Airconditioning PDF

Engineer / Mostafa AL Wakeel Air Conditioning
Introduction to Air Conditioning

Air conditioning may be required in buildings which have a high heat
gain and as a result a high internal temperature.
The heat gain may be from solar radiation and/or internal gains such as
people, lights and business machines.
The diagram below shows some typical heat gains in a room.
If the inside temperature of a space rises to about 25oC then air

conditioning will probably be necessary to maintain comfort levels.
This internal temperature (around 25oC) may change depending on

some variables such as:
 Type of building
 Location of building
 Duration of high internal temperature
 Expected comfort conditions.
 Degree of air movement
 Percentage saturation
In some buildings it may be possible to maintain a comfortable
environment with mechanical ventilation but the air change rate will
tend to be high (above about 8 air changes per hour) which can in itself
cause air distribution problems.
Since air conditioning is both expensive to install and maintain, it is best
avoided if possible.
This may possibly be achieved by careful building design and by utilising
methods such as:
 window blinds or shading methods

 heat absorbing glass
 heat reflecting glass
 Openable windows
 higher ceilings
 Smaller windows on south facing facades
 Alternative lighting schemes.
The diagram below shows some of these methods.

If air conditioning is the only answer to adequate comfort in a building
then the main choice of system can be considered.
Full comfort air conditioning can be used in summer to provide cool air
(approx. 13oC to 18oC) in summer and warm air (approx. 28oC to 36oC) in
winter.
Also the air is cleaned by filters, dehumidified to remove moisture or
humidified to add moisture.
Air conditioning systems fall into three main categories, and are detailed
in the following pages;
1. Central plant systems.
2. Room air conditioning units.
3. Fan coil units.
Central plant systems have one central source of conditioned air which
is distributed in a network of ductwork.
Room air conditioning units are self-contained package units which can
be positioned in each room to provide cool air in summer or warm air in
winter.
Fan coil units are room units and incorporate heat exchangers piped
with chilled water and a fan to provide cool air.
There are other forms of air conditioning such as;
 Chilled beams
 Induction units
 Variable Air Volume units
 Dual duct systems
 Chilled ceiling,
But we will consider the more commonly used methods first.
1.0 Central Plant Systems
A typical central plant air conditioning system is shown below.
Cooling coil Heater Battery

Supply fan
Fresh air Supply air

- +
Room
Recirculated air
Exhaust air Return air
Return air fan
Schematic Diagram of Central Plant Air Conditioning System
The system shown above resembles balanced

a ventilationsystem with
plenumheating but with the addition of a cooling coil.
section.
For information onbalanced ventilationseeVENTILATION
In winter the heater batterywill be on and thecooling coilwill probably

be switched off for the majority of buildings.
In summer theheater batterywill not need to have the same output and
the cooling coilwill be switched on.
A humidifier may be required to add moisture to the air when it is 'dry'.

20% to 30%.
This is when outdoor air has a low humidity of around
In the U.K. low humidities are rare and therefore humidification is
sometimes not used.
In dryer regions humidification is required through most of the year
whereas in tropical air conditioning one of the main features of the
system is the ability to remove moisture from warm moist air.
Dampersare used in air conditioning central plant systems to control the
amount of air in each duct.
It is common to have20%fresh air and80%recirculated air to buildings.
In buildings with high occupancy the fresh air quantity should be
calculated based on C.I.B.S.E. data., this may require a higher percentage
of fresh air (i.e. more than 20%).
SeeVentilation sectionfor examples of fresh air rates.
Cooling Coil
Pre-filter Supply fan
Heater Battery
Bag filter(s)
Pre-heater
Fresh air Supply air

+ - +
Dampers
Humidifier Room
Recirculated
air
Exhaust air Return air
Return air fan
Schematic Diagram of Central Plant Air Conditioning System with

Preheater, Dampers, Humidifer and Filters
Filters are required to remove particles of dust and general outdoor

pollution.
This filter is sometimes called a coarse filter or pre-filter.
A removable fibreglass dust filter is positioned in the fresh air intake
duct or in larger installation an oil filled viscous filter may be used.
The secondary filter, after the mix point, is used to remove fine dust
particles or other contaminant picked up in the rooms and recirculated
back into the plant. A removable bag filter is generally used for this
where a series of woven fibre bags are secured to a framework which
can be slid out of the ductwork or air handling unit (A.H.U.) for
replacement.
Air Handling Units
Air handling units A.H.U
( .) are widely used as a package unit which
incorporates all the main plant items as shown below.
Pipework, ductwork and electrical connections are made after the unit is
set in place on site.
Since air conditioning plant rooms tend to be at roof level, the larger
A.H.U.'sare lifted into place by crane before the roof is fixed.
In some cases it is usual to place fan

the in front of (that is upstream of)
the heater battery and cooling coil.
This is because fans operate best if the system resistance is outletat the
rather than the inlet of the impeller.
This is shown on the schematic diagrams above.
The photograph below shows a typical air handling unit with handles on
the doors for access to equipment.
2.0 Room Air Conditioning Units
These units use refrigerant to transfer cooling effect into rooms.
Room air conditioning units fall into two main categories:
1. Split type
2. Window/wall units.
Split Air Conditioners

Split air conditioners have two main parts, the outdoor unit is the
section which generates the cold refrigerant gasand the indoor unit
uses this cold refrigerant to cool the air in a space.
The outdoor unit uses compressor
a and air cooled condenser to provide
cold refrigerant to acooling coilin the indoor unit.
A fan then blows air across the cooling coil and into the room.
The indoor unit can either be ceiling mounted (cassette unit), floor
mounted or duct type.
The drawing below shows a ceiling mounted (cassette unit).
The photographs below show a ceiling mounted cassette and an outdoor
unit.
Window / Wall Units

Window or wall units are morecompact than split units since all the
plant items are contained in one box.
Window units are installed into an appropriate hole in the window and
supported from a metal frame.
Wall units like the one shown below are built into an external wall and
contain all the necessary items of equipment to provide cool air in
summer and some may even provide heating in winter.
A smallhermetically sealed compressor is used to provide refrigerant
gas at the pressure required to operate the refrigeration cycle.
The condenseris used tocondensethe refrigerant to a liquid which is
then reduced in pressure and piped to the cooling coil.
3.0 Fan Coil Units
These are room air conditioners but use chilled water instead of
refrigerant.
Units can be floor or ceiling mounted.
The chilled water is piped to a finned heat exchangeras in a fan
convector.
A fan blows room air across the heat exchanger and cool air is emitted
into the room, as shown below.
Outlet Louvre
Finned pipe heat

exchanger Cool Air
Chilled water pipes

Drip tray and
condensate drain
Centrifugal fans
Dust filter
Cabinet
T Room Air
Thermostat
FAN COIL UNIT
Fan coil units may be looked upon as beingsmall air handling units
located in rooms and they can be piped with chilled water for cooling
and low temperature hot water (LTHW) for heating if necessary.
The room temperature can be controlled with

low, medium and highfan
speeds and chilled water flow is varied with a two-port or three-port
motorised valve.
Two-pipe, three-pipe and four-pipe systems have been used.

The four-pipe system has two heating and two cooling pipes and may
have a single heat exchanger or two separate heat exchangers for
heating and cooling.
It is useful to have asummer/winter changeoverswitch in the main
control system to avoid both heat exchangers being on at the same
time.
A three-pipe system used heating flow, cooling flow and
common return
Pipework.
Choosing an A/C System
Generally central plant systems are used in large
prestigious buildings
where a high quality environment is to be achieved. Cassette units and
other split systems can be used together with central plant systems to
provide a moreflexible design.
Each system has its own advantages and the following is a summary of
some of the main advantages and disadvantages.
Central Plant Systems - Advantages:
1. Noise in rooms is usually reduced if plant room is away from

occupied spaces.
2. The whole building can be controlled fromcentral
a control
station. This means that optimum start and stop can be used
and a weather compensator can be utilised.
Also time clocks can bring air conditioning on and off at
appropriate times.
3. Maintenance is centralised in the plant room. Plant is easier to
access.
Central Plant Systems - Disadvantages:
1. Expensive to install a complete full comfort air-conditioning

system throughout a building.
2. Spaceis required for plant and to run ductwork both vertically in
shafts and horizontally in ceiling spaces.
3. Individualroom control is difficult with central plant.
Many systems have been tried such as Variable Air Volume (VAV),
dual duct systems and zone re-heaters.
Zone re-heaters are probably more successful than the rest.
Room Air Conditioning Units - Advantages:
1. Cheaperto install.
2. Individualroom control.
3. Works well where rooms have individual requirements.
4. No long runs of ductwork.
5. Can be used toheat as well as cool if a reversing valve is fitted.
Room Air Conditioning Units - Disadvantages:
1. Sometimes the indoor unit fan becomes noisy.

2. Noisycompressorin outdoor unit.
3. Each unit or group of units has a filter, compressor and
refrigeration Pipework that needs periodic maintenance and
possible re-charging Units have course filters therefore
filtration is not as good as with AHU’s.
4. The installation may require long runs of refrigerant pipework
which, if it leaks into the building, can be difficult to remedy.
5. Not at robust as central plant.
6. The majority of room air conditioners just recirculate air in a
room with no fresh air supply although most manufacturers
make units with fresh air capability.
7. 7. Cooling output is limited to about 9 kW maximum per unit;
therefore many units would be required to cool rooms with
high heat gains.
Fan coil units are similar is some respects to Room Air Conditioners.
Fan Coil Units - Advantages:
1. Cheaperto install than all air central plant system.

2. Individualroom control.
3. Works well where rooms have individual requirements.
4. No long runs of ductwork.
5. Can be used toheat as well as cool if 3 or 4-pipe system is
used.
Fan Coil Units - Disadvantages:
1. Sometimes the indoor unit fan becomes noisy, especially when

the speed is changing with in-built controls.
2. Each unit requiresmaintenance.
3. Long runs of pipework are required.
4. A chiller is still required to produce chilled water therefore
they do not save as much in plant and plant room space as
room air conditioners. Also boilers will be required if heating
mode is installed.
5. Freshair facility may not be installed.
6. Cooling output is limited to about5 kW.
Air Flow Rates
When determining air flow rates for rooms that are air conditioned, the following
procedure should be adopted;
1. Calculate heat gains.

2. Complete psychometric chart.
3. Determine mass flow rate of supply air from the following;
m = H / (Cp x (tr –ts))
Where;
H = Sensible heat gain (kW)

m = mass flow rate of air (kg/s)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of air (1.005 kJ/kg K)
tr = room temperature ( oC)
ts = supply air temperature ( oC) from psychometric chart.
4. Convert mass flow rate to a volume flow rate:
Volume flow rate (m 3/s) = mass flow rate (kg/s) / density of air (kg/m 3
)
5. Convert this to an Air Change rate for comparison.
Volume flow rate (m3/h) = Volume flow rate (m3/s) x 3600
Supply Air Rate (AC/h) = Volume Flow Rate (m3/h) / Room Volume (m3)
6. Check out the recommended air flow rate from CIBSE Guide B2
(Ventilation and Air Conditioning) Section 3 - Requirements.
Use the higher value of air change rate for design purposes.
Example 1
Determine the supply, fresh air and recirculation air flow rates for the Sports Centre
(Fitness Suite No.1) shown below.
See Assignments section – Drawings.
The room is to be fully air conditioned.
Air Handling Unit
(AHU) in roof space
above.
Fitness Suite No.1

17 m
Ceiling Height = 5.0 m
44 m
DATA
Occupancy = 80 people
Room volume = 3740 m 3.
Room temperature = 18oC from table 3.19 CIBSE guide.
Sensible heat gain = 70 kW from calculations (not shown)
See Heat Gains section of these notes for further details.
Supply air temp. = 13oC from psychrometric chart (not shown)
See Psychrometrics section of these notes for further details.
Supply air density = 1.225 kg/m 3.
See Science section – Properties of air – density at 13 oC and 50%
Supply Air Rate
m = H / (Cp x (tr –ts))

m = 70 / (1.005 x (18 -13))
m = 70 / 5.025
m = 13.93 kg/s
Volume flow rate (m 3/s) = mass flow rate (kg/s) / density of air (kg/m 3)
= 13.93 / 1.225 = 11.37 m 3/s
Volume flow rate (m 3/h) = 3
Volume flow rate (m /s) x 3600
= 11.37 m 3/s x 3600 = 40,932 m 3/h
Supply Air Rate (AC/h) = Volume Flow Rate (m 3/h) / Room Volume (m 3)
= 40,932 m 3/h / 3740
= 10.9 AC/h
Table 3.1 Summary of Recommendations (Guide B2) directs to Table 3.19.

