Chemical Technology I (Inorganic)

Lecture 7
History and Manufacturing of Glass Industries

Taught By:
Sanjay Kumar Sah
M.S. [Chemical Technology, Aalto University, Finland], MBA
B.S. Chemical Engineering (BUET), Bangladesh
 Lecture Outline: Glass Manufacturing
- History of Glasses
- Composition of Glasses
- Raw Materials
- Manufacturing Process
- Different Types of Glasses
- Markets
- Usage
 Early History of Glass
• Earliest reference of Glass was made by Pliny, who related the familiar story of how
ancient Phoenician merchants discovered it while cooking a meal in a vessel placed
accidentally upom a mass of trona at seashore. The union of sand and alkali caught the
e ’s atte tio a d led to su se ue t effo t at i itatio .
• 6000 BC or 5000 BC, the Egyptians were making Sham jewels of Glass which were often
of fine workmanship and marked beauty.
• Windows glass is mentioned as early as 290 A.D.
• The hand-blown glass cylinder was invented by a twelfth-century monk.
• During medieval times, Venice enjoyed a monopoly as the center of the glass industry.
• Only after Fifteenth century, the use of window glass became general.
• No Glass was made in either Germany or England until Sixteenth century.
• Plate Glass appeared as a rolled product in France in 1688.
• Earlier, manufacturing glass was closely guarded secret formulas and empirical process
primarily upon experience and considered to be an art.
• In 1914, the Fourcault Process for drawing a sheet of glass continuously was developed
i Belgiu . Afte 9 ’s he S ie tist a d E gi ee s e te ed this field i i easi g
number, improvement in process control, technology, cost reduction and new products
appeared as a result of intensive research.
• Today, Glass Industry is a highly specialized field.
 Early History of Glass

Innovation Pre-20th Century

 19th century - introduction of oxygen-injected or oxygen/fuel (as opposed to
air/fuel) burners and torches allowed sufficient energy concentrations to melt
crystalline quartz (> 1725 ºC); also lampworking with H2-O2 flame (including
capillaries, bulbs and drawn fiber).  
 Some dates –  1813 - First recorded melting of small quartz crystals with O2
injected alcohol burner –  1821 – Melting of quartz crystals and lampworking wit
H2/O2 torch –  1887 - Drawn fiber (cross-bow technique) –  1878 – Lamp-worked
capillaries and thermometer bulbs at the Paris Exhibition

Innovation in the Early 20th Century

 1899-1910 - commercial development in England, France and Germany - key
issues were purity and transparency – production generally limited to translucent
and semi-transparent crucibles, fiber, rods and tubing.
 Early History of Glass
 Tubing was sometimes made by drawing cane from a molten blob, then wrapping
around a platinum rod and re-fusing.
 Transparent materials were made by melting clear, selected quartz crystals in an arc
or flame and collecting them on a heated rod or surface below. –  Arc Fusion » 
Shenstone and Kent, 1903 –  Flame Fusion »  W.C. Heraeus, 1908
 These processes form the bases of modern technology and we will look at them
further, but essentially they provide melts that form and solidify with the only solid
contact being the glass that was previously formed. They are containerless process.

Innovation Mid 20th Century

 The beginnings of the modern era. This is where the processing part of the course
really begins:
 Electric melting and flame fusion were further developed. Continuous drawing of
rod and tubing from vertical electric furnaces became possible. Induction heating was
introduced.
 Synthetic processes, in particular flame hydrolysis (1934) - U.S. patent by J.F. Hyde
(Corning Glass Works) on flame hydrolysis of SiCl4 issued in 1942; the basis for all
synthetic fused silica processes used commercially today.
 Composition of Glass
• Despite thousands of new formulation in Glass industry, The major component of
glass has not changed in last 2000 years. These are the 90% constituents of glass:
 Sand (SiO2)
 Lime (CaO)
 Soda Ash (Na2CO3)
• Other Raw materials are considered as minor ingredient, even though the effect
produced may be of major importance. In general, Commercial Glasses fall into
several classes. These are the followings:
1) Fused Silica Glass
2) Alkali Silicate Glass
3) Soda-Lime Glass
4) Lead Glass
5) Borosilicate Glass
6) Special Glass
7) Glass Fibers
 Silica Glass
A Unique Material
 Silica glass is a quite unique material.
 It is the only single-oxide glass former that is widely used on its own (not having its
chemical composition highly modified).
 It has properties unlike any other material.
 These properties are in demand for many applications, some of them high-tech. Or at
least essential to manufacturing high-tech products.

