Ch-1 Nozzles PDF

Course: Thermodynamics-II
Spring Semester- 2019

Dr. M Zahid Iqbal Qureshi
Course Designation Core

Credit 3
No. of Sessions / Week 1
Total Session Duration 3 hrs
Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 1

Course: Thermodynamics-II (ME 204)
Recommended Books:
 Applied Thermodynamics for Engineers and Technologists by TD Eastop and A McConkey,

5th Ed.
 Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach by Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles, 8th Ed.
 Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics by MICHAEL J. MORAN, HOWARDN .

SHAPIRO, DAISIED . BOETTNER, MARGARETB . BAILEY, 8th Ed.
 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics by Claus Borgnakke and Richard E. Sonntag, 7th / 8th

Ed.

Course Contents
S.No. Description
Nozzles and Diffusers
 Nozzle shape
 Critical pressure ratio
 Maximum mass flow condition
1.  Nozzles off the design pressure ratio
 Nozzle efficiency
 The steam nozzle
 Supersaturation
 Stagnation Conditions
Rotodynamic Machinery
 Rotodynamic machines for steam and gas turbine plant
 The impulse steam turbine
 Velocity Diagrams
2.  Pressure and velocity compounded impulse steam turbines
 Turbine Blade Height
 Impulse Reaction Turbine
 Stage Efficiency, Overall efficiency, Reheat Factor
 Regenerative Cycle
Course Contents
S.No. Description
Positive Displacement Machines
 Reciprocating compressors
 The condition for minimum work, Isothermal efficiency,
3.  Reciprocating compressors including clearance
 Indicator Diagram, Volumetric efficiency,
 Multistage compression, Intercooling and after-cooling
 Rotary compressors
Vapor and Combined Power Cycles
The Carnot Vapor Cycle, Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power Cycles, Energy
4. Analysis of the Ideal and actual Rankine Cycle, Methods to increase the efficiency of
Rankine Cycle, Cogeneration, Combined Gas-Vapor Power Cycles
Gas Turbine Cycle

5. The ideal and practical Gas Turbine Cycle, Brayton Cycle with Regeneration, The Brayton
Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating and Regeneration.
Introduction to Jet Propulsion and Boilers

Probable Grading Policy
1. Quizzes 10-15 %
2. Sessional Exam # 1 15-20 %

Subject to Change
3. Sessional Exam # 2 15-20 %
4. Projects/Presentations/Assignments 5%
5. Final Exam 50 %
Total 100 %

What is a Turbomachine?
 A device that exchanges energy with a fluid, using continuously flowing fluid and rotating blades
E.g., Aircraft Engines and Wind Turbines
 If the device extracts energy from the fluid  generally called a Turbine
 If the device delivers energy to the fluid  called a Compressor, Fan, Blower or Pump depending on the
fluid used and the magnitude of the change in pressure that results
 Turbomachinery is the Generic Name for all these machines

Schematic of a Jet Engine

Nozzles
Books:
 Applied Thermodynamics by TD Eastop and A McConkey, 5th Ed.
(Ch. 10)
 Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach by Yunus A. Cengel,
Michael A. Boles, 5th Ed. (Ch. 17)

Nozzles
Introduction
 A Nozzle is a duct of smoothly varying cross-sectional area in which a steadily flowing fluid can be made
to accelerate by a pressure drop along the duct
E.g., nozzles are used in steam and gas turbines, in

jet engines, in rocket motors, in flow measurement, in
injectors, in ejectors etc.
 Diffuser:When a fluid is decelerated in a duct,

causing a rise in pressure along the stream
 Major applications: Centrifugal Compressor and
the Ramjet
 Analysis here will be restricted to One-dimensional Flow  it is assumed that the Fluid Velocity, and the
Fluid Properties, change only in the direction of the flow
o Fluid velocity is assumed to remain constant at a mean value across the cross-section of the duct
o Friction will not be analyzed Fundamentally, suitable efficiencies or coefficients being adopted to allow
for the departure from the ideal frictionless
Mechanicalcase
Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 10
Nozzles
Nozzle Shape
 A stream of fluid at pressure p1, enthalpy h1, and with a low velocity C1 enters the nozzle
 It is required to find the shape of duct which will cause the fluid to accelerate
to a high velocity C as the pressure falls along the duct
o heat loss from the duct is negligibly small (i.e. Adiabatic Flow, Q = 0 ), and
o no work is done on or by the fluid (i.e. W = 0 )
 Applying the Steady-flow Energy Equation, between Section 1 and any other X
Section X-X where the pressure is p, the enthalpy is h, and the velocity is C
1.1 p1 P
h1 h
C1 C
⇒
⇒ 1.2
X

