01 Álgebra de Tensores

CONTINUUM
MECHANICS
FOR ENGINEERS
22/04/2020 Dr. Luis Mosquera L. 1

Continuum Theory
A body is really a collection of discrete atoms stacked on one

another in a particular repetitive lattice.
Thus, matter is not continuous.

Material Body
CRISTALINOS
AMORFO

The continuum model for material bodies is important for two very good
reasons:
- On the scale by which we consider bodies, the characteristic dimensions are

extremely large compared to molecular distances.
- Our knowledge of the mechanical behavior of materials is based almost

entirely upon experimental data gathered by tests on relatively large
specimens.

Continuum Mechanics
The analysis of the mechanical behavior of materials modeled on the

continuum assumption is what we know as continuum mechanics.
- The derivation of fundamental equations which are valid for all

continuous media. These equations are based upon universal laws of
physics such as the conservation of mass, the principles of energy and
momentum, etc.
- The development of so-called constitutive equations characterizing the

behavior of speciﬁc idealized materials, the perfectly elastic solid and the
viscous ﬂuid being the best known examples.

Essential Mathematics
A tensor, or linear transformation, assigns any vector v another vector Tv

such that:
T(u+w) = Tu + Tw
T(αv) = α (Tv)
Para todo v y w
Furthermore:
(T+S)v = Tv + Sv
(αT)v = α (Tv)
Because of these properties, tensors constitute a vector space

Scalars, Vectors, and Cartesian Tensors
As it happens, a considerable variety of physical and

geometrical quantities have important roles in continuum
mechanics, and fortunately, each of these may be
represented by some form of tensor.

For example, such quantities as density and Temperature may be
specified completely by giving their magnitude, i.e., by stating a
numerical value. These quantities are represented
mathematically by scalars, which are referred to as zeroth-order
tensors.

Several physical quantities of mechanics such as force require not
only an assignment of magnitude, but also a specification of
direction for their complete characterization. Quantities possessing
such directional properties are represented by vectors, which are
first-order tensors.

A significant number of physical quantities having important status in
continuum mechanics require mathematical entities of higher order
than vectors for their representation in the hierarchy of tensors. As we
shall see, among the best known of these are the stress tensor and
the strain tensors. These particular tensors are second-order tensors,
and are said to have a rank of two.

Tensors, like vectors, are independent of any coordinate system,
but just as with vectors, when we wish to specify a tensor by its
components we are obliged to refer to a suitable set of
reference axes.

Tensor Algebra in Symbolic Notation —Summation
Convention
The three-dimensional physical space of everyday life is the space in which
many of the events of continuum mechanics occur. Mathematically, this
space is known as a Euclidean three-space, and its geometry can be
referenced to a system of Cartesian coordinate axes.

Unit vectors in the coordinate directions
x1,x2, and x3.
Rectangular components of the vector v

Because a scalar has only a single component, it will have the
same value in every system of axes, but the components of
vectors and tensors will have different component values, in
general, for each set of axes.

identify with these axes the triad of unit base vectors 𝑒1Ƹ , 𝑒Ƹ2 , 𝑒Ƹ3, due
to the mutual perpendicularity of these base vectors, they form an
orthogonal basis; furthermore, because they are unit vectors, the basis
is said to be orthonormal.
𝑽 = 𝑣1 𝑒Ƹ1 + 𝑣2 𝑒Ƹ2 + 𝑣3 𝑒Ƹ3 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑖

𝑖=1

the summation convention. Stated briefly, we agree that whenever a
subscript appears exactly twice in a given term, that subscript will
take on the values 1, 2, 3 successively, and the resulting terms
summed.
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑖

Example: expand the following expression according to the summation
convention:
𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑖 𝑤𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑗

Solution:
Summing first on i, and then on j,
𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑖 𝑤𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 = 𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 + 𝑢3 𝑣3 𝑤1 𝑒Ƹ1 + 𝑤2 𝑒Ƹ2 + 𝑤3 𝑒Ƹ3

Example: expand the following expression according to the summation
convention:
Solution:
Summing first on i, and then on j,
= 𝑻𝟏𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝑻𝟐𝟏 𝒗𝟐 + 𝑻𝟑𝟏 𝒗𝟑 𝒆Ƹ 𝟏 + 𝑻𝟏𝟐 𝒗𝟏 + 𝑻𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝟐 + 𝑻𝟑𝟐 𝒗𝟑 𝒆Ƹ 𝟐

