the en-
closed atmospheric corrosion model. The second part consists of
the spikes. These are for immersion corrosion under the ballast
condition and are the result of the changing phases with time in
the immersion corrosion model. It might be noted that the change
in ballast condition does not affect the progression of the phase
transitions in the immersion corrosion model.
Fig. 6. Sea surface temperature plot using known geographical locations of a naval
vessel.
Fig. 7. Cumulative corrosion loss in sea water ballast tanks using actual geograph-
ical locations of a naval vessel.
3301
ð11Þ It is highly liked that the frequency of ballasting would affect
the interaction of the two models, however, at present they are
seen as mutually exclusive. In practice, it is likely that there will
be some interaction between the corrosion losses in the ballasted
and the un-ballasted conditions, and this should be reflected in
the models used. This has not been considered in the present work.
Also, in practice naval ships are not operated in one particular geo-
graphical sea area as assumed above. Moreover, there will be var-
iation in the operations and this will affect the ballasting profile. In
order to obtain an estimate of these influences, a set of realistic
data for the geographical area of operation was applied. The data
was derived from navy fleet activity schedules. Fig. 6 shows the
SST data using known geographical locations of the ship and
Fig. 7 shows the resulting cumulative corrosion losses using these
temperature inputs.
6. Example 2 – lifetime corrosion loss scenario
The objective of the ballast tank corrosion model lies in the pre-
diction of how much corrosion is likely to occur in unprotected re-
gions of the seawater ballast tanks and in using that information to
optimise protection and repair measures. An alternate application
is to use the prediction of corrosion likely to occur as a function of
operational conditions such that the operational profile of the ship
can be managed to achieve or exceed a desired minimum lifetime.
Fig. 8 shows the simulated corrosion loss outcomes for a ship oper-
ated in colder waters early in its life so as to reduce early corrosion,
followed by higher corrosion losses later, as it is operated in war-
mer waters.
7. Experimental validation
To validate the proposed corrosion loss model, corrosion data
was collected by exposing unpainted mild steel coupons in a sea-
water ballast tank of an operational naval vessel. The on-board trial
employed lasted 541 days during which tank water temperature,
humidity and ballast condition were monitored.
Because it was not possible to interfere with the structure of an
operating naval vessel, the nearest that could be achieved to esti-
mate the mass loss due to corrosion of ship’s plating was the use
of corrosion coupons. These were necessarily separate from the
ship’s plating. During the exposure period temperature, relative
humidity and ballast tank status were monitored as the modelling
work showed these to be the critical parameters.
Fig. 8. Lifetime analysis using ballast tank corrosion model.
3302 M.T. Gudze, R.E. Melchers / Corrosion Science 50 (2008) 3296–3307
7.1. Method and installation
A total of 64 coupons of mild steel composition similar to that of
the ship’s plating were sourced from the shipyard where the ship
was built. The coupons were laser cut to a size 100  50 mm from
a 4 mm thickness D36 grade steel plate. The coupons edges were
de-burred and holes were pattern-drilled for identification
purposes.
The coupons were prepared for exposure by sand-blast clean-
ing, measuring for size (length, width and thickness to 0.01 mm)
and weighing to the nearest 0.0001 g. The coupons were attached
to a test pod made from 150 mm diameter standard PVC pipe using
a nylon nut and bolt and spaced from the pod using a short length
of vinyl tubing. Two test pods were used, each suspended by ropes
from the internal stiffeners within the tank and sufficiently far
from plating and stiffeners so as to reduce the likelihood of damage
to the hull structure during ship operations (Fig. 9).
A snorkel-like sensor unit was constructed to house the individ-
ual sensors for air temperature, relative humidity and water level.
It was placed in the upper space of one of the compartments of the
ballast tank used for the trial (Fig. 9). The temperature sensor uti-
lised was a Type K thermocouple (chromel and alumel). The ballast
condition of the tank was recorded using a polysulphide drop float
switch and the relative humidity was measured using a Vaisala
50Y HUMITTER Humidity and Temperature probe fitted with an
INTERCAP capacitor-type humidity sensor. The humidity sensor
has an operating range 0–100% RH (±2% RH at 20 °C) with a 0–
1 V DC output [38]. Because humidity sensors are known not to re-
act well to a marine environment, it was not expected that the life
of the humidity sensor would be very long but might at least sur-
vive a few weeks and thereby provide some useful information in
the early stages of the trial.
The moisture proof data logger box (360  200  150 mm) con-
tained a Datataker DT50 low voltage data acquisition unit with
power supplied via re-chargeable 6 V battery. A 5–12 V DC con-
verter was also required in order to power the humidity sensor
during data readings. The data logger box was installed in the com-
partment immediately above the seawater ballast tank. Connec-
tions to the sensor unit required a cable penetration through the
deck head. In order to minimize interference with the structure
of the ship, a special temporary hatch cover with a through-deck
fitting was manufactured for this purpose. The ballast level,
Fig. 9. Schematic cross section of the ballast tanks in the bow region showing installation of experimental equipment.
humidity and temperature within the tank were recorded through-
out the trial period.
A series of four exposure periods with coupon recoveries at
three months period were planned. At each time point the data
was downloaded from the data logger, its batteries recharged
and one set of coupons recovered. Vessel operations dictated the
actual recovery time points. The first set of 16 coupons was recov-
ered after 94 days. Further sets of 16 coupons were recovered at
211, 294 and 541 days of exposure. The last set of coupons could
not be collected close to the planned 12 months period due to
the extended operation of the ship during this time. Fig. 10 shows
the external condition of coupons after each of the exposure
periods.
7.2. Results and observations
After collection the coupons were cleaned and weighed accord-
ing to well-established corrosion testing principles. Cleaning was
performed using Clarke’s solution according to designation C.3.1
of ASTM G1 (1994) [39]. A summary of corrosion loss measure-
ments is shown in Table 4.
Fig. 11 shows the recorded temperature, humidity and ballast
condition over the complete period of the trial. Although consider-
able effort was made to protect the humidity sensor seawater
splashing on to the capacitor eventually rendered it non-func-
tional. As noted, this was not unexpected. It is evident from the
trace shown in Fig. 11 that the effectiveness of the sensor de-
creased some time after the first ballasting period and that this be-
came more serious subsequently. Hence the later humidity data
should be disregarded.
7.3. Comparison to model predictions
The results from the shipboard trial were compared with the
output from the corrosion model. Fig. 12 shows a comparison be-
tween the predicted sea surface temperature (as used in the corro-
sion model) and the shipboard temperature recorded inside the
ballast tank. Over the total experimental period, the (absolute)
mean daily difference between the two data sets is 1.3 °C, with
the overall mean difference being around 0.05 °C.
Both temperature data sets, i.e. predicted sea surface tempera-
ture and the ballast tank observed temperature, were used in the
 M.T. Gudze, R.E. Melchers / Corrosion Science 50 (2008) 3296–3307 3303