Fused Silica Characteristics

 Low thermal expansion (0 to 300 ºC) about 0.55 ppm/ºC or 5.5 x 10-7/ºC
 High thermal shock resistance
 Refractory – High viscosity and high use temperatures Viscosity about 107 poise at
˚C Softe i g poi t ge e ally a o e ˚C
 High optical transparency; wide transmission band (DUV- near IR)
 Excellent chemical durability
 Good radiation damage resistance
 High electrical resistivity, low dielectric constant and low loss tangent.
Fused Silica Applications
Ma ufa tu e s’ P odu t Lite atu e
Key properties: Excellent optical transparency,
low thermal expansion, high use temperature,
low electrical conductivity, low alkali content,

Important Fused Silica Applications

 Be ause of sili a’s al ost u i ue o i atio of ha a te isti s, it is used fo a y
different specialized applications:
–  Lighting (high-intensity-discharge, quartz-halogen, and uv lamp envelopes)
–  Semiconductor industry manufacturing (crucibles, furnace tubes, substrates,
microlithography optics)
–  Optical elements (lenses, windows, mirrors) including high energy laser optics
–  Optical fiber and photonic devices
–  Astronomical telescope mirrors
–  Space craft windows
–  Other (including labware, tubing, specialty fiber and wool-type fiberglass).
Manufacturing Process: Glass
 Glass Manufacturing Process
• The Manufacturing procedures may be divided into four major phases:
i. Melting
ii. Shaping or Forming
iii. Annealing
iv. Finishing

i. Melting
Raw materials (Silica, lime and Soda Ash) are charged into pot furnace or tank furnace after
scaled in fixed proportion.Pot furnace has capacity of 2 ton or less.
 These pots are made of selected Clay or Platinum. Because it is very difficult to melt the
glass in these vessels without contaminating the product or without partly melting the
container itself, except when Platinum is used.
The glass forms a pool in the hearth of furnace. The flames are played alternatively from one side
and other. The fined glass is worked out of the opposite end of the tank, while operation
being continuous.
Pot Furnace wall gradually corrode under the action of the hot glass. The quality of the glass and
the life of the tank are dependent upon the quality of the construction blocks. For this
reason, much attention has been given to glass furnace refractories.
Small Tank furnaces are called Day Tank and supply a demand of 1 to 10 ton of molten glass. In
another type of more efficient regenerative furnace are used which operate in two cycles
with two sets of Checkerworth chambers.
Flowchart for Glass manufacture
 Manufacturing of Glass
• Link for Manufacturing Glass
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-
z1P2cK9Rro
 Glass Manufacturing Process
• The temperature of the furnace can reach upto 1500 C near the furnace and 650 C
on the exit side. Air is pre-heated by being passed up through the previously
heated regenerative chamber and is mixed with the burned fuel gas, resulting
flame being of higher temperature, otherwise not possible.
• The flow of air-fuel mixture cycle is reversed in every 20-30 minute. Much of heat
is saved by this regenerative principle.
• During starting of the furnace for production, the temperature is increased by
certain increments each day, depending upon the ability of the refractory used to
stand the expansion.
• Once the regenerative furnace has been heated, the temp of 1200 C at least is
maintained all the times.
• Most of the heat is lost by radiation from the furnace and much smaller amount is
expended in melting. Unless, walls are allowed to cool somewhat by radiation,
temperature could become so high that molten glass would dissolve or corrode
them.
• To reduce the action of molten glass, water cooling pipes are frequently placed in
the furnace walls.
 Glass Manufacturing Process
ii. Shaping or Forming: Glass can be shaped by
- Machine
- Hand Molding
The factor one has to keep in mind that the design of the machine should be such that the article is to
be completed in a very few seconds. During this relatively short period, the glass changes from a
viscous liquid to a clear solid. Thus, the Glass Process Engineer has to consider about design
problems to be solved. Such design problem could be: flow of heat, stability of metals, clearance of
bearings etc.
iii. Annealing: To reduce strain, The glass formed must have to be annealed either formed by machine or
by hand-molding methods. In Short, annealing involves two operations:
- Holding a mass of glass above certain critical temp (450 C, check it), long enough to reduce internal
strain by plastic flow to less than a predetermined maximum
- Cooling the mass to room temperature slowly enough to hold the strain below this maximum.
The A eali g ha e also alled Leh is a a efully desig ed heated ha e i hi h ate of
cooling can be controlled to meet the foregoing requirements.
iv. Finishing: All types of annealed glass must have to undergo certain finishing operations which are
relatively simple and very important. These operation can include: Cleaning, Grinding, Polishing,
Cutting, Sand-blasting, enameling, grading. All these operations may not be required for every glass
object, one or more is almost always necessary.
Chemical Technology I (Inorganic)
Lecture 8
Manufacture of Refractories