From Table 3.19 for Fitness Centre the air flow rate is 10 to 12 AC/h.
Use higher value of 12 AC/h supply air rate as found from above Table.
This higher value is then used to size all plant and ductwork.
Fresh Air Rate
Section 3.2.1.3 Body odour (CIBSE guide B2) gives the following information;
Therefore in the absence of further information, it is recommended that 8 litre.s-1 per

person should be taken as the minimum ventilation rate to control body odour levels in
rooms with sedentary occupants.
Since the level of activity is higher than sedentary in the Fitness Room, we will
adopt a fresh air rate of 24 l/s per person.
Fresh air rate = 24 l/s x 80 people

= 1920 l/s
= 1.92 m 3/s
= 1.92 x 3600 = 6912 m 3/h
= 6912 m 3/h / 3740 = 1.9 AC/h
Percentage fresh air; 1.9 / 12.0 (x 100%) = 15.8%
Recirculation Air Rate
Recirculation Air Rate = Supply air rate - Fresh air rate

= 12.0 - 1.9
= 10.1 AC/h
Percentage recirculation air; 10.1 / 12.0 (x 100%) = 84.2%
The air flow rates are shown on the diagram below.

Cooling Coil
Supply fan Heater Battery

Pre-filter
Bag filter(s)
Pre-heater
1.9 AC/h Fresh Supply
1.92 m3/s air + - +
air 12.0 AC/h
12.47 m3/s
Dampers
Recirc.10.1 AC/h Room
air 10.55 m3/s
Return
1.9 AC/h Exhaust
air 12.0 AC/h
1.92 m3/s air
12.47 m3/s
Return air fan
Schematic Diagram Of
Central Plant Air Conditioning System
A slight negative pressure may be provided in the Fitness Room.

This is so that contaminated air does not enter the adjoining Reception / Foyer area.
The Return air amount may be increased to 110% of the previously calculated
value; that is, 13.2 AC/h or 13.72 m3/s.
Introduction
Heat gains from the sun can lead to increases in internal temperatures
beyond the limits ofcomfort.
24oC dry bulb temperature in the UK.
This is usually above
A software programme such as Hevacompis often used to determine
the internal summertime temperatures for a building.
It is therefore necessary to determine the amountsolar
of radiationthat
is transmitted into buildings through; windows, walls, roof, floor and by
admitting external air into the building.
Several measures can be adopted to reduce
solar radiationin buildings.
These are external and internal shading and by careful building design.
Natural vegetation such as tall
trees can also reduce solar heat gains.
Window areas can be reduced although natural day lighting is important
in northern latitudes in winter so there is a limit to glass reduction.
Buildings can be orientated so that there is less window area facing
directly south.
These are just some of the ways to reduce
solar radiation.
Calculating Heat Gains
The load on an air-conditioning system can be divided into the following

sections:
1. Sensible Transmission through glass.

2. Solar Gain through glass.
3. Internal Heat gains
4. Heat gain through walls.
5. Heat gain through roof.
6. Ventilation and/ or infiltration gains.
The heat gain through the glass windows is divided two into parts since
there is a heat gain due to
temperature differencebetween outside and
inside and another gain due to
solar radiationshining through windows.
The method adopted uses the

CIBSE guide A (2006)
and CIBSE Guide J
(2002).
The Tables that are referred to are
CIBSE guide A (2006)Solar cooling
loads inTables 5.19 to 5.24
.
CIBSE Guide J (2002) Air and Sol-air temperatures inTable 5.36
(London), Table 5.37 (Manchester) and Table 5.38 (Edinburgh)
This set of Tables is in Appendix A6 at the end of the guide.
Table 5.36
(London)starts at page A6-121.
If internal gains are to estimated then
CIBSE Guide A (2006) Table 6.4 to
6.17 are also required.
It would be helpful to have these Tables close by, to complete the
calculations.
An example of a heat gain claculation is givenCIBSE
in Guide A (2006)
section 5.8.2 example 5.3.
Heat gains through solid ground floors are minimal and can be
neglected.
1.0 Sensible Transmission Through Glass
This is the Solar Gain due to differences between inside and outside
temperatures. In very warm countries this can be quite significant.
This gain only applies to materials of negligible thermal capacity i.e.
glass.
Qg = Ag . Ug (to- tr)
eqn. 1
Where;
Qg = Sensible heat gain through glass (W)
Ag = 2)
Surface area of glass (m
Ug = 'U' value for glass (W/m2 oC)
(see CIBSE guide A (2006) Table 3.23 to 3.32).
to = outside air temperature o( C). Can be obtained from
CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Tables 5.36 to 5.38 for various months and times in the day.
tr = room air temperature (oC)
2.0 Solar Gain Through Windows
This gain is when the sun shines though windows.

The cooling loads per metre squared window area have been tabulated
in CIBSE guide A (2006)
Tables 5.19 to 5.24
for various; locations, times,
dates and orientations.
These figures are then multiplied by
correction factorsfor; shading and
air node correction factor.
Heat load is found from;
Qsg = Fc . Fs . qsg . Ag
eqn. 2
where Qsg = Actual cooling load (W)

qsg = Tabulated cooling load from CIBSE Guide A (2006)
2
Table 5.19 to 5.24 (W/m )
Fc = Air node correction factor from Table below.
Fs = Shading factor from Table below.
Ag = Area of glass (m 2)
The Air point control factors c(F
) and Shading factors s)(Fare given in the
Table below for various types of glass, building weights and for open and
closed blinds.
Air node correction factors (F

c)
Single Glazing Double glazing

Building Weight
Horizontal blind Horizontal blind
Light 0.91 0.91
Heavy 0.83 0.90
Shading factors (F
s)
Single Glazing Double glazing

Type of Building Open Closed Open Closed
glass Weight horizontal horizontal horizontal horizontal
blind blind blind blind
Light 1.00 0.77 0.95 0.74
Clear 6mm
Heavy 0.97 0.77 0.94 0.76
Bronze Light 0.86 0.77 0.66 0.55
tinted
Heavy 0.85 0.77 0.66 0.57
6mm
Bronze Light 0.78 0.73 0.54 0.47
tinted
Heavy 0.77 0.73 0.53 0.48
10mm
Light 0.64 0.57 0.48 0.41
Reflecting
Heavy 0.62 0.57 0.47 0.41
The CIBSE guide method of calculating solar gains through glazing in

Guide A (2006), section 5.8.1.1 uses a slightly different formula as
follows;
Qsg = S . qsg . Ag
where Qsg = Actual cooling load (W)

qsg = Tabulated cooling load from CIBSE Guide A (2006)
2
Table 5.19 to 5.24 (W/m )
S = Mean solar gain factor at the environmental node or
air node from CIBSE Guide A (2006) Table 5.7.
Ag = Area of glass (m 2)
3.0 Internal Heat Gains - CIBSE Guide A (2006)
Internal gains can account for most heat gain in buildings in the U.K.
These gains are from occupants, lights, equipment and machinery, as
detailed below.
OCCUPANTS - Sensible and latent heat gains can be obtained CIBSE
from
Guide A (2006) - Table 6.3.
Typical gains are shown below.
Sensible Latent
Heat Heat
Conditions Typical building
Gain Gain
(Watts) (Watts)
Seated very light work Offices, hotels, apartments 70 45
Moderate office work Offices, hotels, apartments 75 55
Standing, light work;
Department store, retail store 75 55
walking
Walking standing Bank 75 70
Sedentary work Restaurant 80 80
Light bench work Factory 80 140
Athletics Gymnasium 210 315
LIGHTING – Average power density from

CIBSE Guide A (2006) - Tables
6.4.
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT - PC’s and Monitors CIBSE- Guide A (2006) -

Tables 6.7 and 6.8.
Laser Printers and Photocopiers
CIBSE
- Guide A (2006) - Tables 6.9 and
6.10
Electric Motors –CIBSE Guide A (2006) - Table 6.13 and 6.14.
Lift Motors –CIBSE Guide A (2006) - Table 6.15.
Cooking equipment C – IBSE Guide A (2006) - Table 6.17.
Q int. = Heat from Occupants + Heat from Lighting + Heat

from Electrical Equipment + Heat from Cooking
4.0 Heat Gain Through Walls
This is the unsteady-state heat flow through a wall due to the varying
intensity of solar radiation on the outer surface.
4.1 Sol-Air Temperature
In the calculation of this heat flow use is made of the concept

sol-air
of
temperature, which is defined as;
the value of the outside air temperature which would, in the absence of
all radiation exchanges, give the same rate of heat flow into the outer
surface of the wall as the actual combination of temperature difference
and radiation exchanges.
SOL-AIR TEMP,
t eo = t a + (  . I . cos a . cos n + I s )
hso
eqn. 4.1
where
t eo = sol-air temperature o
( C)
ta = outside air temperature o( C)
 = absorption coefficient of surface
I = intensity of direct solar radiation on a surface at right
2
angles to the rays of the sun. (W/m)
a = solar altitude (degrees)
n = wall-solar azimuth angle (degrees)
Is = intensity of scattered radiation normal to a surface
2
(W/m )
2
hso = external surface heat transfer coefficient (W/moC)
The U.K. values of sol-air temperature are found from

CIBSE Guide J
(2002) Table 5.36 (London), Table 5.37 (Manchester) and Table 5.38
(Edinburgh).
Table 5.36(London)starts at page A6-121.
4.2 Thermal Capacity
The heat flow through a wall is complicated by the presence

thermal
of
capacity, so that some of the heat passing through it is stored, being
released at a later time.
Thick heavy wallswith a high thermal capacity will damp temperature

swings considerably, whereas thin light walls with a small thermal
capacity will have little damping effect, and fluctuations in outside
surface temperature will be apparent almost immediately.
The thermal capacity will not affect the daily mean solar gainbut will
affect the solar gain at a particular time.
The particular time of a solar gain is normally the time of the
maximum gain.
The heat gain arrives at the inside of a thick wall some time after the sun
hits the outside surface of the wall.
This time lag is.
The calculation is, therefore, again split into two components.
1. Mean gain through wall,
Q = A . U ( et m - tr)
eqn. 4.2
where, Q = heat gain through wall at time

2
A = area of wall (m )
2
U = overall thermal transmittance (W/m oC) (See
Thermal Transmission in Science section of the notes) or (see CIBSE guide A (2006)
Table 3.49 to 3.55) for typical wall constructions.
t em = 24 hour mean sol-air temperatureo(C) CIBSE Guide J
(2002) - Table 5.36 to 5.38.
tr = constant dry resultant temperature o(C). In practice
room dry bulb is used.
2. The variation from the mean solar gain is subject to both a

decrement factor and time lag.
Q = f ( teo - tem)
eqn. 4.3
where Q = Heat gain through wall at time)

(
 = time lag in hours (see CIBSE guide A (2006) Table 3.49
to 3.55) for typical wall constructions.
t eo = sol-air temperature at time 
( (oC) CIBSE Guide J
(2002) - Table 5.36 to 5.38.
(2002) - Table 5.36 to 5.38.
f = decrement factor (see CIBSE guide A (2006) Table
3.49 to 3.55) for typical wall constructions.
Therefore the Solar Gain through a wall at time

() is;
Q = A . U ( et m - tr) + f ( teo - tem)
eqn. 4.4
where, Q = heat gain through wall at time (Watts)

 = time lag in hours (see CIBSE guide A (2006) Table 3.49
to 3.55) for typical wall constructions.
2
A = area of wall (m )
2
U = overall thermal transmittance (W/m oC) (see CIBSE
guide A (2006) Table 3.49 to 3.55) for typical wall constructions.
(2002) - Table 5.36 to 5.38.
tr = constant dry resultant temperature o(C) In practice
room dry bulb is used.
f = decrement factor (see CIBSE guide A (2006) Table
3.49 to 3.55) for typical wall constructions.
t eo = Sol-air temperature at time )
( (oC) CIBSE Guide J
(2002) - Table 5.36 to 5.38
5.0 Heat Gain Through Roof
The heat gain through a roof uses the same equation as for a wall as
shown below.
Q +Roof = A U [( t em - t r ) + f ( t eo - t em )]
eqn. 5
6.0 Ventilation and/or Infiltration Gains
Qsi = n . V (to- tr) / 3
eqn. 6
where Qsi = Sensible heat gain (W)

n = number of air changes per hour -1
(h) (see note below)
V = volume of room (m3)
to = outside air temperature o( C) Can be obtained from
CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Tables 5.36 to 5.38 for various months and times in the day.
tr = room air temperature (oC)
Infiltration gains should be added to the room heat gains.