Nozzles
Nozzle Shape
 If the area at the section X-X is A, and the specific volume is v ⇒
⇒ 1.3
X
substituting for the velocity C from Eq. (1.3) p1 P

h1 h
1.4 C1
⇒ C
⇒ Eq. 1.4  In order to find the way in which the Area of the duct varies it is X
necessary to be able to evaluate the specific volume v, and the enthalpy, h, at
any section X-X
 For the Ideal Frictionless Case, since the flow is Adiabatic and Reversible, the process undergone is an
Isentropic Process:

Nozzles
Nozzle Shape
 using Eq. (1.4) and the fact that s1 = s  variation of the Cross-sectional Area A/ṁ
of the duct against the pressure along the duct can be plotted
 For a Vapor  this can be done using tables; for a Perfect Gas the procedure is simpler, since we have
pvk = constant  for an Isentropic Process
 In either case, choosing fixed inlet conditions, then the
variation in the area, A, the specific volume, v, and the
velocity, C, can be plotted against the pressure along the duct
o Area decreases initially, reaches a minimum, and then

increases again
 When v increases less rapidly than C, then area decreases

 when v increases more rapidly than C, then area increases
Cross-sectional area,
velocity, and specific
volume variations with
pressure through
Mechanical a nozzle
Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 13
Nozzles
Nozzle Shape A = ṁ /ρC
Further Explanation of variation of Nozzle-Area with decreasing Pressure C = ṁ /ρA

At low velocities the density is constant and therefore as the area gets smaller (Convergent Nozzle) the velocity must
increase to keep ρVA constant. This is the case we are used to in our day to day lives. In reality, as velocity increases,
the decreasing static pressure allows the air to expand. So as air accelerates through a convergent duct its volume
gets bigger. At speeds closer to the speed of sound, the density is not a constant any more. At these speeds the fluid is
sort of stretched out and less dense: the higher the velocity the lesser dense the fluid becomes. At this point we notice
that the density and the velocity work in opposite directions in the quantity ρVA, that is, meanwhile more V brings ρVA
higher, less ρ brings ρVA lower.
If in the nozzle we continue to make A smaller (convergent), eventually we will reach the point where ρ out-powers V in
the expression ρVA and the velocity cannot go higher anymore. In other words, ρV reaches its maximum. Any increase
in V will cause a decrease in ρ such as the quantity ρVA would be smaller and this is not possible, ρVA must be a
constant. The value of V when this maximum happens is the speed of sound for this particular fluid and conditions.
since the quantity ρV is at its maximum, the mass flow rate ρVA is at its maximum as well. In other words, it is
impossible to increase the mass flow rate no matter what and the nozzle is said to be choked.
After the speed of sound is reached, if we increase A (divergent nozzle), V will continue to go up and ρ will continue to
go down in such a way that ρVA will remain still constant. Effectively the fluid now behaves the opposite way, it will
increase its velocity as the area increases and all because of the inverse relationship between the density and the
velocity of the fluid.
Nozzles
Nozzle Shape
Variation of Flow Properties in Subsonic and Subsonic Flow
Supersonic Nozzles and Diffusers
Supersonic Flow

Nozzles
Nozzle Shape

Nozzles
Nozzle Shape
Convergent Divergent Nozzle
 A nozzle, the area of which varies as in Fig., is called a Convergent-divergent Nozzle

o section of minimum area is called the Throat of the nozzle
 It will be shown later that the velocity at the throat of a nozzle operating
at its Designed Pressure Ratio is the velocity of sound at the throat
conditions:
o The flow up to the throat is Subsonic
o the flow after the throat is Supersonic
o Supersonic Flow requires a Diverging Duct to accelerate it
 Specific Volume of a Liquid is constant over a wide pressure range, and therefore nozzles for liquids are
always convergent, even at very high exit velocities
o (e.g. a fire-hose uses a convergent nozzle)
Nozzles
Critical Pressure Ratio
 For a nozzle that is convergent only, then the fluid will attain Sonic Velocity at exit if the pressure drop
across the nozzle is large enough
 Critical Pressure Ratio: Ratio of the pressure at the section where Sonic Velocity is attained to the inlet
pressure of a nozzle
Inlet Conditions: pressure p1, enthalpy h1, and velocity C1
Conditions at any other section X-X: pressure p, enthalpy h, and
velocity C
 In most practical applications the velocity at the inlet to a nozzle
is negligibly small in comparison with the exit velocity
o From A/m = v/C  a negligibly small velocity implies a very large area
o most nozzles are in fact shaped at inlet in such a way that the nozzle converges
rapidly over the first fraction of its length