Taught By:
Sanjay Kumar Sah
M.S. [Chemical Technology, Aalto University, Finland], MBA
B.S. Chemical Engineering (BUET), Bangladesh
 Lecture Outline: Ceramic & Refractories
- History
- Composition of Glasses
- Raw Materials
- Manufacturing Process of Refractory
- Classification of Refractories
 Introduction
• Refractory is any material which can
withstand high temperature without softening
or suffering a deformation in their shape.
• ASTM defines refractories as "non-metallic
materials having those chemical and physical
properties that make them applicable for
structures, or as components of systems,
that are exposed to environments above
1,000 °F (811 K; 538 °C . E a ples Fire la ,
Silica, Chromite, magnesite.

• Uses:
 In the construction of the lining of the
furnaces, tanks, Kilns, crucibles, ladles etc
 In the manufacturing Industry of metals, Fig (1) : Schematic of gasifier cross section showing the
Cements, Glass, Paper, ceramics, steel etc. location of the spent refractory brick
Refractories Examples

Fig (1 & 2 ) : Various shapes of materials used in refractories

Fig (3 & 4) : Furnace inner lining showing refractory materials

4
 Classification of Refractories

Refractories can be classified

- On the basis of chemical composition
- On the basis of method of manufacture
- Based on their refractoriness.
Classification of Refractories
Refractories

CHEMICAL NATURE REFRACTORINESS

• Acidic Refractories
• Silica , Alumina • Low Heat Duty
• Basic Refractories • Intermediate Heat
• Magnesite, Dolomite Duty
• Neutral Refractories • High Heat Duty
• Graphite, • Super Heat Duty
Carborundun

(C) Dept of Applied Chemistry - SVCE 6

 Classification of Refractories:
• On the basis of chemical composition:
A. Acidic refractories: These are used in areas where slag
and atmosphere are acidic. They are stable to acids
but attacked by alkalies.
e.g. fire clay, silica, Quartz, Zirconia.
B. Basic refractories: These are used on areas where slags
and atmosphere are basic, stable to alkaline materials
but reacts with acids. e.g. Magnesia , Alumina,
Dolomite.
C. Neutral refractories: These are used in areas where
the atmosphere is either or basic and are chemically
stable to both acids and bases.
e.g. Chromite, Carbide, Mullite.
 Classification of Refractories: Continued
• Based on refractoriness
 Low heat duty refractories:
For low temperature environment i.e. 1520 —1630 ºC

 Medium heat duty refractories:

For temperature ranging from 1630—1670 ºC

 High heat duty refractories

For temperature ranging from 1670—1730 ºC
 Super duty refractories
For temperature above 1730 ºC
 Classification of Refractories: Continued

• On basis of Manufacture
 Dry pressed
 Fused Cast
 Hand molded
 Formed
 Unformed
 Classification of Refractories
1. Acid Refractories: important members of this
group is Alumina, Silica gel fireclay
refractories.
2. Basic Refractories: Cao, MgO
3. Neutral Refractories: made from weakly
acid/basic materials like Chromite(FeO.
CrO2), Zirconia (ZrO2) Important members of
this group are Graphite, Chromite, Zirconia
and carborundum (SiC) refractories.
Characteristics of Refractories

Infusible at Chemically inert Should not suffer Should have Should have high load
operating towards corrosive change in size at high bearing capacity at
temperature gases, liquids etc. operating temp refractoriness operating temp.

11
 Characteristics of Good Refractories
A good refractory posses following characteristics:
1. Be infusible at the temperature to which it is liable to be
exposed.
2. Chemically inert towards corrosive action of gases,
metallic liquids, and slags.
3. Resist the abrasive action of flue gases, flames, etc.
4. Be able to withstand the overlying load of structures at
the operating temperature.
5. No crack
6. No loss in size.
7. Expand and contract uniformly, with temperature rise and
fall respectively.
 Properties of Refractories
1. Refractoriness
2. Strength of Refractories-under load (RUL)
3. Dimensional Stability
4. Chemical Inertness towards chemicals
5. Thermal Expansion
6. Thermal Conductivity
7. Porosity
8. Thermal Spalling
9. Resistance to abrasion or corrosion
10. Electrical conductivity
11. Heat capacity
12. Texture
13. Permeability
 Properties of Refractories
1. Refractoriness: Ability of a material to withstand the heat,
without appreciable deformation or softening under
particular service conditions. In general, measured as the
softening or melting temperature of the material. As most
of the common refractory materials are mixtures of
metallic oxides, so they do not have a sharp fusion
temperature.
Pyrometric Cones Test (Segar Cones Test): The softening
temperature of the refractory material are, generally,
determined by using Pyrometric cones test. Expressed in
terms of Pyrometric cone Equivalents (PCE).
Softening temperature
(Material to be used as refractory) >> Operating temperature
 2. Strength of Refractories-under load (RUL)

Refractories used in industrial furnaces have invariably to withstand

varying loads of the products, being manufactured at high operating
temperature.
It is, therefore, essential that refractory materials must also possess
high mechanical strength, even at operating temperature, to bear
the maximum possible load, without breaking.
Some refractories like FIRECLAY, High Alumina Bricks softens gradually
over the range of temperature, but under appreciable load, they
collapse, far below their true fusion point, as determined by segar
cones.
On the other hand, other refractories such as Silica Bricks softens over
a relatively narrow range of temperature and exerts good load
bearing characteristics close to their fusion points.
 R.U.L. Test Refractories-under load Test (R.U.L.)

• R.U.L. Test Refractories-under load Test R.U.L. test

is performed by applying a constant load of 3.5 or
1.75 kg/cm2 to the refractory specimen (of size 5
cm2 and 75 cm high) and heating in a carbon-
resistance furnaces at a standard rate of 10°C /
min. The record of the height of the specimen vs.
temperature is made by a plot, until the test-
piece deforms or collapses by 10%. The R.U.L. is
expressed as the temperature at which 10%
deformation takes place.
 3.Dimensional Stability
Resistance of a material to any volume changes, which may
occur on its exposure to high temperature, over a
prolonged time.
These dimensional changes may be permanent (irreversible)
or reversible.
Irreversible changes may result either in the contraction or
expansion of a refractory. The permanent contraction is
due to the formation of increasing amounts of liquid from
the low fusible constituents of the refractory brick, when it
is subjected to a long period of soaking at the high
temperature.
The liquid gradually fills the pores of the refractory body,
causing a high degree of vitrification and shrinkage.
Dimensional Stability