Recommended infiltration rates are 1/2 air change per hourfor most
air-conditioning cases or1/4 air change per hourfor double glazing or if
special measures have been taken to prevent infiltration.
or
Ventilation or fresh air supply loads can be added to either the room
central plant loads but should only be accounted for once.
Total Room Load From Heat Gains
Q total = Qg + Q sg + Q int. + Q +Wall + Q +Roof + Q si

Q total = Ag . Ug (to - tr) 1. Sensible
Glass
+ Fc . Fs . qsg . Ag 2. Solar Glass

.
+ Qint. 3. Internal
+ A.U [( tem - tr) + f ( et o - tem)] 4. Walls
+ A.U [( tem - tr) + f ( et o - tem)] 5. Roof
+ n . V (to - tr) / 3 6. Ventilation
eqn. 7
In the majority of cases, by far the greatest external fluctuating

component is the solar heat gain through thewindows.
Therefore, it will be this gain which determines when the total heat gain
to the room is amaximum.
Heat gains may be calculated and displayed in table form as shown

below.
Heat Gain from Watts %

1. Sensible transmission through glass
2. Solar gain through glass
3. Internal
4. External walls
5. Roof
6. Ventilation
Total 100%
2
Heat gain per m floor area =
3
Heat gain per m space =
Latent Gains
Latent heat gainsare calculated so that theTotal heat gaincan be
determined to complete a psychrometric chart.
Total heat gain = Sensible heat gain Latent
+ heat gains
AlsoLatent heat gainsare required to size Chillers.
Latent heat gainsare comprised of latent gain from

occupantsand from
natural infiltration fresh air.
Latent heat gains fromoccupantscan be obtained fromCIBSE Guide A
(2006) - Table 6.3 shown above.
The following formula gives the infiltration latent heat gain.
Qli = 0.8 . n . V ( m
so –msr )
Where;
Qli = Infiltration latent heat gain (W)

N = Number of air changes per hour-1)(h
3
V = Room volume (m )
mso = Moisture content of outside air (g/kg d.a.) from psychrometric chart.
msr = Moisture content of room air (g/kg d.a.) from psychrometric chart.
Example 1
The room shown below is to be maintained at a constant environmental

temperature of 21oC for a plant operation of 12 hours per day.
The room is on the intermediate floor of an Library located in London
latitute 51.7oN.
The internal construction is lightweight demountable partitions, lightweight
slab floors and suspended acoustically treated ceilings, shading is
intermittent.
Calculate the maximum sensible cooling load in the room in July
The outside air temperature (to) may be found from CIBSE Guide J (2002) -
Tables 5.36 page A6-127 (July 4th).
The maximum value ocurrs at 16.00 hrs. and is 25.4oC.
DATA:
Occupants = 100
Infiltration = 0.5 air changes per hour
Building classification = lightweight,
Building response = fast.
External wall 'U' value = 0.45 W/m2oC, internal insulation,
neglect time lag through wall.
External wall colour = light.
External wall decrement factor f = 0.65
Glass type & 'U' value = clear 6mm, double glazing, U
= 2.80 W/m2oC
Window blinds = internal blind..
Lighting = 30 Watts / m2 floor area
Heat gain from machinery and equipment = 4000 Watts
NOTE: It should be noted that this total heat gain is used to size central
plant items such as Chillers, Condensers and Cooling Towers.
Cooling coils are sized usually with a pschrometric chart.
Answer
Areas:
Area of window = 1.2 x 1.7 = 2.04 m2.

Total area of glass = 2.04 x 12No. windows = 24.48 m2.
Area of glass facing South = 12.24 m2.
Area of wall facing South = 22.0 m x 4.0 m high = 88 m2 less glass
= 88 - 12.24 = 75.76 m2.
Floor area = 22 x 14 = 308m2.
Room volume = 308 x 4 = 1232 m3.
Gains:
1. Sensible transmission through glass Qg = Ag Ug (to - tr)
Qg = 24.48 x 2.8 (25.4 – 21)
Qg = 301.6 Watts
2. Solar Gain through glass Qsg = Fc Fs qsg Ag
where:
Qsg = Actual cooling load (W)

Fc = Air node correction factor from Table in page 2 – internal blind, fast
response - 0.91.
Fs = Shading factor from Table in page 2 - for blind/clear/clear, fast
response – 0.95.
qsg = Tabulated cooling load from CIBSE Guide A (2006) Table 5.20
Intermittent shading for July 4th , orientation South, 12.30 hours gives
maximum of 238 W/m2
2
Ag = Area of glass facing South (m )
(Maximum is at 12.30 hrs) Qsg = 0.91 x 0.95 x 238 x 12.24

Qsg = 2,518.4 Watts
3. Internal Qint. = Qint.

Qint. = Lights (30 W/m2 x 308) + 4000 W + People (100 x 100)
Qint. = 9,240 + 4,000 + 10,000
Qint. = 23,240.0 Watts
4. External wall Q Wall = A U [( tem - tr) + f ( teo - tem)]
where,
Q = heat gain through wall at time q+f (Watts)
2
A = area of wall facing South (m )
U = overall thermal transmittance given in question as 0.45
2o
W/m C.
tem = 24 hour mean sol-air temperature (oC) CIBSE Guide J
(2002) - Table 5.36 at 12.30 hrs, light wall facing South –
22.6oC
tr = constant dry resultant temperature (oC). Room dry bulb
of 21oC is given.
f = decrement factor for wall is given as 0.65.
teo = sol-air temperature when Tabulated cooling load (qsg) is
at 13.00 hrs. CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table 5.36, light wall, South facing gives 38.8oC.
Q+Wall = 75.76 x 0.45 [( 22.6 – 21) + 0.65 ( 38.8 – 22.6)]

Q+Wall = 34.092 [ 1.6 + 10.53 ]
Q+Wall = 413.5 Watts
5. Roof Q+Roof = Nil for intermediate floor.
6. Ventilation Qsi = n V (to - tr) / 3

Qsi = 0.5 x 1232 (25.4 – 21) / 3
Qsi = 903.5 Watts
7. Q total = Qg + Qsg + Qint. + Q+Wall + Q +Roof + Qsi

Q total = 301.6 + 2,518.4 + 23,240.0 + 413.5 + 0 + 903.5
Q total = 27,377 Watts
The results are shown in the table below.
1. Sensible transmission through glass 301.6 1.1

2. Solar gain through glass 2,518.4 9.2
3. Internal 23,240.0 84.9
4. External walls 413.5 1.5
5. Roof 0 0
6. Ventilation 903.5 3.3
Total 27,377 100%
Heat gain per m2 floor area = 88.9 W/m2

Heat gain per m3 space = 22.2 W/m3
Example 2
The room shown below is to be maintained at a constant environmental

temperature of 21oC for a plant operation of 12 hours per day.
The room is on the intermediate floor of an Office Block located in London.
The internal construction is lightweight partitions, concrete hollow slab
floors and suspended ceilings.
Calculate the maximum sensible cooling load in the room in July.

The outside air temperature (to) may be found from CIBSE Guide J (2002) -
Tables 5.36 page A6-127 (July 4th).
The maximum value ocurrs at 16.00 hrs. and is 25.4oC.
DATA:
Occupants = 80
Building classification = lightweight with fast response.
External wall surface texture= dark.
External wall thickness = 300mm, internal insulation, decrement
factor is 0.27, neglect time lag through wall.
Blinds = Internal Heat gain from machinery and
equipment = 3000 Watts
External Walls - ‘U’ value = 0.35 W/m2oC.
Windows - Double Glazing,

Each 1.2 m wide x 1.7 m high,
‘U’value = 2.6 W/m2oC.
Answer
Areas:
Area of window = 1.2 x 1.7 = 2.04 m2.

Area of glass facing South West = 10.2 m2.
Area of wall facing South West = 18.0 m x 3.0 m high

= 54 m2 less glass
= 54 - 10.2 = 43.8 m2.
Floor area = 18 x 16 = 288m2.
Room volume = 288 x 3 = 864 m3.
Gains:
Qg = 20.4 x 2.6 (25.4 – 21)
Qg = 233.4 Watts
where:

Fc = Air node correction factor from Table in page 2; internal blind, fast
response - 0.91.
Fs = Shading factor from Table in page 2; for blind/clear/clear, fast response
– 0.95.
qsg = Tabulated cooling load from CIBSE Guide A (2006) Table 5.20
Intermittent shading for July 4th , orientation South West, 12.30 hours
gives maximum of 328 W/m2
2

Qsg = 2892.3 Watts

Qint. = 10,080 + 3,000 + 8,000
Qint. = 21,080.0 Watts
4. External wall Q  Wall = A U [( tem - tr) + f ( teo - tem)]
where,
Q  = heat gain through wall at time  (Watts)
2
A = area of wall facing South West (m )
2o
U = overall thermal transmittance given in question as 0.35 W/m C.
tem = 24 hour mean sol-air temperature (oC) CIBSE Guide J (2002) –
Table 5.36 at 13.00 hrs, dark wall facing South West– 26.7oC
tr = constant dry resultant temperature (oC). Room dry bulb of 21oC
is given.
f = decrement factor for wall is given as 0.27.
teo = sol-air temperature when Tabulated cooling load (qsg) is at
13.00 hrs. CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table 5.36, dark wall, South Westfacing gives 47.1oC.
(dark façade) Q  Wall = 43.8 x 0.35 [( 26.7 – 21) + 0.27 ( 47.1 – 26.7)]
Q  Wall = 15.33 [ 5.7 + 5.51 ]
Q  Wall = 171.9 Watts
5. Roof Q  Roof = Nil for intermediate floor.