Fig. 10. Test pods in-situ showing exteriors of coupons after exposure periods of (a) 94 days, (b) 211 days, (c) 294 days and (d) 541 days.

model to estimate the corrosion loss as a function of exposure variability from the ballast tank corrosion model at the times cor-
time. The estimates are shown in Fig. 13. Also shown in Fig. 13 responding to that of the observed corrosion loss.
are the four average corrosion losses determined from the corro- The observed corrosion losses and the components of the corro-
sion coupons. The error bars represent one standard deviation of sion model also can be compared, assuming these were acting
3304 M.T. Gudze, R.E. Melchers / Corrosion Science 50 (2008) 3296–3307

Table 4
Average coupon thickness reduction and coefficients of variation

Time exposed in seawater ballast tank (days) 94 211 294 541

a
Average corrosion loss (mm) 0.0253 0.0965 0.1212 0.242
Coefficient of variation (COV) of corrosion loss 0.055 0.056 0.036 0.042
a
Note: This is an equivalent one-sided thickness reduction and is determined
from a total of 16 steel coupons after each exposure period.

Fig. 13. Comparison of shipboard trial and simulated corrosion losses. Simulated
results use the ballast tank corrosion model with inputs of either the shipboard trial
water temperature or published sea surface temperature (with error bars of one
standard deviation).