“Resistance of a material to any volume changes, which may occur on its exposure to high
temperature, over a prolonged time”

• Dimensional changes can

be permanent or
reversible

• Irreversible changes may

result either in the
contraction or expansion
of a refractory

(C) Dept of Applied Chemistry - SVCE 18

 Properties of Refractories (contd.)
4. Chemical Inertness : A refractory should be selected
that is chemically inert in use and does not form
fusible products with slags, fuel ashes, furnace gases,
etc. usually, the environment in most furnaces are
either acidic or basic.
It is not recommended to employ Acid refractory in
contact with an alkaline (basic) product or vice-versa.
5. Thermal Expansion: Solid materials, on heating,
expands and on cooling it contracts.
So in the designing of the practical furnaces, a refractory
material should have least possible thermal expansion
as the expansion affects all dimensions (e.g. length,
area, volume) of the body.
 Properties of Refractories (contd.)
6. Thermal Conductivity: In industrial operations, refractory materials of both
high thermal conductivity and low thermal conductivity are required,
depending upon the type of the furnaces.
In most cases, furnaces is lined with refractories of low heat conductivities to
reduce the heat losses to the outside by radiation; otherwise maintenance
of high temp. inside furnaces will become difficult.
A good heat conductivity of the refractory material is desirable for effective
heat transmission in furnace construction.
The densest and least porous brick have the highest thermal conductivity,
owing to the absence of air-voids.
On the other hand, in porous bricks, the entrapped air in the pores, acts as a
non-heat conducting material.
For making porous refractory bricks, the refractory material is mixed with a
liberal amount of carbonaceous material, then mould into bricks and
burnt. The carbonaceous material burns off; leaving behind minute voids,
which enhances the insulating quality.
 Properties of Refractories (contd.)
7. Porosity: All refractories contain pores, either due to manufacturing methods or deliberately made (
by incorporating saw-dust or cork during manufacture).
Porosit is the ratio of its pore’s olu e to the ulk olu e.

P = [(W-D)/(W-A)]X 100
Where,
W = Wt. of saturated specimen.
D = Wt. of Dry specimen.
A = Wt. of saturated specimen submerged in water.
Porosity is an important property of refractory bricks, because it affects many other characteristics, e.g.
chemical stability, strength, abrasion-resistance and thermal conductivity.
In a porous refractory, molten charge, slags, gases etc. are likely to enter more easily to a greater depth
and may react and reduces the life of the refractory material.
Porosity decreases
- Strength
- resistance to abrasion
- resistance to corrosion/ penetration by slags, gases ec.

Porosity increases resistance to thermal spalling ( i.e. thermal shock-resistance

The densest and least porous brick have the highest thermal conductivity, owing to the absence of air-
voids. In porous bricks, the entrapped air in the pores, acts as a non-heat conducting material.
A good refractory, in general , should have low porosity.
Porosity

• All refractories contain pores, either due to manufacturing methods or

deliberately made( by incorporating saw-dust or cork during manufacture).

• Porosity is the ratio of its pore’s volume to the bulk volume.

Saturated Specimen Specimen

Dry Specimen
Submerged in water

Weight = W Weight = D Weight = A

W–D
P= ( W-A )X 100

(C) Dept of Applied Chemistry - SVCE 22

Porosity contd…

An important property of refractory bricks

as it affects many other refractory
characteristics

In a porous refractory, molten charge, slags,

gases etc. are likely to enter more easily to
a greater depth and may react and reduces
the life of the refractory material

Porosity Decreases
Strength
Resistance to abrasion
Resistance to corrosion
Penetration by slag / gases etc.