Qsi = 0.4 x 864 (25.4 – 21) / 3
Qsi = 506.9.0 Watts
7. Q total = Qg + Qsg + Qint. + Q  Wall + Q  Roof + Qsi

Q total = 233.4 + 2,892.3 + 21,080.0 + 171.9 + 0 + 506.9
Q total = 24,884.5 Watts
1. Sensible transmission through glass 233.4 0.9

2. Solar gain through glass 2,892.3 11.6
3. Internal 21,080.0 84.7
4. External walls 171.9 0.7
5. Roof 0 0
6. Ventilation 506.9 2.1
Total 24,884.5 100%
Heat gain per m2 floor area = 86.4 W/m2

Heat gain per m3 space = 28.8 W/m3
The heat gain in the previous example was 88.8 W/m2 floor area and the
total was 27,377 Watts .
The heat gain in this example is 86.4 W/m2 floor area and the total is
24,884.5 Watts.
The value of sensible heat gain can be used in a psychrometic chart to
determine the cooling coil size in an Air Handling Unit (AHU).
Example 3
The Restaurant shown below is to be maintained at a constant environmental temperature of 22oC for a plant operation
of 12 hours per day.
The Restaurant area is on the ground floor of an Single storey building located at 51.7oN.
The internal construction is lightweight partitions, concrete hollow slab floors and suspended ceilings.
Calculate the maximum sensible cooling load in the Restaurant area in July.
DATA:
Occupants = 70
Outside air temperature (to) = 28oC.
Building classification = lightweight, fast response building.
External wall surface texture = dark.
External wall - use information from CIBSE guide A (2006) section 8(e) in Table 3.49, 105mm Brick,
internal 50mm EPS insulation, 100mm lightweight aggregate concrete block, 13mm
dense plaster, cavity wall.
Windows - Double glazed internal shade, clear 6mm glass, light slatted blinds, intermittent
shading.
Roof - use information from CIBSE guide A (2006) section 2(d) in Table 3.50.
Heat gain from equipment = 2000 Watts
7.7 m
14.0 m 2.7m 3.5 m
Roof pitch = 300
Male Female
Toilet Toilet Cold
Store
9.5 m
Kitchen
Lobby
Restaurant
Reception
Prep.
Room
Entrance
PLAN
Scale: 1:100
All Restaurant Windows Height of ceiling at Height of wall to eaves
1.4 m wide x 2.0 m high, ridge = 5.9 metres. = 3.0 metres.
South
double glazed.
South
Answer
Areas:
Area of window = 1.4 x 2.0 = 2.8 m2.

Area of glass facing South = 14.0 m2.
Area of wall facing South = 14.0 m x 3.0 m high = 42 m2 less glass = 42 - 14 = 28.0 m2.
Floor area = 14 x 10 = 140 m2.

Ceiling area = Length x 2(Rafter length inside)
Rafter length inside = 0.5 x room width / cos roof pitch
= Rafter length inside = 0.5 x 5 / cos 300.
= Rafter length inside = 0.5 x 5 / 0.866 = 5.774 metres
Ceiling area = 14 x 2 (5.774) = 161.7 m2.
Room volume = 140m2 x 3 + ( 14 x 5 x 2.9 ) = 623 m3.
Gains:

Qg = 28.0 x 2.8 (28 – 22)
Qg = 470 Watts

where:

Fc = Air node correction factor from Table in page 2 – internal blind, fast response - 0.91.
Fs = Shading factor from Table in page 2 - for blind/clear/clear, fast response – 0.95.
qsg = Tabulated cooling load from CIBSE Guide A (2006) Table 5.20 Intermittent shading for July 4th , orientation South,
12.30 hours gives maximum of 238 W/m2
2

Qsg = 2,880 Watts

Qint. = 3080 + 2,000 + 7,000
Qint. = 12,080 Watts
4. External wall
Find information from CIBSE Guide A (2006) Table A3.49.
Wall is type 8(e) and the decrement factor is 0.42, time lag  is 8.8 hours, ‘U’ value 0.52 W/m2oC.
If the maximum solar heat gain is at 12.30 pm and the time lag is 8.8 hours then the time of the relevant sol air temperature is;
12.50 - 8.8 = 3.7 say  is at 4.00 am.
teo = sol-air temperature when Tabulated cooling load (qsg) is at 04.00 hrs. CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table 5.36, dark wall, South
facing gives 10.4 oC.
A correction can be applied to this since we are using outside air temperature (to) of 28oC.
The tabulated maximum outside air temperature (to) from CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table 5.36 page A6-127 (July 4th) ocurrs at 16.00
hrs. and is 25.40C.
The difference in outside temperatures is; 28 – 25.4 = 2.6 oC.
The actual sol air temperature (teo) to use in this example is; 2.6 oC + 10.4 oC = 12.8 oC
External wall Q+Wall = A U [( tem - tr) + f ( teo - tem)]

Therefore the Solar Gain through a wall at time () is;
Q  = heat gain through wall at time  (Watts)

 = time lag in hours (see CIBSE guide A (2006) Table 3.49 to 3.55) for typical wall constructions.
2
A = area of wall facing South (m )
2o
U = overall thermal transmittance given in CIBSE guide A (2006) section 8(e) in Table 3.49 = 0.52 W/m C.
tem = 24 hour mean sol-air temperature (oC) CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table 5.36 at 13.00 hrs, dark wall facing South –
25.8oC
tr = constant dry resultant temperature (oC). Room dry bulb of 21oC is given.
f = decrement factor for wall is given in CIBSE guide A (2006) section 8(e) in Table 3.49 = 0.42.
teo = sol-air temperature at time () (oC) from above is 12.8oC.
(dark façade) Q  Wall = A U [( tem - tr) + f ( teo - tem)]

Q  Wall = 28 x 0.52 [( 25.8 – 22) + 0.42 ( 12.8 – 25.8)]
Q  Wall = 14.56 [ 3.8 + - 5.5 ] - this - 5.5 is a heat loss since it happens so early in the morning
and will be neglected.
Q  Wall = 14.56 [ 3.8 ]
Q  Wall = 55 Watts
5. Roof
Find decrement factor (f) from CIBSE Guide A (2006) Table 3.50, use information from section 2(d).
The decrement factor is 0.88, time lag is 3.0 hours, ‘U’ value 0.23 W/m2oC.
If the maximum solar heat gain is at 12.30 pm and the time lag is 3.0 hours then the time of the relevant sol air temperature is;
 is at 12.30 hrs - 3.0 = 9.30 hrs
teo = sol-air temperature when Tabulated cooling load (qsg) is at 10.00 hrs. CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table 5.36, dark wall, South
facing gives 40.4 oC.
A correction can be applied to this since we are using outside air temperature (to) of 28oC.
The tabulated maximum outside air temperature (to) from CIBSE Guide J (2002) - Table 5.36 page A6-127 (July 4th) ocurrs at 16.00
hrs. and is 25.40C.
The difference in outside temperatures is; 28 – 25.4 = 2.6 oC.
The actual sol air temperature (teo) to use in this example is; 2.6 oC + 40.4 oC = 43 oC
Q  Roof = A U [( tem - tr) + f ( teo - tem)]

Q  Roof = 161.7 x 0.23 [(25.8 – 22) + 0.88 (43 – 25.8 )]
Q  Roof = 37.19 [ ( 3.8 + 15.1 ) ]
Q  Roof = 703 Watts

Qsi = 1.0 x 623 (28 – 22) / 3
Qsi = 1,246 Watts
7. Q total = Qg + Qsg + Qint. + Q  Wall + Q  Roof + Qsi

Q total = 470 + 2,880 + 12,080 + 55 + 703 + 1,246
Q total = 17,434 Watts

1. Sensible transmission through glass 470 2.7
2. Solar gain through glass 2,880 16.5
3. Internal 12,080 69.3
4. External walls 55 0.3
5. Roof 703 4.0
6. Ventilation 1,246 7.2
Total 17,434 100%
Heat gain per m2 floor area = 125 W/m2
Heat gain per m3 space = 28 W/m3
Types of Heating And Cooling Coils
Fin & Tube Heat Exchangers
Fin and tube heat exchangers are used extensively for heating and cooling air.
They consist of one or more rows of finned tubes connected to headers and
mounted within a sheet metal casing with flanged ends suitable for duct
mounting.
The heating elements are normally manufactured with copper tubes, with the
extended surfaces, or fins, being of aluminium or sometimes copper. The most
common type of finning arrangements are the spirally wound and the rectangular
fin.
Heating coils may be used with hot water or steam as the heat transfer media
whilst frost pre-heaters usually have electric heating elements. Cooling coils are
classified as being either of the water or the direct expansion type depending on
the media flowing through the tubes.
A heating coil is shown below.
In water coils, hot or chilled water or brine circulates through the tubes of the
coil either emitting or absorbing sensible heat as the air flows over the fins
attached to the outside surfaces. Usually the flow of water and air are in
opposite directions to each other, this being known as counter-flow heat
exchanger. This configuration gives maximum heat transfer.
Direct Expansion Coils (Evaporator Coils)

In the direct expansion coil (DX), or evaporator, a refrigerant evaporates inside
the tubes of the coil, as shown below.
Heat Rejection
Expansion Condenser Compressor

valve.
Air Off Coil
Refrigeration
pipework
Evaporator
DX coil as
Air On evaporator
REFRIGERATION CYCLE WITH DIRECT

EXPANSION COIL
Latent heat is absorbed by the air stream from the refrigerant as the refrigerant
evaporates. With this type of coil, as with steam, there is no distinction made
between parallel and counter-flow since the surface temperature is more uniform
owing to the refrigerant in the tubes boiling at a constant temperature.
When direct expansion coils are used they become the evaporator of the
refrigeration cycle, and may be termed either ‘dry’ or ‘flooded’. In the ‘dry’
DX coil only a sufficient quantity of refrigerant is introduced to operate in the
predominantly vapour state. In the ‘flooded’ DX coil most of the coil is filled
with liquid refrigerant and although this is more efficient, it is not used so much
in air-conditioning since the additional refrigerant is expensive.
Evaporator coils come in a variety of shapes and sizes, depending on the type of
installation, the amount of cooling capacity needed, and the manufacturer. They
are constructed of aluminium finned copper tubing. The copper tubing runs
perpendicular to the aluminium fins, making U-turns back and forth until the
desired coil size is achieved. Added cooling capacity without an increase in
length and width is accomplished by adding more rows of copper tubing.
All evaporator coils must have a drain pan to collect the water that condenses as
the air flowing across the coil cools. The water can drain away by gravity or be
pumped away.
The cooling effect that takes place inside the coil requires a pressure drop in the
refrigerant. This drop can be accomplished in a number of ways: capillary tube,
piston or orifice, or thermostatic expansion valve.
A capillary tube is a thin copper tube of predetermined length into which the
compressed liquid refrigerant is pumped. The length of the tubing causes the
pressure drop and subsequent cooling effect of the refrigerant.
A piston or orifice blocks the flow of refrigerant and forces it through a tiny
hole, creating the needed pressure drop.
A thermostatic expansion valve meters the flow of refrigerant to meet the

cooling demand of the coil. It determines this demand by way of a sensing bulb
attached to the outlet tube on the coil. Because it can meter the flow to meet
demand, the expansion valve can keep the coil at optimum cooling potential.
Because the cooling coil is an integral part of the air distribution system, its
geometry — size, number of rows, fin spacing, and fin profile — contributes to
the airside pressure drop and affects the sound power level of the fans. (Fan
power needed to circulate air through the duct system may warrant extra sound
attenuation at the air handler.)
Water Removal
Moisture in air can condense in the air stream or when the air impinges upon a
solid cool surface. This can happen at sharp bends where water collects in a
puddle at the lower surface on the ductwork. A drain can be fitted on vertical
sections of ductwork to remove water that has collected. Ducts can also be
insulated in areas where condensing moisture is likely to occur.
In hospitals and other situations water in ducts is to be avoided since bacteria

can multiply in warm moist conditions.
Droplet separators have been developed to remove water droplet carry-over

from cooling coils. They consist of a media that can absorb the water droplets
and transport them down through the material to the drainage section.
The system shown below uses a glass-fibre-based material and the droplet
separator works best with air velocities between 0 and 4 m/s.
The media is so efficient that it can arrest 100 litres of water per cubic metre of
media.
Some droplet separators are produced as cassettes to ensure easy handling.
several cassettes can be linked together to achieve the desired surface area.
Heat Transfer in Cooling Coils
Chilled-water cooling coils are finned-tube heat exchangers consisting of rows of
tubes (usually copper) that pass through sheets of formed fins (usually
aluminium). As air passes through the coil and contacts the cold fin surfaces, heat
transfers from the air to the water flowing through the tubes.
The following equation quantifies the heat-transfer process:
Q = U × A × LMTD
Where,
Q = amount of heat transferred, Btu/hr (W)