Fig. 11. Environmental parameters recorded from sensors in seawater ballast tank.

Fig. 14. Comparison of shipboard trial and simulated corrosion losses with similar
output for the immersion model and atmospheric model acting alone (i.e. fully
ballasted or fully de-ballasted predictions). Also shown are the observed corrosion
losses, at corresponding times the variability of one standard deviation are shown
for the combined simulated outcome.

Fig. 12. Ballast tank temperature from the Type K thermocouple used during the
shipboard trial and compared with the predicted sea surface temperature based on
geographical area and date of ship operations.
alone. Only the case of recorded tank temperatures is considered
here. The possibilities are (i) immersion only, corresponding to
the ballast tank being continually filled and (ii) atmospheric, corre-
sponding to the ballast tank being continually empty but humid.
Fig. 14 shows the results together with the combination model
from Fig. 13 and the data points for the actually observed corrosion
losses.
8. Discussion
Although a very small part of a naval vessel, the ballast tanks
are known to dominate maintenance activity due to the highly
aggressive internal environment and the criticality of this part of
the vessel in its operations. It follows that accurate predictions
are desirable and therefore the assumptions made in the models
are of interest.
It was assumed that the marine immersion corrosion model
developed for coupon data is applicable to immersion corrosion
in seawater ballast tanks. Further work may be needed to confirm
this. The model assumes ‘at sea’ conditions that are defined as fully
oxygenated and for unpolluted fresh seawater with typical coastal
seawater bacteriological content [28]. It needs to be established
whether this is a valid assumption for typical ballast waters in na-
val vessels. For example, it would be expected that a ‘freshly’ bal-
lasted tank would contain fully oxygenated seawater, however,
within the enclosed ballast tank environment this may be depleted
with time as a result of on-going corrosion. This could induce the
early onset of anaerobic bacteriological activity and hence corro-
sion. It is also assumed that the bacteriological component of sea-
water would be similar to that experienced inside the tanks.
However, due to the lack of natural sunlight within the tank of
the bacteriological action could deviate from ‘at sea’ conditions.
 M.T. Gudze, R.E. Melchers / Corrosion Science 50 (2008) 3296–3307
Further, the level of pollution within ballast tanks, even for naval
vessels, could differ from ‘at sea’ conditions.
The major assumption herein regarding the application of the
atmospheric corrosion model was regarding the level of surface
salt concentration. In the examples given above, experimentally
observed data was not used but generic data was employed. An
example is the nominal salt concentration of 10 ppm used herein.
Evidently, the atmospheric corrosion loss estimation may be im-
proved by using experimentally determined surface salt concentra-
tions. The modelling procedure, of course, is not affected.
Under advanced corrosion conditions there is an apparent
anomaly between the immersion and the atmospheric corrosion
models when ballast conditions change. The immersion model
may be in the anaerobic range but the atmospheric corrosion mod-
el used herein does not recognize such a state. This is a conse-
quence of the nature of the atmospheric corrosion model
adopted. However, recent research has shown that anaerobic con-
ditions are also likely to exist under advanced atmospheric corro-
sion conditions [40]. Moreover, it is known that alternating
oxidation and anaerobic conditions can exist and also that they
can cause high rates of corrosion. Evidently, there remains room
for improvement of the models to account for these factors.
Both the immersion and atmospheric models are based on data
from coupon weight losses. Concern has been expressed about the
validity of using these for continuous structures but the available
evidence is that this is not an issue except for highly advanced
states of corrosion when fatigue and stress issues start to affect
corrosion [28]. These effects are not likely to be significant for
well-maintained vessels with relatively low levels of corrosion
loss.
The experimental trial extended over 541 days and produced a
total corrosion loss of 0.242 mm. This corresponds to an average
corrosion rate of 0.163 mm/year. It compares reasonably well with
the range of rates of general corrosion in the literature. For various
structural details in crude oil tankers, they are in the range 0.08–
0.21 mm/year [12]. For ballast tanks, corrosion rates of between
0.046 and 0.289 mm/year have been reported [6] with likely corro-
sion loss allowance rates in ships for segregated ballast tanks of be-
tween 0.04 and 0.10 mm/year for bottom shell plating and
between 0.20 and 1.20 mm/year for longitudinal bulkhead web
stiffeners [41]. The comparison between these values and those ob-