(C) Dept of Applied Chemistry - SVCE 23

 Properties of Refractories (contd.)
8. Thermal Spalling : Breaking, cracking, peeling off or fracturing of
a refractory brick or block, under high temperature. So good
refractory must show a good resistance to thermal spalling.
Spalling is caused by rapid changes in temperature, which causes
uneven expansion and contraction within the mass of refractory,
thereby leading to development of internal stresses and strains.
Spalling may also be due to slag penetration into the refractory brick,
thereby causing variation in the coefficient of expansion.
Spalling can be decreased by
• Usi g high porosit , lo oeffi ie t of e pa sio a d good ther al
conductivity refractory bricks.
• A oidi g sudde te p. ha ges.
• B overfiring the refractories at high temp. for a sufficiently long
time, whereby mineral inversion et. takes place making the material
less susceptible to uneven expansion or contraction, when heated.
Thermal Spalling

“Property of breaking, cracking or peeling of refractory material under high temp”

Thermal spalling is mainly due to

a. Rapid Change in temperature
This causes uneven expansion and contraction
within the mass of a refractory, and leads to
development of uneven stresses and strain
b. Slag penetration
This causes variation in the co-efficient of
expansion and leads to spalling.
Thermal spalling can be decreased by

(i) Using high porosity , low co-efficient of

Figure showing crack of refractory material inside furnace expansion and good thermal conductivity
refractory.
(ii) A voiding sudden temperature changes.
(iii) By modifying the furnace design

(C) Dept of Applied Chemistry - SVCE 25

Thermal Expansion

“Expansion of a refractory material , when exposed to heat for a longer duration ”

• Refractory expansion has an impact

on the capacity of the furnace
lifetime

• Repeated expansion and contraction

of refractory materials due to
thermal impact causes wear & tear,
breakdown etc.,

Figure showing thermal expansion % of various refractories

(C) Dept of Applied Chemistry - SVCE 26

 Properties of Refractories (contd.)
9. Resistance to abrasion or erosion good refractory
must show a good resistance to abrasion or
erosion.
10. Electrical conductivity: good refractory must
show a low electrical conductivity. Except
graphite, all other refractories are poor
conductors of electricity.
11. Heat capacity: Heat capacity of any substance
depends on
(a) Thermal conductivity
(b) Specific heat
(c) Specific gravity
 Properties of Refractories (contd.)
12. Texture
Course or light –textured bricks, because of their large porosity, are
light in weight and hence, they are more resistant to sudden
changes in temperature. However, their crushing strength is low.
Such bricks are more susceptible to the action of abrasion and
corrosion.
on the other hand, fine or dense-textured bricks possess low porosity
and hence are light in weight. These are not so resistant to sudden
changes in temp. However, such bricks are less susceptible to action
and corrosion.
13. Permeability: Permeability Measure of rate of diffusion of gases,
liquids and molten solids through a refractory. Permeability
depends upon the size and number of connected pores.

Per ea ilit α te perature α [ / Vis osit of olte aterial ]

 Manufacture of Refractories
Manufacture of Refractories Consist of following steps
1. Crushing: Raw material in the form of big lumps are crushed to about 25 mm
size.
2. Grinding: The crushed material are grinded in grinding machine down to 200
mesh size.
3. Screening: Purify the refractory raw materials and remove unwanted materials
from the raw materials and this is done by
(a) settling
(b) magnetic separation
(C) Chemical Methods
4. Storage: After screening and mineral dressing, pure material is stored in storage
bins with bucket elevators.
5. Mixing: It is done so that proper distribution of the plastic materials throughout the
mass takes place. This makes moulding easier.
6. Moulding: Moulding may be done either manually or mechanically by the
application of high pressure.
Hand- moulding produces refractories of low density and low strength.
Mechanical- moulding produces refractories of high density and strength.
 Refractory Manufacturing process
MINING