U = heat-transfer coefficient, Btu/hr • ft² • °F (W/m² • °K)
A = effective surface area for heat transfer, ft² (m²)
LMTD = log-mean temperature difference across the coil surface, °F (°C)
Increasing any one of these variables (heat-transfer coefficient, surface area, or

log-mean temperature difference) results in more heat transfer.
Arguably the most effective way to improve heat-transfer performance is to

increase the log-mean temperature difference (LMTD). In the context of a
chilled-water cooling coil, LMTD describes the difference between the
temperatures of the air passing across the coil fins and the water flowing through
the coil tubes:
LMTD = (TD2 – TD1) / ln (TD2 / TD1)
Where;
TD1 = leaving-air and entering-water temperature difference at the coil (°C)

TD2 = entering-air and leaving-water temperature difference at the coil (°C)
One way to increase LMTD is to supply the coil with colder water.
Heat-transfer coefficient, Q = U × A × LMTD
Also called U-value or thermal transmittance value, the heat-transfer coefficient

describes the overall rate of heat flow through the coil. Three factors determine
this rate:
 Airside film coefficient describes the “barrier” (resistance to heat transfer)

between the passing air stream and the fin surfaces
 Waterside film coefficient describes a similar “barrier” between the inside

surfaces of the copper tubes and the circulating fluid
 Thermal conductance describes the rate at which heat flows through the
aluminium fins and copper tubes of the coil
System designers can do little to affect thermal conductance, but they can alter
the film coefficients. Increasing the rate of airflow reduces heat-transfer
resistance on the air side of the cooling coil. Likewise, increasing the water
velocity reduces the waterside resistance to heat transfer.
Fin geometry can improve the overall heat-transfer coefficient, too, by lessening
the airside film coefficient. Like velocity, fin geometry can be specified as part of
the design of the HVAC system. For comfort-cooling applications, coil fins are
usually stamped into waveforms resembling corrugated cardboard. These
waveforms create turbulence in the passing air stream, which lessens the
resistance to heat transfer. More exaggerated waveforms produce more
turbulence.
Turbulent water flow, like turbulent airflow, also reduces resistance to heat
transfer. And, like fin geometry, it can become an important criterion for coil
selection. Waterside turbulence can be created by metal ribbons or helical wires
inside the tubes. Called turbulators, these devices create eddies as the water
flows across them.
Both methods of improving the heat-transfer coefficient (increased velocity and

turbulence) create higher pressure drops, which can mean additional fan or pump
power.
Coil surface area, Q = U × A × LMTD
The third determinant of heat transfer is the coil’s surface area. Typically, fin
spacing for comfort heating or cooling ranges from 24 to 50 fins per metre.
Spacing the fins closer together multiplies the surface area by permitting more
fins per linear unit. Although the airside pressure drop may increase, adding fins
extends the available surface area without affecting the overall size of the coil.
Adding rows of tubes also increases the heat-transfer surface area. Most coils are
constructed with same-end connections, so rows are usually added in pairs. The
weight and cost of the coil increase accordingly, but the airside pressure drop
may not. (Wider fin spacing often accompanies the decision to add rows.)
The best way to extend the surface area for heat transfer is to decrease the face
velocity of the coil, that is, face area relative to airflow:
Face velocity = airflow / face area
Face velocity can be reduced in one of two ways: by increasing the size of the
coil or (paradoxically) by reducing the required airflow. Selecting a physically
larger coil increases the initial investment in the coil and the air handler, and may
also enlarge the air-handler footprint ... seldom desirable outcomes. So, how can
we reduce the required airflow without sacrificing coil capacity?
Improving Coil Performance

Lowering the supply air temperature reduces the amount of air required for
sensible cooling and saves fan energy. From our review of the heat-transfer
equation, we know that: less airflow increases airside film resistance, which
reduces heat-transfer coefficient U; and requires colder air, which decreases
LMTD.
To compensate for the negative effects on coil performance that accompany less
airflow, we must find a way to increase U (heat-transfer coefficient) and/or A
(surface area). In other words, we must select a cooling coil with better-than-
average heat-transfer characteristics.
Increase U
Recall that turbulent flow reduces the film resistance to heat transfer. Choosing a
fin configuration with a more pronounced waveform and/or adding turbulators
inside the coil tubes will improve the heat-transfer coefficient.
Increase A
Any additional increase in heat-transfer capacity must be achieved by physically
increasing the available surface area; that is, by:
 Adding rows
 Adding fins
 Increasing the physical size of the coil (which will increase the
initial costs of the coil, air handler, and airside accessories).
Psychrometry for Air Conditioning
Introduction
The aim of this section of the notes is to allow students to size air
conditioning plant such as; Cooling coil, heater battery and
humidifier.
The notes are divided into several sections as follows:
1. PSYCHROMETRY FOR AIR CONDITIONING
2. THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
3. EXAMPLES OF PSYCHROMETRIC PROPERTIES
4. AIR CONDITIONING PLANT FOR SUMMER & WINTER
5. BASIC PROCESSES
6. TYPICAL AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES
7. ANNOTATION AND ROOM RATIO
8. SUMMER AND WINTER CYCLES
9. EXAMPLES
The first section deals with Psychrometry for air conditioning and
discusses some properties of moist air.
A simplified psychrometric chart is shown for familiarisation, and
some examples of how to find air properties are provided.
A diagram of an air conditioning system is shown in schematic form
in the section entitled AIR CONDITIONING PLANT FOR SUMMER &
WINTER.
Before sizing takes place the student should also understand the
processes that take place in air conditioning systems.
There are four basic processes for summer and winter air
conditioning systems.
The following basic processes are explained:
1. Mixing
2. Sensible Cooling and Heating
3. Cooling with Dehumidification
4. Humidification
The section on Typical Air Conditioning Processes shows winter and
summer schematic diagrams and psychrometric charts.
There are some more details that may be useful to the designer of air
conditioning systems.
Further information is as follows: Annotation, Room ratio
When the processes have been superimposed onto a psychrometric
chart then calculations may commence.
These are as detailed in the following sections of the notes.
Summer and Winter Cycles
1. Summer cycle psychrometrics
2. Summer cycle calculations
3. Winter cycle psychrometrics
4. Winter cycle calculations
5. Duct and Fan gains.
The final section is seven examples of plant sizing using
psychrometric charts.
Psychrometry for Air Conditioning
Psychrometry is the study of air and water vapour mixtures.
Air is made up of five main gases i.e.
Nitrogen 78.03%, Oxygen 20.99%, Argon 0.94%, Carbon Dioxide
0.03%, and Hydrogen 0.01% by volume.
The Ideal Gas Laws are used to determine psychrometric data for air
so that the engineer can carry out calculations.
To make life easier a chart has been compiled with all the relevant
psychrometric data indicated.
This is called the Psychrometric Chart.
A typical chart is shown below.
Air at any state point can be plotted on the psychrometric chart.
The information that can be obtained from a Psychrometric Chart is

as follows:
1. Dry bulb temperature

2. Wet bulb temperature
3. Moisture content
4. Percentage saturation
5. Specific enthalpy
6. Specific volume.
The following is a brief description of each of the properties of air.
1. Dry bulb temperature
This is the air temperature measured by a mercury-in-glass

thermometer.
2. Wet bulb temperature
This is the air temperature measured by a mercury-in-glass

thermometer which has the mercury bulb wetted by gauze that is
kept moist by a reservoir of water.
When exposed to the environment the moisture evaporates from the

wetted gauze, which gives a lower reading on the thermometer.
This gives an indication of how ‘dry’ or how ‘moist’ the air is, since in
‘dry’ air the water will evaporate quickly from the gauze, which
depresses the thermometer reading.
3. Moisture content
This is the amount of moisture in air given in kg of moisture per kg of

dry air e.g. for room air at 21oC dry bulb and 15oC wet bulb, the
moisture content is about 0.008 kg/kg d.a.
This is a small mass of moisture (0.008 kg = 8 grams) per kg of dry

air or 9.5 grams per cubic metre of air.
4. Percentage saturation
The Percentage saturation is another indication of the amount of

moisture in air.
This is the ratio of the moisture content of moist air to the moisture
content of saturated air at the same temperature.
When air is saturated it is at 100% saturation and cannot hold any

more moisture.
5. Specific enthalpy
This is the amount of heat energy (kJ) in air per kg.

If heat is added to the air at a heater battery for example, then the
amount to be added can be determined from Specific enthalpy
change.
6. Specific volume
This is the volume of moist air (dry air + water vapour) per unit mass.
The units of measurement are m3 per kg.
Also specific volume = 1 / density.

The Psychrometric Chart
The six properties of air previously discussed can be shown on one
chart called a Psychrometric Chart.
One of the purposes of the Psychrometric Chart is to size heater

batteries, cooling coils and humidifiers.
A simplified Psychrometric Chart is shown below.
This chart is only for demonstration purposes.
If accurate assessments are to be carried out use a C.I.B.S.E. chart.
Using the Psychrometric Chart
If any two properties of air are known then the other four can be
found from the psychrometric chart.
Examples of Psychrometric
Properties
EXAMPLE 1
Find the moisture content of air at 25oC dry-bulb temperature and

25oC wet-bulb temperature.
Referring to the chart below, a vertical line is drawn upwards from
25oC dry-bulb temperature until it intersects at 25oC wet-bulb
temperature.
This intersection point happens to be on the 100% saturation line.
The intersection point is highlighted and a horizontal line is drawn to
the right to find the corresponding moisture content.
The moisture content is therefore 0.020 kg/kg dry air.
EXAMPLE 2
Find the specific volume and wet-bulb temperature of air at 20oC dry-
bulb temperature and 50% saturation.
20oC dry-bulb temperature until it intersects with the 50% saturation
curve.
The intersection point is sometimes referred to as the state point.

The specific volume is found to be 0.84 m3/kg and the wet-bulb
temperature is 14oC
EXAMPLE 3
Find the specific volume, percentage saturation and moisture content

of air at 15oC dry-bulb temperature and 10oC wet-bulb temperature.
15oC dry-bulb temperature until it intersects with the 10oC wet-bulb
temperature line.
This intersection is the state point.
The specific volume is found to be 0.823 m3/kg, the percentage
saturation 52% and the moisture content 0.0054 kg/kg d.a.
EXAMPLE 4
Find the specific volume, wet-bulb temperature, moisture content and

specific enthalpy of air at 35oC dry-bulb temperature and 30%
saturation.

35oC dry-bulb temperature until it intersects with the 30% saturation
curve.
This intersection is the state point.

The specific volume is found to be 0.883 m3/kg, the wet-bulb
temperature is 22oC, the moisture content 0.011kg/kg d.a. and the
specific enthalpy 65 kJ/kg.
Air Conditioning Plant for Summer
and Winter
In the summer time when cooling is required by the air conditioning
plant it will be necessary to operate the cooling coil, reheater and
possibly other plant as well.
In winter time the preheater and reheater battery will probably be on

to provide warm air to overcome heat losses.
Other plant may be switched on as well.
These plant items are shown in the diagram below.
The photographs below show some plant items.