served for the naval vessel provides a reasonable degree of confi-
dence that the observations are realistic.
As noted, temperature, the main environmental variable of
interest, affects the progression of corrosion with time. For predic-
tions using the model a database of geographically based sea sur-
face temperatures (SST) was used. However, more accurate
temperature data obtained in-situ could be used, and it is of interest
to compare predictions based on generic temperature data and on
measured data. Fig. 12 shows both the SST and the actual ballast
tank temperature recorded from the Type K thermocouple. Clearly
there is a good agreement, adding confidence to the assumption in
the model that SST can be used to approximate the ballast tank
temperature. Over the duration of the test, there is surprisingly lit-
tle difference between the data sets. Some differences might have
been expected since the SST data set combines temperatures spread
over large areas of ocean and then has these combined to produce
monthly averages. Evidently, even closer correspondence might
be possible if SST data of a higher resolution were to be used, how-
ever, the results shown herein indicate that greater resolution is not
warranted for modelling purposes. The results indicate that with-
out access to actual environmental data the use of the SST database
is a rational means to predict temperatures in the ballast tanks of a
naval ship giving the geographical route of the vessel is known.
However, this may not be correct in the case of commercial bulk
carriers with single or double hulls particularly if the holds contain
3305
cargo (e.g. iron ore or coal) higher in temperature than ambient.
This may affect the temperature inside nearby ballast tanks.
The float switch used to monitor the ballast condition during
the shipboard trial provided two pieces of information, (i) the spe-
cific time when the tank is ballasted and (ii) the overall ratio of
time in the ballasted and de-ballasted condition. The first was used
to determine which of the two corrosion loss models (immersion
or atmospheric) to apply to estimate the daily corrosion losses.
For long-term corrosion loss prediction, however, the exact
sequencing and timing of ballasting is unlikely to be known in de-
tail and the expected ratio of the ballasted to de-ballasted status of
the tank is more useful. In the present investigation the tank was
ballasted for about 55 days during the trial, i.e. about 10% of the to-
tal time. Moreover, this may not be typical as the ballast tank
instrumented was the largest on the ship and is usually the last
to be ballasted with seawater as significant amounts of fuel are
being consumed. It can be expected that for other ballast tanks
and for other vessels the ballasting ratio would be different. The ra-
tio also would depend on the size of the tank and the type of ship.
It follows that where longer-term corrosion loss prediction is of
interest, the exact ballast condition is unlikely to be needed, but
rather the ballasting to de-ballasting ratio would be used in mod-
elling. In this regard, the validity of applying the immersion and
the atmospheric corrosion models separately to account for the
dry–wet cycles has been assumed throughout as sufficiently accu-
rate. This aspect requires further research although the indications
from the modelling to date suggests that it us unlikely to be a ma-
jor issue.
Relative humidity, measured during the trial, is a parameter
known to be important for estimating atmospheric corrosion loss.
For interior ship spaces it has been estimated that above about 90%
RH the moisture content is sufficiently high for wetting of the sur-
face to occur and for wet corrosion to proceed [30]. The experimen-
tal observations (Fig. 11) showed that early in the trial the relative
humidity was close to 100% and then declined but stayed around
70–75% for most of the trial. As noted, the later results must be
treated with caution owing to the loss of calibration as the humid-
ity sensor became affected by prolonged exposure to the saline
environment.
Whether coupons are realistic for representing the actual corro-
sion losses inside ballast tanks also is of interest. There are at least
three issues: (i) the effect of dynamic loading on corrosion loss, (ii)
the effect of structural orientation and (iii) the effect of corrosion
protection measures.
Regarding the first, the corrosion coupons were exposed in the
ballast tank as shown in Fig. 9, with the only possible external
loading on them being due to sloshing forces of seawater in the
tank. In contrast, structural details that make up a ballast tank
would experience dynamic loading with associated flexing as a re-
sult of movement of the ship through the seaway. It is possible that
the dynamic flexing could accelerate the corrosion process due to
some, or all, of the corrosion product spalling from the metal sub-
strate. However, this is likely to be the case only when there is se-
vere corrosion loss and strains are very high since it is known that