+ 𝑻𝟏𝟑 𝒗𝟏 + 𝑻𝟐𝟑 𝒗𝟐 + 𝑻𝟑𝟑 𝒗𝟑 𝒆Ƹ 𝟑

Kronecker Delta
1 𝑖=𝑗
𝛿𝑖𝑗 =
0 𝑖≠ 𝑗
Note that:
𝛿𝑖𝑖 = 𝛿11 + 𝛿22 + 𝛿33 = 3
𝛿𝑖𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 = 𝑒Ƹ𝑖

Permutation Symbol
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 12312

𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 = −1 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 32132
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
The cross product:
𝑒Ƹ𝑖 × 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑒Ƹ𝑘
ε-δ identity: 𝜀𝑚𝑖𝑞 𝜀𝑗𝑘𝑞 = 𝛿𝑚𝑗 𝛿𝑖𝑘 − 𝛿𝑚𝑘 𝛿𝑖𝑗

Several useful definitions from vector/tensor algebra.
1. Addition of vectors:
𝑤 =𝑢+𝑣
or
𝑤𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 = (𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 )𝑒Ƹ𝑖
2. Multiplication:
(a) of a vector by a scalar:
𝜆𝑣 = 𝜆𝑣𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑖
(b) dot (scalar) product of two vectors:

𝑢. 𝑣 = 𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑖

(c) The vector cross product:
𝑢 × 𝑣 = 𝑢𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 × 𝑣𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑘
(d) The triple scalar product:
𝑢. 𝑣 × 𝑤 = 𝜀𝑗𝑘 𝑞 𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑗 𝑤𝑘 𝛿𝑖𝑞 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗 𝑘 𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑗 𝑤𝑘
(e) The triple cross product:
𝑢 × (𝑣 × 𝑤) = (𝛿𝑚𝑗 𝛿𝑖𝑘 − 𝛿𝑚𝑘 𝛿𝑖𝑗 ) 𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑗 𝑤𝑘 𝑒Ƹ𝑚

Dyad: Two vectors can be multiplied together to yield a tensor. The tensor
product of two vectors creates a dyad.
𝑢𝑣 = 𝑢𝑖 𝑒𝑖 𝑣𝑗 𝑒𝑗 = 𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑗 𝑒𝑖 𝑒𝑗
𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 = 𝑢1 𝑣1 𝑒Ƹ1 𝑒Ƹ1 + 𝑢1 𝑣2 𝑒Ƹ1 𝑒Ƹ2 + 𝑢1 𝑣3 𝑒Ƹ1 𝑒Ƹ3 + 𝑢2 𝑣1 𝑒Ƹ2 𝑒Ƹ1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 𝑒Ƹ2 𝑒Ƹ2 + 𝑢2 𝑣3 𝑒Ƹ2 𝑒Ƹ3
+ 𝑢3 𝑣1 𝑒Ƹ3 𝑒Ƹ1 + 𝑢3 𝑣2 𝑒Ƹ3 𝑒Ƹ2 + 𝑢3 𝑣3 𝑒Ƹ3 𝑒Ƹ3
Nonion form of the dyad

A sum of dyads such as: 𝒖𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒖𝟐 𝒗𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒖𝒏 𝒗𝒏
Is called a dyadic.
Alternative notation used for the dyad product is:
𝑎1 𝑢1
𝑎0𝑏 𝑢 = 𝑎 𝑏. 𝑢 = 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑢2
𝑎3 𝑢3
(g) Dyads can be multiplied by each other to yield another dyad:
𝑢𝑣 . 𝑤𝑠 = 𝑢𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 (𝑣𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 . 𝑤𝑘 𝑒Ƹ𝑘 )𝑆𝑞 𝑒𝑞 = 𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑗 𝑤𝑗 𝑆𝑞 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑞

(h) Vectors can be multiplied by a tensor to give a vector:
𝑣. 𝑇 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 . 𝑡𝑗𝑘 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑘 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡𝑗𝑘 𝛿𝑖𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑘 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡𝑖𝑘 𝑒Ƹ𝑘

𝑇. 𝑣 = 𝑡𝑖𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 . 𝑣𝑘 𝑒Ƹ𝑘 = 𝑡𝑖𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 𝛿𝑗 𝑘 𝑣𝑘 = 𝑡𝑖𝑗 𝑣𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑖
(i) Two tensors can be multiplied resulting in a tensor:
𝑇. 𝑆 = 𝑡𝑖𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 . 𝑠𝑝𝑞 𝑒Ƹ𝑝 𝑒Ƹ𝑞 = 𝑡𝑖𝑗 𝑠𝑝𝑞 𝛿𝑗𝑝 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑞 = 𝑡𝑖𝑗 𝑠𝑗𝑞 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑞

One of the most important advantages of the indicial notation
is the compactness it provides in expressing equations in three
dimensions:
𝑡𝑖𝑗 = λ𝛿𝑖𝑗 𝐸𝑘𝑘 + 2𝜇𝐸𝑖𝑗
9 equations, 4 terms of each