Basic Air Conditioning Processes
1. Mixing
Where two air streams are mixed the psychrometric process is
shown as a straight line between two air conditions on the
psychrometric chart, thus points 1 and 2 are joined and the mix point
3 will lie on this line.
Two air streams are mixed in air conditioning when fresh air (m1) is
brought in from outside and mixed with recirculated air (m2).
The resulting air mixture is shown below as (m3).
The mixing ratio is fixed by dampers.
Sometimes, in more sophisticated plant, modulating dampers are
used which are driven by electric motors to control the mixture of air
entering the system.
The diagrams below show mixing of two air streams.
By the conservation of mass formula: m1 + m 2 = m 3

By the conservation of energy formula: m1 h1 + m2 h2 = m3 h3
Where:
h = specific enthalpy of air (kJ/kg) found from psychrometric chart.
2. Sensible Cooling and Heating
When air is heated or cooled sensibly, that is, when no moisture is
added or removed, this process is represented by a horizontal line on
a psychrometric chart.
For sensible heating:

The amount of heating input to the air approximates to;
H1-2 = m x Cp x (t2 - t1)
Or more accurately from psychrometric chart:
H1-2 = m x (h2 - h1)
For sensible cooling:
The amount of cooling input to the air approximates to;
H2-1 = m x Cp x (t2 - t1)
Or more accurately from psychrometric chart:
H2-1 = m x (h2 - h1)
Where:
H = Heat or cooling energy (kW)

Cp = Specific heat capacity of air, may be taken as 1.01 kJ/kg degC.
t = Dry bulb temperature of air (oC)
3. Cooling with Dehumidification
The most commonly used method of removing water vapour from air
(dehumidification) is to cool the air below its dew point.
The dew point of air is when it is fully saturated i.e. at 100%

saturation.
When air is fully saturated it cannot hold any more moisture in the
form of water vapour.
If the air is cooled to the dew point air and is still further cooled then
moisture will drop out of the air in the form of condensate.
This can be shown on a psychrometric chart as air sensibly cooled

until it becomes fully saturated (the dew point is reached) and then
the air is cooled latently to a lower temperature.
This is apparent on the psychrometric chart as a horizontal line for

sensible cooling to the 100% saturation curve and then the process
follows the 100% saturation curve down to another point at a lower
temperature.
This lower temperature is sometimes called the Apparatus dew

Point (ADP) of the cooling coil.
In reality the ADP of the cooling coil is close to the cooling liquid
temperature inside the coil.
Chilled water or refrigerant may be the cooling liquid.

The psychrometric process from state point 1 to 2 to 3 may be shown
as a straight line for simplicity as shown above with a yellow line.
The total amount of cooling input to the air approximates to;
H1-3 = m x (h1 - h3)
The sensible heat removed is:
H1-2 = m x (h1 - h2)
The latent heat removed is:
H2-3 = m x (h2 - h3)
Where:
H = Cooling energy (kW)
In the absence of a suitable psychrometric chart the following formula

may be used;
The sensible heat removed is: H1-2 = m x Cp x (t1 - t2)
The latent heat removed is: H2-3 = m x hfg x (g2 - g3)
Where:
H = Cooling energy (kW)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of air, may be taken as 1.01 kJ/kg degC.
t = Dry bulb temperature of air (oC)
hfg = latent heat of evaporisation, may be taken as 2454 kJ/kg @20oC.
g = moisture content of air from psychrometric chart (kg/kg dry air)
3.1 Cooling Coil Contact Factor
Some of the air going through a cooling coil does not come into
contact with the tubes or fins of the cooling coil and is therefore not
cooled to the ADP temperature.
A mixing process therefore takes place as two air streams mix

downstream of the cooling coil as shown below.
One air stream is cooled down to the ADP and the other air stream
by-passes the coil surfaces to give an off-coil air temperature (mixed
air stream) a little higher than the ADP.
This may be looked upon as an inefficiency of the coil and is usually

given as the cooling coil contact factor.
The process is shown on the psychrometric chart below.

The contact factor of a cooling coil may be found from;
Another expression for contact factor is;

4. Humidification
If is it necessary to add some moisture to the supply air then this is
best done by injecting steam into the air stream.
Humidification can be carried out by spraying a fine mist of water

droplets into the air but this is not recommended in rooms occupied
by people due to the risk of bacteria carry over.
Dry steam may be injected from a steam supply pipe or generated in

a local packaged unit as shown in the photograph below. A
disadvantage of using an existing steam supply is smells may be
carried over into the air.
The steam package unit is situated close to the air duct and is sized
to meet the maximum requirements; this is usually in winter in the
U.K.
A steam pipe (sometimes hoses are used) passes from the packaged
unit to the air duct and steam at 100oC is injected into the air stream
via. a sparge pipe. The un-used steam is drained from the system via
a condensate tundish and drain. It is important to layout the steam
pipework so that any condensate will drain back to the unit.
The psychrometric process is shown below.

See summer and Winter Cycles section for calculation of amount of
moisture added at humidifier.
Typical Air Conditioning Processes
The schematic diagram below shows a typical plant system for

summer air conditioning.
The psychrometric diagram below shows a typical summer cycle.

The schematic diagram below shows a typical plant system for winter
air conditioning.
The psychrometric diagram below shows a typical winter cycle.

Annotation
The state points on a psychrometric chart may be given numbers or
symbols to identify them. If symbols are used the following system
may be adopted:
Room Ratio
This is the ratio of sensible to total heat in the room for summer or
winter.
The total heat gain (summer) or loss (winter) will be determined by

adding the Latent and Sensible heat in a room or rooms, i.e.
(SUMMER)
Total heat gain = Sensible heat gain + Latent heat gain
(WINTER)
Total heat = Sensible heat loss + Latent heat gain
The room ratio is used on a psychrometric chart to determine the

supply air state point.
A room ratio line is superimposed from the protractor on the

psychrometric chart onto the main body of the chart by a line passing
through the room state point R.
An example calculation is as follows:
Sensible heat gain = 9.0 kW
Latent heat gain = 2.25 kW
Total heat gain = 9.0 kW + 2.25 kW= 11.25 kW.
Room ratio = Sensible / Total heat
Room ratio = 9 / 11.25 = 0.8
The supply air state point must also be somewhere on this room ratio
line to meet the room heat gain requirements i.e. the room ratio line
always passes through points R and S.
Examples of Psychrometric Calculations for
Summer and Winter
Example 1. Summer Cycle
A room is to be maintained at 22oC dry-bulb temperature, 50% saturation,

when the sensible heat gain is 10.8 kW in summer.
The latent heat gain is 7.2 kW.
Determine the cooling coil and reheater outputs required by using a

psychrometric chart if the plant schematic is as shown below.
DATA:
Outdoor condition is 28oC, 80% saturation.

The outdoor air and recirculated air ratio is 20%/80%.
The Apparatus Dew Point ADP is 8oC
Neglect the cooling coil contact factor.
Note:
The cooling coil output of 38.2 kW is a much higher value than the sensible
heat gain of 10.8 kW. It should be remembered that the difference is these
two values is mostly from the fresh air cooling load.
It takes quite a lot of energy in summer to cool fresh air coming into air
handling units. This can be minimised by bringing in minimum fresh air but
not too little otherwise the building will suffer from lack of oxygen and feel
stuffy. Sometimes mistakes are made when sizing cooling apparatus.
If a cooling coil or indoor cooling unit is sized on the sensible heat gain only
without allowing for fresh air load then it will be grossly undersized.
That is why psychrometric charts are required to calculate cooling coil output
including fresh air loads. So, don’t size cooling coil and indoor cooling units
on sensible heat gain only if there is fresh air coming into the plant? Size
these items of plant using a psychrometric chart.
Example 2. Winter Cycle
A room has an 18.0 kW sensible heat loss in winter and a 4.5 kW
latent heat gain from the occupants.
Determine the supply air temperature and heater battery load

using the following information.
DATA:
Indoor condition : 21oC dry-bulb temperature, 50% saturation.
Outdoor condition : -2oC d.b., 80% saturation.
No preheating or humidification takes place in this simplified example.
Procedure (Winter Cycle)

1. Draw schematic diagram of air-conditioning plant (see
above)
2. Plot room condition R on psychrometric chart.
3. Plot outside condition O on psychrometric chart.
4. No Preheater condition P
5. Join points O and R
6. Find the mix point M by measuring the length of the line O-R
and multiply this by the mixing ratio.
On a full size CIBSE psychrometric chart these measures

110mm.
The ratio of recirculated air is 0. Therefore;

110mm x 0.8 = 88mm
Measure up the O-R line from point O by 88mm.
This determines point M.
If there is more recirculated air than outside air at the mix point,
then point M will be closer to point R than point O.
7. Find the room ratio.

This is the sensible to total heat ratio.
Neglect signs i.e. the total heat for the room will be Sensible loss
plus Latent gain.
Total heat = 18 kW sensible + 4.5 kW latent = 22.5 kW total.

Heat ratio = 18 / 22.5 = 0.8
Plot this ratio on the protractor, top segment, on the psychrometric

chart and transfer this line onto the chart so that it passes through
point R.
8. Find the supply air dry bulb temperature by calculation.

9. Plot the supply air condition S on the room ratio line.
This is on a horizontal line from point M to the right hand side

of the chart, and intersects with the RRL.
o
The supply air Temperature is found to be 32.5 C.
Supply Air Flow Rate

When the sensible heat loss and supply air temperature in winter
are known then the mass flow rate of air is calculated from the
following formula:
Hs = ma x Cp (ts - tr)
Where:
Hs = Sensible heat loss (kW)
ma = mass flow rate of air (kg/s)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of humid air (approx.1.01 kJ/kg degC)
tr = room temperature (oC)
ts = supply air temperature (oC)
..............therefore:
ma = Hs / Cp ( ts - tr )
ma = 18 / 1.01 (32.5 - 21)
ma = 18 / 11.615
ma = 1.55 kg/s
Heater Battery Output
The heater battery output is as follows:
H reheater battery = ma (hS - hM)
Where:
H reheater battery = Reheater battery output (kW)
hS = specific enthalpy at condition S (kJ/kg)
hM = specific enthalpy at condition M (kJ/kg)
The specific enthalpies at points S and M are shown on the

psychrometric chart below.
Hheater battery = ma (hS - hM)
Hheater battery = 1.55 (50 - 34)
Hheater battery = 24.8 kW
Therefore the heater battery load is 24.8 kW.

Example 3. Summer Cycle (Cooling Coil contact factor)
An office is to be maintained at 22oC dry-bulb temperature, 50%
saturation in summer.
The sensible heat gain is 8.0 kW.
Determine the cooling coil and reheater outputs required by using a
psychrometric chart if the plant schematic is as shown below.
DATA:

The outdoor air and recirculated air ratio is; 20% / 80%.
The cooling coil contact factor is 0.8. (See explanation of contact factor in page 9)
Procedure (Summer Cycle)

1. Draw schematic diagram of air-conditioning plant (see above)
2. Plot room condition R on psychrometric chart.
3. Plot outside condition O on psychrometric chart.
4. Join points O and R.
5. Find the mix point M by measuring the length of the line O-R
and multiply this by the mixing ratio.
On a full size CIBSE psychrometric chart these measures 85mm.