moderate strains have negligible effect on corrosion loss [25].
In-situ plate thickness measurements (e.g. ultrasonics) are often
used to estimate thickness losses but the resolution obtainable,
while acceptable for period classification assessments, is inade-
quate for on-going monitoring and for development of corrosion
loss models. Actual attachment of coupons to the surface of the
ship structure so as to allow transfer of strain and hence stress to
the coupon might be possible in principle and has been attempted
in other studies, e.g. [42], though in most cases the coupling cannot
directly transfer the strains of the ship due to flexibility in the cou-
pling. In the present study operational constraints did not permit
this approach.
3306 M.T. Gudze, R.E. Melchers / Corrosion Science 50 (2008) 3296–3307
For naval ships severe levels of rust leading to spalling is unli-
kely to occur due to the maintenance scheme of these structures.
It may be concluded, therefore, that the use of coupons for estimat-
ing corrosion loss as used in the present shipboard trial is suffi-
ciently accurate to represent actual corrosion losses for ship
structural details.
Much more conservative estimates of corrosion loss can, of
course, be obtained from the corrosion loss models if only the early
rates (r0) are considered. Both the corrosion loss models incorpo-
rated in the ballast tank corrosion model consider the initial rate
of corrosion loss corresponding to the situation with little or no
corrosion product build-up. Thus Phase 1 of the immersion corro-
sion model may be used to estimate the governing corrosion rate if
rust layers are continually removed. The atmospheric corrosion
model already is based on empirical corrosion loss data in the first
year of corrosion, i.e. before significant build up of rust layers.
The orientation of the structural details is likely to affect corro-
sion progression. Generally structural members located in the low-
er regions of the tanks and those horizontally aligned where water
is pooled on surfaces tend to exhibit higher corrosion rates [14].
These structural details may dominate corrosion progression in
commercial bulk carriers, however for naval ships the slenderness
and flare of the hull combined with smaller spaces for ballast tanks
indicates that overall the plating details are more closely aligned to
the vertical plane and therefore the vertical orientation is appropri-
ate to represent the corrosion conditions in the naval ship ballast
tank. Obviously, this issue will require further consideration when
dealing with commercial vessels, such as through using horizontal
and inclined coupons. However, the principles laid out in the pres-
ent study remain valid.
The effect of the protective coatings and cathodic protection
also is of interest. It is an important factor in simulating overall
long-term deterioration of a ship structure. As noted, coating ‘life’
was not considered in the present work, mainly because the state
of the art for coating life estimation is still largely empirical. Pub-
lished data on coating life is scarce and the best practical approach
appears to be close inspection and continual assessment of the
likelihood of coating breakdown on an actual structure [41]. There
is little quantitative data for developing useful models of coating
breakdown [43]. Cathodic protection will limit the onset of im-
mersed corrosion at defects in coatings, but will not protect in
the de-ballasted condition. These topics are obvious areas for more
research.
9. Conclusion
Corrosion is known to influence the useful lifetime of ship struc-
tures and to affect their lifetime operating costs. Herein a model is
presented for the corrosion to be expected in ballast tanks of naval
vessels. The model takes direct account of the operational profile of
the vessel and in particular the temperature variations as the ship
operates in different geographical areas. The model also considers
the variation of ballasting conditions. The model uses two previ-
ously developed models, one for the corrosion of mild steel under
marine immersion conditions and another for corrosion under
atmospheric conditions as previously calibrated for use in enclosed
spaces.
Results were presented of a shipboard trial for assessment of
corrosion in the seawater ballast tanks of an operational naval ves-
sel. The results show a close correlation between the corrosion
model simulations and the experimental observations. Addition-
ally, the measured temperatures within the ballast tank showed
good correlation with those predicted using geographically
sourced sea surface temperatures.
Acknowledgments
The work reported herein was a collaboration between the Uni-
versity of Newcastle, Australia and the Defence Science and Tech-
nology Organisation, Department of Defence, Australia. The
authors appreciated the support provided by the Royal Australian
Navy in permitting the shipboard field trial in the ballast tanks
aboard an operational naval ship.
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