Nozzles
 From Eq. (1.2):
neglecting C1, this gives: 1.5
Since enthalpy is usually expressed in kJ/kg  an additional constant of 103 will appear within the root
sign if C is to be expressed in m/s  put in Eq. (1.2):
⇒ 1.6
o Area can be evaluated at any section where the pressure is p, by assuming that the process is
isentropic (i.e. s1 = s)
o When this is done for a series of pressures, the area can be plotted against pressure along the duct, or
against Pressure Ratio, and the Critical Pressure can thus be found graphically
o For a perfect gas it is possible to simplify Eq. (1.6) by making use of the perfect gas laws
 Put in Eq. (1.6)
Nozzles
⇒
Since; ⇒
Let, pressure ratio, p/p1 = x  Then for an Isentropic Process for a perfect gas:
For fixed inlet conditions (i.e. p1 and T1) fixed)

Nozzles
⇒ 1.7
To find the value of the pressure ratio, x, at which the Area is a minimum it is necessary to differentiate
Eq. (1.7) with respect to x and equate the result to zero, i.e. for Minimum Area:
⇒ ⇒

Nozzles
⇒ 1.8
o From Eq. (1.8)  for a Perfect Gas the pressure ratio required to attain Sonic Velocity in a nozzle
depends only on the value of γ for the gas
o E.g., for air γ = 1.4:
 for air at 10 bar, a Convergent Nozzle requires a back pressure of 5.283 bar, in order that the flow
should be sonic at exit and
 for a Correctly Designed Convergent-divergent Nozzle with inlet pressure 10 bar, the pressure at
the Throat is 5.283 bar

Nozzles
Critical Temperature Ratio
 Ratio of the temperature at the section of the nozzle where the velocity is sonic to the inlet temperature is
called the Critical Temperature Ratio
⇒ 1.9
 Eqs. (1.8) and (1.9) apply to perfect gases only, and not to vapors
 A sufficiently Close Approximation is obtained for a Steam Nozzle if it is assumed that the expansion
follows a law pvk = constant
o The process is assumed to be Isentropic, and therefore the index k is an Approximate Isentropic Index
for steam
o When the steam is initially dry saturated then k = 1.135; when the steam is initially superheated then k
= 1.3

Nozzles
Adiabatic Expansion Index and Critical Pressure Ratio for selected fluids

Nozzles
Example
Determine the mass flow rate of steam through a nozzle having isentropic flow through it. Steam
enters nozzle at 10 bar, 500 oC and leaves at 6 bar. Cross-section area at exit of nozzle is 20 cm2.
Velocity of steam entering nozzle may be considered negligible. Show the process on h-s
diagram also.

10 bar = 1Mpa

Nozzles
Critical Velocity
 Velocity of Fluid Flow at any section X-X is:
1.2
 The velocity of flow at the Throat of a nozzle is the Critical Velocity:
 Putting C1 = 0, as before, and using Eq. for a perfect gas, h = cpT

1.10
 Substituting in Eq. (1.10) ⇒
 Substituting in above Eq. ⇒ 1.11

Nozzles
Critical Velocity
1.11
 CriticalVelocity given by Eq. (1.11) is the velocity at the throat of a correctly designed Convergent-
divergent Nozzle, OR
It is the velocity at the exit of a Convergent Nozzle when the Pressure Ratio across the nozzle is the
 It can be shown that critical velocity is the velocity of sound at critical conditions, i.e., for Perfect Gas:
1.12
 Eqs.(1.12) and (1.13) cannot be applied to a vapor, if an approximate isentropic law, pvk = const., is
assumed for a vapor, then the critical velocity can be taken as Cc = √(kpv)
 Critical Velocity of a vapor can be evaluated using Eq.:
 where ( h 1 — hc ) is the Enthalpy Drop from the inlet to the throat
 can be evaluated from Tables or by using h-s Chart

Nozzles
Example
Air at 8.6 bar and 190°C expands at the rate of 4.5kg/s through a convergent-divergent nozzle
into a space at 1.03 bar. Assuming that the inlet velocity is negligible, calculate the Throat and
the Exit Cross-sectional Areas of the nozzle.