VIBRATOR BELT
1. Grinding
CLAY
CLAY CRUSHER
CLASSIFIER
COARSE GRINDING
STORAGE
ELEVATOR

SILOS
CLAY MILL

FINE GRINDING

BINDER
BALL MILL

2.Mixing

BRICK PRESS MACHINE

3.Moulding 4.Drying

TUNNEL KLIN TUNNEL DRYER

5.Firing
FINESHED PRODUCT
 Manufacture of Refractories (Continued)
In order to increase the density and strength of refractory by mechanical
moulding, the de-airing of refractory material is essential.
De-airing is done by:
(i) Applying vacuum through vents in the moulds
(ii) By allowing air inside the void space in the refractory to go out by
decreasing the rate of pressure application and release of air.
(iii) By double-pressing: the material is first pressed and allowed to crack.
Then, it is pressed again so as to close the voids.
7. Drying: Removal of moisture is done under well set conditions of humidity
and temperature, depending upon the type of refractories. Drying is
usually carried out in tunnel dryers.
8. Firing (Burning): To stabilize and strengthen the structure of refractories,
Firing is done. The bricks are , generally, fired at a temperature as high
as or higher than their use temperature. It is done in tunnel Kilns or
Shaft Kilns or rotary kilns.
Firing temperature: 1480 C for high-fired super duty bricks
1700 C for kaolin bricks
1870 C for basic bricks
Acidic Refractory : Alumina Bricks or fire clay bricks
PROPERTIES
Composition of Alumina • Low coefficient of expansion
Bricks • High porosity
• Little tendency to thermal spalling
• Resistance to slag
• Stable and wear resistance
• High temperature load bearing
capacity
• Inert to gases lik COl2 , H2 and
natural gas
50 % or more of
+ Silica,Grog (fire
Calcium Bauxite Al2O3
clay)
 Medium Duty Bricks : 50 – 60 % of Al2O3
•Cement rotary klins
+ WATER
•Soaking pits
PASTE
•Reheating furnace
Moulding: Machine pressing or •Hearths & walls
slip casting  High Duty Bricks : 75 % of Al2O3
• Hottest zones of cement rotary klins
Drying and Firing at 1200oC • Brass melting reverberatories
to 1400oC (6 to 8 days) • Aluminium melting furnaces

32
 Basic Refractory : Magnesite bricks
PROPERTIES
Composition of Magnesite • Withstands 2000 oC without load
Bricks and upto 1500 oC under load of
3.5Kg / cm2
• Good resistance to basic slags
• Little shrinkage and more of
spalling
• Poor resistance to abrasion
• Easily combines with Carbon
dioxide and water
more of + Castic Magnesia • Highly sensitive to sudden change
Calcined Magnsite MgO or Iron Oxide, to temperature
Sulphite Lye

+ WATER  Steel Industry for lining of

PASTE • Basic Convertors
Moulding: Machine pressing • Open – hearth furnace
 Copper Convertors
 Reverberatory furnaces
Drying and Firing at 1500oC  Refining furnaces for Gold, silver and platinum etc.,
(8 hours)  Hot mixture linings

33
 Neutral Refractory : Caborundum or Silicon Carbide (SiC) Bricks
PROPERTIES
Composition of Silicon • High thermal conductivity
Carbide Bricks • Low thermal expansion
• ‘Clay bonded’ can be used upto
1750oC
• ‘Silicon nitrate bonded’ poses high
strength and thermal shock
resistance
• ‘Self bonded’ has high
refractoriness, strength , density,
60 % of Sand SiO2 + 40 % Coke (C) abrasion resistance and chemical
+ SAW DUST, WATER resistance
PASTE
• Oxidizes when heated at 900oC -
1000oC , which can be prevented
Moulding: Machine pressing by coating with zirconium

 Partial Walls of
Drying and Firing at 1500oC
• Chamber klins, coke ovens, muffle furnace
 Floor for
• Heat treatment furnace
 Heating elements in forms of
• Rods and Bars (globars)