The ratio of recirculated air is 0.8. …….. Therefore;
85mm x 0.8 = 68mm
Measure down the O-R line from point O by 68mm.
This determines point M.
6. Find the room ratio. This is the sensible to total heat gain
ratio.
Total heat = 8 kW sensible + 2 kW latent = 10 kW total.
Heat ratio = 8 / 10 = 0.8
Plot this ratio on the protractor, bottom segment, on the
psychrometric chart and transfer this line onto the chart so that it passes
through point R.
7. Plot the Apparatus Dew Point ADP of the cooling coil.
This is on the 100% saturation curve. The ADP is 80C.
8. Join points M and ADP.
9. Find the off-coil condition W by measuring the length of the
line M-ADP and multiply this by the cooling coil contact factor..
On a full size CIBSE psychrometric chart these measures 75mm.
The cooling coil contact factor is 0.8. ……….. Therefore;
75mm x 0.8 = 60mm.
Measure down along the line M-ADP by 60mm.
This determines point W.
10. Plot the supply air condition S.
The reheater process will be a horizontal line from point W to
point S.
Point S is on the room ratio line.
The supply air temperature is 17oC.
Mass Flow Rate
When the supply air temperature has been found from the
psychrometric chart then the mass flow rate of air can be calculated
from the following formula:
ma = Hs / ( Cp ( tr - ts ) )
Where:
Hs = Sensible heat gain to room (kW)
The supply air temperature is 17oC.
ma = 8 / ( 1.01 ( 22 - 17 ) )
ma = 1.584 kg/s
Cooling Coil Output
The cooling coil output is as follows:
H cooling coil = ma ( hM - hADP)
Where:
H cooling coil = Cooling coil output (kW)
hM = specific enthalpy at condition M (kJ/kg) determined from
psychrometric chart.
hADP = specific enthalpy at condition ADP (kJ/kg) determined from
psychrometric chart
The specific enthalpies at points M and ADP are shown on the

psychrometric Chart below.
H cooling coil = 1.584 ( 50.5 - 25)
H cooling coil = 40.4 kW
Heater Battery Output

The heater battery or reheater output is as follows:
H heater battery = ma ( hS - hW)
Where:
H heater battery = Heater battery output (kW)
hS = specific enthalpy at condition S (kJ/kg) determined from
hW = specific enthalpy at condition W (kJ/kg) determined from
The specific enthalpies at points S and W are shown on the

psychrometric Chart below.
H heater battery = 1.584 (36.5 - 30.5)
H heater battery = 9.5 kW

Example 4. Winter Cycle with Humidifier
A conference room is to be maintained at 21oC dry-bulb temperature,
50% saturation in winter.
The sensible heat loss for the room is 17.0 kW.
The latent heat gain is 40 Watts per person (see Air Conditioning
section).
Determine the Preheater and reheater outputs required and the

amount of moisture to be added at the humidifier in litre/hour, by
using a psychrometric chart if the plant schematic is as shown below.
DATA:
Outdoor condition is -2oC, 80% saturation.

Maximum occupancy is 250 people.
The Preheater off coil temperature is 5oC.
Supply air quantity is 8 air changes per hour.
3
Room volume is 20 x 12 x 4m high = 960 m .
Latent Heat Gain

The latent heat gain = heat gain per person x number of people
The latent heat gain = 40 W/person x 250 = 10,000 Watts
The latent heat gain = 10 kW

Supply Air & Fresh Air Quantities
Supply air quantity (m3/h) = air change rate x room volume (m3)
Supply air quantity (m3/h) = 8 x 960(m3)
Supply air quantity (m3/h) = 7680 (m3/h)
Supply air quantity (m3/s) = 7680(m3/h) / 3600 = 2.13 (m3/s)
Supply air mass flow rate (kg/s) = Supply air quantity (m3/s) / Specific
Volume (m3/kg)
Supply air mass flow rate (kg/s) = 2.13 (m3/s) / 0.87 (m3/kg)
Supply air mass flow rate (kg/s) = 2.45 kg/s
The fresh air flow rate (kg/s) = 2.45 kg/s x 50% = 1.23 kg/s
Winter Cycle Psychrometrics

1. Draw schematic diagram of air-conditioning plant (see
above).
2. Plot room condition O, M and R on psychrometric
chart.
3. Plot the after Preheater condition P.
The Preheater process will be a horizontal line from O
to P and acts as a frost coil in this case, heating the air
to 5oC.
4. Join points P and R.
5. Find the mix point M by measuring the length of the
line P-R and multiply this by the mixing ratio.
The line measures 82mm long.
82 x 0.5 = 41 mm
6. Find the room ratio.
Plot this ratio on the protractor, so that it passes through point R.
Total heat is 17 kW sensible + 10 kW latent = 27kW.
Ratio is 17/27 = 0.63.
This is found by calculation because we have already

calculated the mass flow rate of supply air from information
given in the question.
Supply Air Dry Bulb Temperature

The temperature of supply air is calculated from the following
formula:
Hs = ma x Cp ( ts - tr )
Where:
Hs = Sensible heat loss from room (kW)
( ts - tr ) = Hs / ma x Cp
( ts - tr ) = 17 / 2.45 x 1.01
( ts - tr ) = 6.87 deg.C
( ts - 21) = 6.87 deg.C
ts = 21 + 6.87 deg.C
ts = 27.87 oC say 28 oC.
8. Plot the supply air condition S on the room ratio line.

9. Plot condition H on the psychrometric chart.
This is vertically down from point S, and horizontally across from

point M.
This is because M-H is the reheater process and thus a horizontal

line and H-S is the humidification process and is close to a vertical
line if steam is used.
Preheater Battery Output (Or Frost Coil)

The Preheater battery output is as follows:
H preheater battery = maf ( hP - hO)

Where:
H preheater battery = Preheater battery output (kW)
m af = mass flow rate of fresh air (kg/s)
hP = specific enthalpy at condition P (kJ/kg)
hO = specific enthalpy at condition O (kJ/kg)
H preheater battery = 1.23 ( 12 - 5.5)
H preheater battery = 8.0 kW
Reheater Battery Output

The reheater battery output is as follows:
H reheater battery = ma ( hH - hM)
Where:
ma = mass flow rate of supply air (kg/s)
hH = specific enthalpy at condition H (kJ/kg)
Hreheater battery = 2.45 (42 - 27)
Hreheater battery = 36.8 kW
Humidifier Output
The amount of moisture added to the air may be calculated from
the following formula:
m moisture added = ma (msS - msH)

Where:
m moisture added = The amount of moisture or added or steam flow rate

(kg/s)
m sS = moisture content at condition S (kg/kg d.a.)
m sH = moisture content at condition H (kg/kg d.a.)
m moisture added = 2.45 (0.0064 - 0.0054)

m moisture added = 2.45 (0.001)
m moisture added = 0.00245 kg/s
1 litre of water weights 1 kg, therefore;
m moisture added = 0.00245 litre/s

m moisture added = 0.00245 litre/s x 3600 = 8.82 litres/hour
Example 5 Summer Cycle (Air Flows To
Be Calculated)
A Lecture Theatre measures 15 m x 10 m x 6 m high.
It is to be air conditioned in summer so that the room is maintained
at 22oC dry-bulb temperature, 50% saturation.
Determine the cooling coil and reheater outputs required by using

a psychrometric chart if the plant schematic is as shown below.
DATA:
The Apparatus Dew Point ADP is 7.5oC.
The sensible heat gain is 12.0 kW.
The cooling coil contact factor is unknown at present and should be

calculated.
Use CIBSE guide B2 (2001) to determine air flow rates and calculate the
mass flow rate of fresh air and supply air to the room.
The lecture room may be taken as an Assembly hall.
The room is a non-smoking area.
Mass Flow Rates
Information from CIBSE Guide B2 (2001) Table 3.3 is as follows
(see Ventilation – Ventilation rates section); The recommended
outdoor air rate is 8 l/s/person for non-smoking.
Information from CIBSE Guide B2 (2001) Table 3.1 is as follows

(see Ventilation – Ventilation rates section); Assembly halls and
auditorium refers to Table 3.6 (see Ventilation – Ventilation rates
section);
The recommended total air supply rate is 6 – 10 air changes per

hour for high level mechanical strategy.
Fresh Air Flow Rate
Fresh air rate = 8 l/s/p x 200 people = 1600 l/s

= 1.6 m3/s
The specific volume at the outside condition may be determined

from a psychrometric chart. It is 0.88 m3/kg.
Mass flow rate = Volume flow rate / specific volume
Mass flow rate (Fresh Air) = 1.6 / 0.88
= 1.82 kg/s .
If the maximum ventilation supply air rate is taken from Table 3.6
to be 10.0 air changes per hour, then the mass flow rate can be
calculated.
Volume flow rate (m3/h) = Volume of room (m3) x air change rate (ac/h)
Volume of room (m3) = 15 x 10 x 6 = 900 m3
3 3
Volume flow rate (m /h) = 900 (m ) x 10 (ac/h)
Volume flow rate (m3/h) = 9000 m3/h
3
Volume flow rate (m /s) = 9000 / 3600 = 2.5 m3/s.
The specific volume at the supply condition may be approximated

at this stage from a psychrometric chart. It is 0.834 m3/kg.
Mass flow rate (Supply Air) = 2.5 / 0.834 = 3.0 kg/s.
Fresh Air And Recirc. Ratio.
The ratio by mass is therefore;
Fresh air rate = 1.82 kg/s

Supply air rate = 3.00 kg/s
Recirculation air rate = 3.00 - 1.82 = 1.18 kg/s
The ratio of fresh air to total supply air is;

1.82 / 3.00 = 0.6, i.e. 60% fresh air and therefore 40% recirculated
air.
It is not unusual to have a high percentage of fresh air in a

high occupancy room such as a Lecture theatre.
The air flows are shown on the schematic diagram below.
Supply Air Temperature by Calculation

In this example the supply air temperature will be found by
rearranging the following formula:
Hs = ma x Cp ( tr - ts )
Where:
Rearranging the above formula gives:
( tr - ts ) = Hs / ( ma x Cp )
( tr - ts ) = 12 / ( 3.00 x 1.01 )
( tr - ts ) = 3.96 deg.C
since tr = 22oC
ts = 22 - 3.96 = 18.04 oC
ts = 18 oC approx.
The processes can now be plotted on a psychrometric chart as

shown below.
1. Points O, M and R can be shown on the chart.

2. Point ADP can be indicated and lines drawn between these
points as shown.
3. The room ratio line can be drawn.
4. Point S is then shown on the chart, on the room ratio line at
18oC.
5. A horizontal line is then drawn from point S towards the line
O – ADP.
6. Point W can then be found where the horizontal line W - S
intersects the line O - ADP.
o
From the psychrometric chart point W is at approximately 9 C
dry bulb.
The heat ratio is 12 kW sensible / 22 kW total = 0.545.
The specific enthalpies are shown below.
Cooling Coil Output

H cooling coil = ma (hM - hADP)

Where:

hM = specific enthalpy at condition M (kJ/kg) determined
From psychrometric chart.
hADP = specific enthalpy at condition ADP (kJ/kg)
Determined from psychrometric chart
psychrometric Chart above.
H cooling coil = 3.00 ( 64 - 24)


Where:

hS = specific enthalpy at condition S (kJ/kg) determined
from psychrometric chart.
hW = specific enthalpy at condition W (kJ/kg) determined
from psychrometric chart.
The specific enthalpies at points W and S are shown on the

H heater battery = 3.00 (36 - 26.5)

Example 6 Summer Cycle and Winter Cycle
A Concert Hall measures 40 m x 20 m x 8 m high.
It is to be air conditioned in summer and winter.
Determine the following:
 Air flow rates
 Supply air temperature by calculation in summer and winter.
 Cooling coil contact factor.
 Cooling coil and reheater outputs in summer
 Humidifier output in litres/hour.
The plant schematic is as shown below.
DATA:
1. Indoor condition all year 22oC dB temperature, 50% saturation.
2. Outdoor condition summer 28oC dB temperature, 80% saturation.
3. Outdoor condition winter 3oC dB temperature, 80% saturation.
4. Maximum occupancy 1000 people.
5. ADP of the cooling coil 8 oC
6. Fresh air requirement 12 l/s/person
7. Supply air rate 8 air changes per hour.
8. Frost off coil temperature 7oC.