Nozzles
Maximum Mass Flow
 A Converging Nozzle is shown with arrangement for varying Back Pressure
o A valve is provided at exit of nozzle for regulating the back pressure at section 2-2
 When the back pressure, pb = p1  no fluid can flow through the nozzle
 As pb is reduced  mass flow through the nozzle increases, since the enthalpy drops  and hence the
velocity increases
 When pb reaches the Critical Value  no further reduction in pb can affect the mass flow
 When the back pressure pb is exactly equal to the critical pressure, pc, then the velocity at exit is Sonic and
the mass flow through the nozzle is at a Maximum
 If pb is reduced below pc:

 mass flow remains at the maximum value
 the exit pressure remains at pc
 the fluid expands violently outside the nozzle
down to the back pressure

Nozzles
Maximum Mass Flow
 Maximum Mass Flow through a Convergent Nozzle is obtained when the pressure ratio across the nozzle is
the Critical Pressure Ratio
 For a Convergent-divergent Nozzle, with sonic velocity at the throat, the Cross-sectional Area of the throat
fixes the mass flow through the nozzle for fixed inlet conditions
 When a nozzle operates with the maximum mass flow it is said to be Choked
 A correctly designed Convergent-divergent Nozzle is always Choked

Nozzles
Maximum Mass Flow
 Any small disturbance in the flow is propagated as small pressure waves travelling at the velocity of sound
in the fluid in all directions from the center of the disturbance.
 Pressure waves emanate from point Q at the velocity of sound a relative to the fluid, while the fluid moves
with a velocity C
 Absolute velocity of the pressure waves travelling back upstream is: a — C
 when the fluid velocity is subsonic, then C < a  pressure waves can move back upstream
 when the flow is sonic, or supersonic (i.e. C = a or C > a), then

the pressure waves cannot be transmitted back upstream
 in a nozzle in which sonic velocity has been

attained no alteration in the back pressure can be
transmitted back upstream Upstream
Downstream

Nozzles
Example
A fluid at 6.9 bar and 93 °C enters a convergent nozzle with negligible velocity, and expands
isentropically into a space at 3.6 bar. Calculate the mass flow per square meter of exit area:
(i) when the fluid is helium (cp = 5.19 kJ/kg K);

(ii) when the fluid is ethane (cp = 1.88 kJ/kg K)
Assume that both helium and ethane are perfect gases, and take the respective molar masses as 4
kg/kmol and 30 kg/kmol.

Nozzles
Nozzles Off the Design Pressure Ratio
 Design Operation of nozzle refers to the nozzle operating with pressure ratio equal to critical pressure ratio
and maximum discharge rate per unit area
 If the nozzle does not operate under design conditions then it is called Off Design Operation of Nozzle
 Nozzle is called Under-Expanding if the Back Pressure of nozzle is Below the Designed Value of pressure at
exit of nozzle
 Nozzle is called Over-Expanding if the Back Pressure of nozzle is Above the Designed Value of pressure at
exit of nozzle
 Forcing a fluid through a Converging–diverging Nozzle is no guarantee that the fluid will be accelerated to
a supersonic velocity
o In fact  fluid may find itself decelerating in the diverging section instead of accelerating if the back
pressure is not in the right range
o for given inlet conditions, the flow through a converging–diverging nozzle is governed by the Back
Pressure Pb
Nozzles
Convergent Nozzle
 When back pressure pb = p1,  no flow
 When pc < pb < p1, there is flow through nozzle
 This operating state of nozzle having back
pressure higher than critical pressure is called
Over Expanding Nozzle
 Mass Flow Rate through nozzle is less than
Designed Value
 When pb = pc  mass flow through nozzle is
maximum and nozzle is said to be CHOKED
 When pb < pc,  Under Expanding Nozzle