Problems
1. Let v = a x b
Using indicial notation, show that,
a) 𝑣. 𝑣 = 𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
b) 𝑎 × 𝑏. 𝑎 = 0
c) 𝑎 × 𝑏. 𝑏 = 0
2. If 𝐴𝑖𝑗 = 𝛿𝑖𝑗 𝐵𝑘𝑘 + 3 𝐵𝑖𝑗 , Determine Bkk and using that solve for Bij in terms of Aij
and its first invariant, Aii
3. Use indicial notation to show that:
𝐴𝑚𝑖 𝜀𝑚𝑗𝑘 + 𝐴𝑚𝑗 𝜀𝑖𝑚𝑘 +𝐴𝑚𝑘 𝜀𝑖𝑗 𝑚 = 𝐴𝑚𝑚 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘
Where A is any tensor

4. By summing on the repeated subscripts determine the simplest form of:
(a) 𝜀3𝑗𝑘 𝑎𝑗 𝑎𝑘
(b) 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝛿𝑗𝑘
(c) 𝜀1𝑗𝑘 𝑎2 𝑇𝑘𝑗
5. Consider the tensor 𝐵𝑖𝑘 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑣𝑗 , show that Bik is skew-symmetric

Indicial notation
λ= scalar (zeroth order tensor)

Vi = vector (first order tensor)
UiVj = dyad (second order tensor)
Tij = dyadic (second order tensor)
Qijk = triadic (third order tensor)
Cijkm = tetradic (forth order tensor)
For tensors defined in a three-dimensional space, the free indices take on the values
1,2,3 successively, and we say that these indices have a range of three. If N is the
number of free indices in a tensor, that tensor has 3N components in three space.

In the indicial notation exactly two types of subscripts appear:
1. “Free” indices, wich are represented by letters that occur only once in a given term,
2. “summed”, or “dummy” indices which are represented by letters that appear only twice
in a given term.
No letter subscript may appear more than twice in any

given term.
Mathematical operations among tensors are readily carried out using the indicial
notation:
𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑤𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖
𝑡𝑖𝑗 − 𝑣𝑖𝑗 + 𝑠𝑖𝑗 = 𝑞𝑖𝑗

Multiplication of two tensors to produce an outer tensor product is accomplished by
simply setting down the tensor symbols side by side with no dummy indices appearing in
the expression.
Example: the outer product of the vector Vi and tensor Tjk is the third-order tensor ViTjk
Contraction is the process of identifying (that is, setting equal to one another) any two
indices of a tensor term.
An inner tensor product is formed from an outer tensor product by one or more
contractions involving indices from separate tensors in the outer product. The rank of a
given tensor is reduced by two for each contraction.

Forms for inner and outer products
Outer Products Contraction (s) Inner Products
𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑗 𝑖=𝑗 𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑖 Vector dot product
𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑢𝑞 𝑣𝑚 𝑗 = 𝑞, 𝑘 = 𝑚 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑢𝑗 𝑣𝑘 Vector cross product
𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑢𝑞 𝑣𝑚 𝑤𝑛 𝑖 = 𝑞, 𝑗 = 𝑚, 𝑘 = 𝑛 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑗 𝑤𝑘 Box product

Tensor symmetric
𝑠𝑖𝑗 = 𝑠𝑗𝑖
𝑐𝑖𝑗𝑚 = 𝑐𝑗𝑖𝑚
Tensor anti-symmetric (or skew-symmetric)
𝑠𝑖𝑗 = −𝑠𝑗𝑖
𝑐𝑖𝑗𝑚 = −𝑐𝑗𝑖𝑚

Example:
Show that the inner product 𝑠𝑖𝑗 𝑎𝑖𝑗 of a symmetric tensor S and
an anti-symmetric tensor a is zero.
Solution:
𝑠𝑖𝑗 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = −𝑠𝑗𝑖 𝑎𝑗𝑖 = −𝑠𝑚𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑛 = −𝑠𝑖𝑗 𝑎𝑖𝑗
Therefore,
2𝑠𝑖𝑗 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0

Example:
By direct expansion of the expression 𝑣𝑖 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑤𝑗𝑘 determine the components
of the vector Vi in terms of the components of the tensor Wjk
Solution:
By summing first on j and then on k and then omitting the zero terms, we find that
𝑣𝑖 = 𝜀𝑖1𝑘 𝑤1𝑘 + 𝜀𝑖2𝑘 𝑤2𝑘 + 𝜀𝑖3𝑘 𝑤3𝑘
𝑣𝑖 = 𝜀𝑖12 𝑤12 + 𝜀𝑖13 𝑤13 + 𝜀𝑖21 𝑤21 + 𝜀𝑖23 𝑤23 + 𝜀𝑖31 𝑤31 + 𝜀𝑖32 𝑤32
Therefore,