9. Latent heat gain 40 W/person
10. Sensible heat gain in 100 W/person + 20.5 kW fabrics, lights, solar &
summer ventilation gains.
11. Sensible heat loss in winter 20 W/m3 air volume (estimated)
Fresh Air Flow Rate
Fresh air rate = 12 l/s/p x 1000 people = 12,000 l/s = 12.0 m3/s
The specific volume at the outside condition may be determined from a
psychrometric chart. It is approximately 0.88 m3/kg
Mass flow rate (Fresh Air) = 12.0 / 0.88 = 13.64 kg/s.
The ventilation supply air rate is taken from table B2.3 and is given as 8 air changes
per hour; the mass flow rate can be calculated.
Volume flow rate (m3/h) = Volume of room (m3) x air change rate (ac/h)
Volume flow rate (m3/h) = 6400 (m3) x 8 (ac/h)
Volume flow rate (m3/h) = 51,200 m3/h
Volume flow rate (m3/s) = 51,200 / 3600 = 14.22 m3/s.
The specific volume at the supply condition may be approximated at this stage from
a psychrometric chart. It can be taken as 0.834 m3/kg.
Mass flow rate (Supply Air) = 14.22 / 0.834 = 17.05 kg/s.
Recirculation Air Flow Rate
Recirculation air rate = Supply air rate - fresh air rate

Recirculation air rate = 17.05 - 13.64 = 3.41 kg/s
Fresh Air and Recirc. Ratio.
The ratio by mass is therefore;

Fresh air rate = 13.64 kg/s
Supply air rate = 17.05 kg/s
The ratio of fresh air to total supply air is;

13.64 / 17.05 = 0.8, i.e. 80% fresh air and therefore 20% recirculated air.
It is not unusual to have a high percentage of fresh air in a high
occupancy room such as a Concert Hall.
The air flows are shown on the schematic diagram below.
Heat Gains
The heat gains are given as:

Latent heat gain - 40 W/person
Sensible heat gain -100 W/person + 20.5 kW fabric, lights, solar & ventilation gains.
Latent gain = 40 W x 1000 people = 40,000 W = 40 kW

Sensible gain = 100 W x 1000 people = 100,000 W =
100 kW + 20.5 kW = 120.5 kW.
Total heat gain = 120.5 + 40 = 160.5 kW
Summer Heat ratio = sensible / total = 120.5 / 160.5 = 0.75
Heat Loss
The heat loss in winter is given as 20.0 W/ m3.

Total heat loss = 20 x 6400 = 128,000 Watts = 128 kW
Total heat (winter) = 128 + 40 (Latent) = 168 kW
Winter Heat ratio = sensible / total = 128 / 168 = 0.76
Summer Calculations & Process
In this example the supply air temperature will be found by rearranging the
following formula:
Hs = ma x Cp ( tr - ts )
Where:
Rearranging the above formula gives:

( tr - ts ) = Hs / ( ma x Cp )
( tr - ts ) = 120.5 / (17.05 x 1.01)
( tr - ts ) = 7.0 deg.C, since tr = 22oC
ts = 22 - 7.0 = 15.0 oC
ts = 15 oC
The processes can now be plotted on a psychrometric chart as shown below.
1. Points O, M and R can be shown on the chart.

2. Point ADP can be indicated and lines drawn between these points as
shown.
3. The room ratio line can be drawn.
4. Point S is then shown on the chart, on the room ratio line at 18oC.
5. A horizontal line is then drawn from point S towards the line O – ADP.
6. Point W can then be found where the horizontal line W - S intersects
the line O - ADP.
Cooling Coil Contact Factor
On a full size psychrometric chart the length of the line from point M to point
ADP is 116mm.
The distance from point M to point W is 107mm.

The cooling coil contact factor is therefore:
The specific enthalpies are shown below.
Cooling Coil Output in Summer
Where:
hM = specific enthalpy at condition M (kJ/kg) determined from
hADP = specific enthalpy at condition ADP (kJ/kg) determined from
psychrometric chart

H cooling coil = 17.05 ( 71 - 25)

NOTE:
The cooling coil output is very high and a lot of energy would be required
to provide this amount of cooling.
The cooling coil load would probably be spread over several air handling
units but it could be examined with a view to some reduction.
The coil output is high because the mass flow rate of supply air is high
(17.05 kg/s ) and the proportion of fresh air is also high ( 80%).
The mix point M is at approximately 27 oC dry-bulb so there is little

advantage in recirculation in this instance.
It would be advantageous to consider the supply airflow rate to see if a

lower rate would be acceptable for this building.
If 6 air changes per hour are used as the ventilation rate then this would
reduce the mass flow rate of supply air.
Also the engineer may consider other methods of air-conditioning a hall
with a large volume such as using partial radiant cooling where surfaces
are cooled rather than air.
Reheater Battery Output in Summer

Where:
hS = specific enthalpy at condition S (kJ/kg) determined from psychrometric
chart.
hW = specific enthalpy at condition W (kJ/kg) determined from psychrometric
chart.
The specific enthalpies at points W and S are shown on the

H heater battery = 17.05 (34 - 28)

Winter Calculations & Process

Winter Cycle Psychrometrics
The processes can now be plotted on a psychrometric chart as shown below.
1. Points O, M, P and R can be shown on the chart.

2. Join points O and P and P and R.
3. Find the mix point M
The line measures 81mm long.
81 x 0.8 = 65 mm, the distance from point M to R is 65mm.
4. The room ratio is 0.76 from previous calculation. Draw RRL.
The temperature of supply air is calculated from the following formula:
Hs = ma x Cp ( ts - tr )
Where:
Hs = Sensible heat loss from room (kW)
ma = mass flow rate of air (kg/s) same as summer rate for constant volume
Systems.
ts = supply air temperature(oC)
( ts - tr ) = Hs / ma x Cp
( ts - tr ) = 128 / 17.05 x 1.01
( ts - tr ) = 7.43 deg.C
ts = 22 + 7.43 deg.C
ts = 29.43 oC say 29.5 oC.
6. Plot the condition H at 29.5oC dB. on a horizontal line from M.
7. Plot condition S on a vertical line from H on the RRL.
Assume the humidity process is vertical.
Preheater Battery Output (or frost coil)
The Preheater battery output is as follows:
H preheater battery = maf ( hP - hO)
Where:
H preheater battery = Preheater battery output (kW)
maf = mass flow rate of fresh air (kg/s)
hP = specific enthalpy at condition P (kJ/kg)
hO = specific enthalpy at condition O (kJ/kg)
H preheater battery = 13.64 ( 13 - 3)

H preheater battery = 136.4 kW
Reheater Battery Output in Winter
The reheater battery output is as follows:
H reheater battery = ma ( hH - hM)
Where:

ma = mass flow rate of supply air (kg/s)
hH = specific enthalpy at condition H (kJ/kg)
H reheater battery = 17.05 ( 39 - 19)

H reheater battery = 341 kW
NOTE:
The heater battery load may be reduced by using other forms of heating
for some of the load, e.g. perimeter convectors or radiators.
Humidifier Output in Winter
The amount of moisture added to the air may be calculated from the following
formula:
m moisture added = ma (msS - msH)
Where:
m moisture added = The amount of moisture or added or steam flow rate (kg/s)
msS = moisture content at condition S (kg/kg d.a.)
msH = moisture content at condition H (kg/kg d.a.)
m moisture added = 17.05 (0.0074 - 0.0035)

m moisture added = 17.05 (0.0039)
m moisture added = 0.0665 kg/s
m moisture added = 0.0665 litre/s
m moisture added = 0.0665 litre/s x 3600 = 239.4 litres/hour
Example 7 Summer Cycle with duct and fan
gains
A Computer Suite Theatre measures 24 m x 10 m x 3.5 m high.
It is to be air conditioned in summer so that the room is maintained
at 22oC dry-bulb temperature, 50% saturation.
Determine the cooling coil and reheater outputs required.
The air conditioning system is shown schematically below.
DATA:

The internal latent heat gain is 40 W per person, plus additional
Gain of 5 kW.
The internal sensible heat gain is 200 Watts per computer, 100W
Per person and 15 W/m2 floor area
For lights.
The solar gain through windows is 6.0 kW
Number of computers is 80.
The cooling coil contact factor is 0.8.
Duct and fans gains are 2oC.
Fresh air, recirculated air ratio is 20%/80%.
HEAT GAINS
Sensible
(200 x 80) + (100 x 80) + (15 x 24 x 10)
= 27,600 Watts = 27.6 kW + solar gain 5.0 kW = 32.6 kW
Latent
(40 x 80) = 3200 Watts = 3.2 kW + other 5kW = 8.2 kW
Total heat gain = 32.6 + 8.2 = 40.8 kW

Room ratio = 32.6 / 40.8 = 0.8
Mass Flow Rate

When the supply air temperature has been found from the
psychrometric chart then the mass flow rate of air to offset heat
gains can be calculated from the following formula:
ma = Hs / ( Cp ( tr - ts ) )
Where:

o
The supply air temperature is 14.5 C.
ma = 32.60 / ( 1.01 ( 22 - 14.5 ) )

ma = 4.3 kg/s
The processes can now be plotted on a psychrometric chart as

shown below.
o
From the psychrometric chart point W is at approximately 11 C
dry bulb.
Point D is 11 oC + 2oC (duct and fan gains given in Data) = 13 oC
Cooling Coil Output
Where:
Hcooling coil = Cooling coil output (kW)

determined from psychrometric chart.
hADP = specific enthalpy at condition ADP (kJ/kg)
determined from psychrometric chart

H cooling coil = 4.3 ( 49.5 - 25)

H heater battery = ma ( hS - hD)
Where:
Hheater battery = Heater battery output (kW)

hS = specific enthalpy at condition S (kJ/kg)
Determined from psychrometric chart.
hD = specific enthalpy at condition D (kJ/kg)
Determined from psychrometric chart.
The specific enthalpies at points S and D are shown on the

H heater battery = 4.3 (33.5 - 32)

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Engineer / Mostafa AL Wakeel Air Conditioning

Introduction to Air Conditioning

If the inside temperature of a space rises to about 25oC then air

This internal temperature (around 25oC) may change depending on

 window blinds or shading methods

The diagram below shows some of these methods.

Cooling coil Heater Battery

Fresh air Supply air

Return air fan

Schematic Diagram of Central Plant Air Conditioning System

The system shown above resembles balanced

In winter the heater batterywill be on and thecooling coilwill probably

A humidifier may be required to add moisture to the air when it is 'dry'.

Fresh air Supply air

Return air fan

Schematic Diagram of Central Plant Air Conditioning System with

Filters are required to remove particles of dust and general outdoor

In some cases it is usual to place fan

Split Air Conditioners

Window / Wall Units

Finned pipe heat

Chilled water pipes

FAN COIL UNIT

The room temperature can be controlled with

Two-pipe, three-pipe and four-pipe systems have been used.

Central Plant Systems - Advantages:

1. Noise in rooms is usually reduced if plant room is away from

Central Plant Systems - Disadvantages:

1. Expensive to install a complete full comfort air-conditioning

Room Air Conditioning Units - Advantages:

Room Air Conditioning Units - Disadvantages:

1. Sometimes the indoor unit fan becomes noisy.

Fan Coil Units - Advantages:

1. Cheaperto install than all air central plant system.

Fan Coil Units - Disadvantages:

1. Sometimes the indoor unit fan becomes noisy, especially when

1. Calculate heat gains.

m = H / (Cp x (tr –ts))

H = Sensible heat gain (kW)

4. Convert mass flow rate to a volume flow rate:

5. Convert this to an Air Change rate for comparison.

Volume flow rate (m3/h) = Volume flow rate (m3/s) x 3600

Fitness Suite No.1

Ceiling Height = 5.0 m

Supply Air Rate

m = H / (Cp x (tr –ts))

Table 3.1 Summary of Recommendations (Guide B2) directs to Table 3.19.

Fresh Air Rate

Therefore in the absence of further information, it is recommended that 8 litre.s-1 per

Fresh air rate = 24 l/s x 80 people

Recirculation Air Rate

Recirculation Air Rate = Supply air rate - Fresh air rate

The air flow rates are shown on the diagram below.

Supply fan Heater Battery

Return air fan

A slight negative pressure may be provided in the Fitness Room.

The load on an air-conditioning system can be divided into the following

1. Sensible Transmission through glass.

The method adopted uses the

1.0 Sensible Transmission Through Glass

2.0 Solar Gain Through Windows

This gain is when the sun shines though windows.