 There is no change in Specific Volume, Velocity and
Mass Flow Rate through exit as that at choked flow
state of nozzle
 fluid leaves nozzle at critical pressure and expands
Violently and Irreversibly upto back pressure
outside the nozzle Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 36
Nozzles P1
Pb
Convergent Divergent Nozzle
 State-1: When back pressure pb = p1,  no flow (1)
 State-a: When pb is slightly below p1  There is some flow a
o Maximum Velocity and Minimum Pressure occurs at throat b
Pressure
section
c
 States b/wa to b: With further reduction in Pb from a to b  d
Flow Rate increases
o Flow remains subsonic for Pb between a to b e
o In Subsonic Region the Diverging Portion of Nozzle acts as
diffuser  increasing pressure and decreasing velocity in
the direction of flow
e
 State b: Pb at which throat velocity becomes Sonic and throat
pressure equals to Critical Pressure Pc
o Maximum Velocity occurs at throat so the diverging portion
Velocity
of nozzle still acts as Diffuser b c d
o Mass flow rate through nozzle has become Maximum as the a
sonic flow conditions are obtained at throat  Choked Flow
state of nozzle Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 37
Distance along x-axis
Nozzles P1
Pb
Convergent Divergent Nozzle –contd--
 State c and d: As pressure is reduced to c and d the fluid (1)
passing through the throat continues to expand and accelerate a

in diverging portion of nozzle  Supersonic Flow b
Pressure
o At the section downstream of throat  there occurs c
discontinuity in the flow due to abrupt irreversible increase d
in pressure accompanied by deceleration from supersonic
to subsonic velocity e
o This discontinuity in flow is called Shock and generally
plane of discontinuity is Normal to direction of flow  called
Normal Shock
o types of flow with shock-waves are named 'Over-Expanded' e
because the supersonic flow in the diverging part of the
nozzle has lowered pressure so much that a Recompression
Velocity
is required to match the Discharge Pressure
o Beyond shock fluid undergoes further isentropic b c d
deceleration as diverging section acts as Subsonic Diffuser a

Nozzles P1
Pb
 With
further reduction in back pressure pb the shock moves (1)
downstream till it approaches Nozzle Exit Plane a

o Due to Shock the flow leaving nozzle becomes subsonic  b
Pressure
These are Over Expanding States of nozzle (c, d) c
d
 State e: When back pressure becomes equal to exit plane
pressure, i.e. pb = pe e
 Isentropic Expansion occurs throughout nozzle and No
Shock is found during flow
 Fluid leaving nozzle is Supersonic
 This point is the Design Back Pressure of the convergent - e
divergent nozzle and we want to operate it at this point only
 i.e., Maximum Flow Rate is achieved because at the throat
Velocity
Sonic Velocity is attained; also maximum velocity of the
fluid at the outlet of the nozzle is attained because, in the b c d
divergent section the flow is supersonic a

Nozzles P1
Pb
(1)
 Furtherlowering of pb below pe  flow remains same as for a
pressure upto point e, but pb being less than design pressure b
Pressure
causes breaking of flow at downstream of nozzle exit
c
o An abrupt expansion of irreversible type occurs at nozzle d
exit
e
Velocity
b c d
a

Nozzles
Here; Entry Pressure: pt

Discharge Pressure: p0

Nozzles
Nozzle Efficiency
 Dueto friction between the fluid and the walls of the nozzle, and to friction within the fluid itself, the
expansion process is Irreversible, although still approximately Adiabatic
 In Nozzle Design it is usual to base all calculations on Isentropic Flow and then to make an allowance for
friction by using a Coefficient or an Efficiency
 Friction prevailing during flow through nozzle causes heat drop by about 10–15 % and reduces the exit
velocity
1 -2s : ideal isentropic expansion
1 - 2 : actual irreversible adiabatic
expansion
Nozzle Expansion Processes for:

(a) Vapor
(b) Perfect Gas

Nozzles
Nozzle Efficiency
 NozzleEfficiency: Ratio of the Actual Enthalpy Drop to the Isentropic
Enthalpy Drop between the same pressures
2
2s
 For a Perfect Gas:
1.13
 If the actual velocity at exit from the nozzle is C2 and the velocity at
exit when the flow is isentropic is C2s  using the Steady-flow Energy
Equation in each case
⇒ 1.14
⇒ 1.15
Nozzles
Nozzle Efficiency
⇒ 1.16
 When inlet velocity, C1 is negligibly small:
 Frictional losses are found to be more in the downstream after throat in