34
Varieties of Refractories
 Varieties of Refractory
• About 95% of the refractories manufactured are non-basic, with silica (acid) and
fire-clay (nuetral) brick predominant. Although a refractory is usually thought of in
terms of its ability to withstand temperature, It is really only in exception that heat
is sole agent that affects the final destruction .
• Refractory destruction usually caused by chemical action at the operating
temperature.
• These are the varieties of refractories:
1) Fire Clay Brick:
2) Silica Brick:
3) High- Alumina Refractories:
4) Basic Refractories:
5) Magnesia Refractories:
6) Insulating Brick:
7) Silicon Carbide:
8) Refractories from Crystalline Alumina or Alumina Silicate:
9) Electrocast or Corhart Refractories:
10) Pure Oxide Refractories:
 Varieties of Refractory (Continued)
1) Fire Clay Brick
 Most common & widely used for variety of applications
 Chemical composition: large excess silica to high alumina content
 Used largely by Steel industries in lining of blast furnaces, stoves, open hearth
 Other used by Lime Kiln, pottery Kiln, brass & Copper furnace, Boilers, Glass
Furnace and metallurgical Kilns
2) Silica Brick:
 It contains approx 95 to 96% SiO2 and about 2% lime added during grinding to
furnish bond.
 These bricks undergo permanent expansion during firing.
 It has homogeneous texture, free from air pocket & molding defect
 Possess low porosity.
 Suitable for arches in large furnace.
 Open hearth furnaces have silica bricks in their main arches, side walls, port
arches and bulk heads.
 Varieties of Refractory (Continued)
3) High Alumina Refractories:
 It is made from Clays rich in bauxite and diaspore.
 The refractoriness and temperature of incipient vitrification increase with the alumina
content.
 It can withstand severe conditions: such as not disintegrated by natural gas
atmospheres upto 1000 C
 Practically inert to CO
 High Alumina bricks with with high percentage of alumina are classed as Super-
refractories (+97%)
 Used in cement industry, paper mill refractory and and in modern boiler settings.
 Used in lining of glass furnace, Oil fired furnaces and in regenerator checker of blast
furnaces.
4) Basic Refractories:
 Important bricks are made from magnesia, chromite and fosterite.
 To achieve required strength and other physical Properties, It is power pressed or
chemically bonded or hard-burned.
 Disadvantage: Lack of bond and volume stability. But it has been overcome by forming
pressure by de-airing and use of refractory chemical bond.
 Varieties of Refractory (Continued)
5) Magnesia Refractories:
 It is made from domestic Magnesite or Magnesia Extract from brines.
 It can not withstand much load at elevated temperature. But this problem has
been overcome by blending with Chrome ores.
 They are not easily eaten by molten slags.
 No Calcination is necessary in their preparation.
 Used in glass tank superstructures and checkers.
 Used in copper-refining furnace and open hearth end walls.
6) Insulating Brick: It is two type:
a) Made from naturally porous diatomaceous earth. It is not suitable above 1100 C
under ordinary condition.
b) Composition similar but different in properties due to method of manufacture,
Called Light eight Refractories . It a e used safel for te perature of 3
to 1600 C.
 Varieties of Refractory (Continued)
7) Silicon Carbide:
 Considered as Super-refractories due to their noted chemical resistance and
withstand sudden temperature change.
 Manufactured from crude material from Silicon Carbide furnace and less than 10%
ceramic bond
 SiC bricks are extremely refractory
 Posssess high thermal conductivity, low expansion
 High resistance to abrasion and thermal spalling
 Strong mechanically and withstand load in furnace at high temp upto 1400 C
 Used in muffles, Iron blast furnace,
 Used in Rocket Nozzles, Radiant heater tubes and Combustion chambers.
 Varieties of Refractory (Continued)

8) Other Pure Oxide Refractories:

• Zircon based
– Fine ground pressed into bricks often used in borosilicate
glass manufacture
• Zirconia
– Ultra high melting point 2710 C
• Artificial minerals – Silicon Carbide (also an abrasive)
– Made from coke (a carbon source) and sand (a silicon
source) with sawdust and salt
– Cook the mix at about 2200 C
– Refractory very good at resisting oxidation