convergent-divergent nozzle as velocity in converging section upto
throat is smaller as compared to after throat
 Significantly high frictional loss in Diverging Portion of nozzle compared to converging portion can also be
attributed to the Contact Surface Area
 Length of converging section up to throat is quite small compared to length of diverging portion after
throat as it has Subsonic Acceleration which can be completed in short length
 Diverging section of nozzle is designed comparatively longer than converging section so as to avoid Flow
Separation and resulting frictional losses
 Angle of Divergence in divergent portion is kept between 10o and 25o so as to Avoid Flow Separation
 a compromise should be adopted in selecting Angle of Divergence as very small angle is desirable from
flow separation point of view but undesirable due to long length and larger frictional losses point of view
Nozzles
Nozzle Efficiency
 Length of diverging portion of nozzle can be Empirically obtained as:
1.17 At :cross-sectional area at throat
 Nozzle Efficiency depends upon nozzle material, size and shape of nozzle, angle of divergence, nature of
fluid flowing and its properties etc.
 While designing the nozzle parameters, due care should be taken for smoothness of nozzle profile, surface
finish for minimum friction and ease of manufacturing etc.
 Velocity Coefficient: Ratio of Actual Velocity at exit and the Isentropic Velocity at exit
1.18
It measures the amount of deviation from ideal flow conditions

 Coefficient of Discharge: ratio of Actual Discharge and the discharge during Isentropic Flow through
nozzle
1.19
Nozzles
Nozzle Efficiency
 Divergent Portion of the nozzle is comparatively Long, and since a Diverging Flow is more susceptible to
losses, and velocities in this portion are higher  bulk of the Friction Losses occur in the divergent portion
 It is sometimes assumed that all the friction losses occur after the Throat of the nozzle
 implies that the Coefficient of Discharge is Unity because any Friction after the throat cannot affect
the mass flow through a nozzle which is choked
 Nozzles in practice are used with a variety of shapes and cross-sections  cross-section can be either
Circular or Rectangular
o Axis of the Nozzle can be Straight or Curved

Nozzles
Example
Gases expand in a propulsion nozzle from 3.5 bar and 425 °C down to a back pressure of 0.97
bar, at the rate of 18 kg/s. Taking a coefficient of discharge of 0.99 and a nozzle efficiency of
0.94, calculate the required throat and exit areas of the nozzle. For the gases take γ = 1.333 and
cp = 1.11 kJ/kg K. Assume that the inlet velocity is negligible

Nozzles
The Steam Nozzle
 Properties of steam can be obtained from Tables or from an h-s chart
 In order to find the Critical Pressure Ratio, and hence the Critical Velocity and the Maximum Mass Flow Rate,
approximate formulae may be used
o Approximation  steam follows an isentropic law pvk = constant

o When the steam is initially dry saturated k = 1.135
o when the steam is initially superheated k = 1.3
 For Dry Saturated Steam:  For Superheated Steam:
temperature at the throat, i.e. the Critical Temperature, can be found from steam tables at the value of
pc and sc = s1
 Critical Velocity:  hc is read from tables or the h-s chart at pc and sc

Nozzles
The Steam Nozzle
 For Isentropic Flow, since v dp = dh and vp1/k = constant
between any two states 1 and 2:
⇒
 2nd Tds Eq.

Nozzles
The Steam Nozzle
⇒ 1.20
Maximum Flow Rate through a Nozzle
 Velocity at exit from Nozzle, From Eq. (1.20):
For negligible inlet velocity, say C1 ≈ 0 1.21
 Maximum Exit Velocity is possible only when fluid is expanded upto zero pressure
1.22
 Mass Flow rate per unit area: 1.23

Nozzles
The Steam Nozzle
Maximum Flow Rate through a Nozzle – contd --
⇒ Put in Eq. (1.23) 
 Maximum Discharge per Unit Area can be obtained by substituting Critical Pressure Ratio in above
expression for mass flow per unit area at throat section

Nozzles
The Steam Nozzle
Maximum Flow Rate through a Nozzle – contd --
⇒ 1.24
 It is clear that Maximum Mass Flow or Choked Flow:

o Depends only on initial conditions of the steam (p1, v1) and Throat area
o Does not depend on the final pressure of the steam i.e., at the exit of the nozzle
 The addition of Divergent Part of the nozzle after throat does not affect the discharge of steam, but it only
accelerates the steam leaving the nozzle
Nozzles
Example
An impulse turbine of 1 MW has steam entering at 20 bar and 300 oC and steam consumption of 8 kg per
kWhr. Steam leaves at 0.2 bar and 10% of total heat drop is lost in overcoming friction in diverging portion
of nozzle. If throat diameter of each nozzle is 1 cm then determine:
(i) the number of nozzles required
(ii) exit diameter of each nozzle.
Solve using MOLLIER diagram.

Nozzles
The Steam Nozzle
Supersaturation
 When superheated vapor expands isentropically, condensation within the vapor begins to form when the
saturated vapor line is reached
 Point A represents the point at which condensation within the vapor just begins
 It is found that the expansion through a nozzle takes place so quickly that condensation within the vapor
does not occur
 Vapor expands as a superheated vapor until some point at which condensation occurs Suddenly and
Irreversibly  Condensation Shock
 Point at which condensation

occurs may be within the
nozzle or after the vapor leaves the
nozzle

Nozzles
The Steam Nozzle
Supersaturation – contd --
 Expansion of steam occurs in Metastable Equilibrium or in equilibrium in which change of steam state could
not maintain its pace with expanding steam
 Owing to the high speeds (several hundreds meter/sec), residence time of the steam in the nozzle is small,
and there may not be sufficient time for the necessary heat transfer and the formation of liquid droplets
 Consequently, the condensation of the steam may be delayed for a little while
 Supersaturation:phenomenon in which change of steam state could not occur simultaneously with
expanding steam in nozzle  Resulting flow is called Supersaturated Flow or Metastable Flow
 Once the temperature drops a sufficient amount below the Saturation
Temperature corresponding to the local pressure, groups of steam moisture
droplets of sufficient size are formed, and condensation occurs rapidly
 Wilson Line: locus of points where condensation takes place regardless

of the initial temperature and pressure at the nozzle entrance
o Wilson Line lies between 4 and 5 Percent Moisture Curves in the
saturation region on the h-s diagram for steam
Nozzles
The Steam Nozzle
 In Supersaturated Expansion the vapor expands as if the vapor line
did not exist
 Line 1-R intersects the pressure line p2 produced from the superheat
region (shown chain-dotted)
 Temperature of the supersaturated vapor at p2 is TR, which is less
than the saturation temperature T2, corresponding to p2
 The vapor is subcooled and the Degree of Supercooling is ( T2 – TR )
 Degree of Supersaturation: ratio of the actual pressure p2 to the
saturation pressure corresponding to the temperature TR i.e., P2 / PR
 Since Latent Heat of Condensation has not been released owing to
the Delayed Condensation
o Enthalpy Drop in supersaturated flow (h1 — hR) is less than the
enthalpy drop under Equilibrium Conditions
o ⇒ Exit velocity for Supersaturated Flow is less than that for
Equilibrium Flow
o difference in the Enthalpy Drop is small  effect on the Exit
Velocity is small  as velocity is dependent on Square Root of
Enthalpy Drop Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 57
Nozzles
The Steam Nozzle
T2
TR
Until point R, fluid is still gas or
superheated, when assuming no
saturated vapor line exist. TR line
would remain straight like in
T2 Line in vR < v2 gaseous region and therefore TR
Mixture Region < T2

Nozzles
The Steam Nozzle
Supersaturation – contd--
 Equilibrium Expansion and the Supersaturated Expansion are shown on a p-v diagram
 Specific volume at exit with supersaturated flow, vR, is considerably less than the specific volume at exit
with equilibrium flow, v2
 For Equilibrium Flow, mass flow through a given exit area, A2, is:
 For Supersaturated Flow:
 C2 and CR are very nearly equal
 vR < v2, ⇒ mass flow with supersaturated flow is greater than
the mass flow with equilibrium flow
It was this fact, proved experimentally, that led to the

discovery of the phenomenon of Supersaturation

Nozzles
The Steam Nozzle
Supersaturation – contd--
 Process 1-2: Isentropic Expansion  The change of
phase will begin to occur at point 2
 Process 2-3: expansion under Super-saturation
condition  Under Cooling
 within Superheated Zone, temperature of vapors is
lower than the saturation temperature corresponding
to that pressure
 At 3, the Limit of Supersaturation is reached
 3-3’ :steam condenses instantaneously to its normal
state at the constant pressure, and constant enthalpy
 3’-4’: Isentropic expansion in thermal equilibrium
 Effect of supersaturation is to reduce the Enthalpy Drop slightly during the expansion and consequently a
corresponding Reduction in Final Velocity
 Final Dryness Fraction and Entropy are also increased and the measured discharge is greater than that
theoretically calculated
Nozzles
The Steam Nozzle
Example
A convergent-divergent nozzle receives steam at 7 bar and 200 °C and expands it isentropically into a
space at 3 bar. Neglecting the inlet velocity, calculate the Exit Area required for a mass flow of 0.1 kg/s:
o when the flow is in equilibrium throughout;
o when the flow is supersaturated with pv1.3 = constant.

1

Nozzles
Stagnation Conditions
 When Inlet Velocity to the nozzle is not negligible  the concept of Stagnation Conditions can be used
 A gas moving with velocity, C, at a temperature, T, be brought to rest adiabatically, finally reaching a
temperature T0 when at rest:
o Applying the Flow Equation, for a perfect gas:

⇒ 1.24  Stagnation Temperature of the Moving Gas
⇒ During a Stagnation Process, the Kinetic Energy of a fluid is converted to Enthalpy (internal energy +
flow energy), which results in an increase in the Fluid Temperature and Pressure
o The term C2/(2cp) in Eq. (1.24) is sometimes referred as Temperature Equivalent of Velocity OR Dynamic
Temperature
o error in the Absolute Temperature by neglecting this term is less than 1 % for velocities up to about 75
m/s, for a gas at atmospheric temperature
o for high-speed flows, the temperature measured by a stationary probe placed in the fluid (the stagnation
temperature) may be significantly higher than the static temperature of the fluid

Nozzles
 Stagnation Pressure, p0: Pressure the gas would attain if brought to rest isentropically
⇒ Velocity of sound in a gas, a :
⇒ 1.25
Eq. (1.25) is expanded by the Binomial Theorem
⇒ ⇒
Nozzles
When velocity of the gas is low, and Ma is therefore small (e.g.
Ma < 0.2), then it is a good approximation to write
⇒ 1.26
 Velocity Head
 Applying Stagnation Conditions to flow through a nozzle at Inlet
 At any other section of the nozzle where the velocity is C and the temperature is T

Nozzles
 Applying Stagnation Conditions to flow through a nozzle at Inlet
⇒ Stagnation Temperature remains constant throughout the nozzle for Adiabatic Flow
 Eqs. derived previously can be used with p01 and T01  as substitute for p1
and T1

Fundamental Concepts of Thermodynamics
Practice Problems:
Book: McConkey and Eastop 5th Ed.
Examples: 10.1 to 10.5

Exercise problems: 10.1 to 10.7
All other Problems which were solved in the class

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Course: Thermodynamics-II

Spring Semester- 2019

Course Designation Core

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 1

 Applied Thermodynamics for Engineers and Technologists by TD Eastop and A McConkey,

 Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach by Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles, 8th Ed.

 Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics by MICHAEL J. MORAN, HOWARDN .

 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics by Claus Borgnakke and Richard E. Sonntag, 7th / 8th

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 2

Gas Turbine Cycle

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 4

2. Sessional Exam # 1 15-20 %

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E.g., nozzles are used in steam and gas turbines, in

 Diffuser:When a fluid is decelerated in a duct,

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 If the area at the section X-X is A, and the specific volume is v ⇒

substituting for the velocity C from Eq. (1.3) p1 P

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 12

o Area decreases initially, reaches a minimum, and then

 When v increases less rapidly than C, then area decreases

Further Explanation of variation of Nozzle-Area with decreasing Pressure C = ṁ /ρA

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 15

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 A nozzle, the area of which varies as in Fig., is called a Convergent-divergent Nozzle

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 19

For fixed inlet conditions (i.e. p1 and T1) fixed)

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 The velocity of flow at the Throat of a nozzle is the Critical Velocity:

 Putting C1 = 0, as before, and using Eq. for a perfect gas, h = cpT

 Substituting in Eq. (1.10) ⇒

 Substituting in above Eq. ⇒ 1.11

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 28

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 If pb is reduced below pc:

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 when the flow is sonic, or supersonic (i.e. C = a or C > a), then

 in a nozzle in which sonic velocity has been

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(i) when the fluid is helium (cp = 5.19 kJ/kg K);

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 When pb < pc,  Under Expanding Nozzle

 State c and d: As pressure is reduced to c and d the fluid (1)

passing through the throat continues to expand and accelerate a

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 38

downstream till it approaches Nozzle Exit Plane a

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Here; Entry Pressure: pt

Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ. 41

Nozzle Expansion Processes for:

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