𝑣1 = 𝜀123 𝑤23 + 𝜀132 𝑤32 = 𝑤23 − 𝑤32
𝑣2 = 𝜀213 𝑤13 + 𝜀231 𝑤31 = 𝑤31 − 𝑤13
𝑣3 = 𝜀312 𝑤12 + 𝜀321 𝑤21 = 𝑤12 − 𝑤21
A skew-symmetric second order tensor 𝑊 = 𝑤𝑖𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 can be represented in terms of
an axial vector by using the permutation symbol. Let the axial vector for Wij be wi defined by:
1
𝑤𝑖 = − 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑤𝑗𝑘
2
and wjk in terms of wi:

𝜀𝑖𝑚𝑛 𝑤𝑖 = −𝑤𝑚𝑛

Matrices and determinants
A matrix having elements Aij, which may be numbers, variables, functions, or any of several
mathematical entities, is designated by 𝐴𝑖𝑗
𝐴11 𝐴12 … 𝐴1𝑁

𝐴21 𝐴22 … 𝐴2𝑁
.
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑖𝑗 = ..
𝐴𝑀1 𝐴𝑀2 … 𝐴𝑀𝑁
Row and column matrices represent vectors, whereas a 3x3 square matrix represents a
second-order tensor.
For a diagonal matrix, Aij = 0 for i ≠ j
The unit or identity matrix I, is a diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements all have the value
one.

The NxM matrix formed by interchanging the rows and columns of the MxN matrix A is called
the transpose of A, and is written as AT
𝑇
Where, 𝐴𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴𝑗𝑖
A square matrix for which A = AT is called a symmetric matrix
A square matrix for which A = -AT is called an anti-symmetric matrix
The elements of the principal diagonal of a skew-symmetric matrix are all zeros.
Two matrices are equal if they are identical element by element.

A+B = B+A
A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C
C = A B, CIJ = AIK BKJ
AB ≠ BA
𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑛 = 𝐴𝑚+𝑛
𝐴𝑛 𝑇
= 𝐴𝑇 𝑛
1
If BB = A, then: 𝐵 = 𝐴 = 𝐴2
Example: Use indicial notation to show that for arbitrary matrices A y B:

𝑇
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇

The determinant:
𝐴11 𝐴12 𝐴13

𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴 = 𝐴𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴21 𝐴22 𝐴23
𝐴31 𝐴32 𝐴33
𝐴22 𝐴23 𝐴 𝐴23 𝐴 𝐴22

𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴 = 𝐴11 − 𝐴12 21 + 𝐴13 21
𝐴32 𝐴33 𝐴31 𝐴33 𝐴31 𝐴32
𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘𝐴𝑖1 𝐴𝑗2 𝐴𝑘3 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘𝐴1𝑖 𝐴2𝑗 𝐴3𝑘
det 𝐴𝐵 = det 𝐵𝐴 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐵

Example: Show that, det 𝐴 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴𝑇
Solution:
Since
𝐴11 𝐴21 𝐴31
𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴12 𝐴22 𝐴32
𝐴13 𝐴23 𝐴33
Cofactor expansion by the first column here yields
𝐴22 𝐴32 𝐴 𝐴31 𝐴 𝐴31

𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴11 − 𝐴12 21 + 𝐴13 21 = det 𝐴
𝐴23 𝐴33 𝐴23 𝐴33 𝐴22 𝐴32

The inverse of the matrix A is written A-1
𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐴−1 𝐴 = 𝐼
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼 → 𝐵 = 𝐴−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 = 𝐵 −1
The adjoint matrix A* is defined as the transpose of the cofactor matrix
𝐴∗ = 𝐴𝑐 𝑇
The inverse matrix is expressed by
−1
𝐴∗
𝐴 =
det 𝐴

An orthogonal matrix, call it Q, is a square matrix for which:
𝑄 −1 = 𝑄 𝑇
Note that a symmetric orthogonal matrix is its own inverse
Also, if A and B are orthogonal matrices,
−1
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵 −1 𝐴−1 = 𝐵 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑇
Problem 6:
If A is any orthogonal matrix, show that det A = ± 1

The vector-tensor product, u = T v or 𝑢𝑖 = 𝑇𝑖𝑗 𝑣𝑗 appears in matrix form as:
𝑢1 𝑇11 𝑇12 𝑇13 𝑣1

𝑢𝑖1 = 𝑇𝑖𝑗 𝑣𝑗 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑢2 = 𝑇21 𝑇22 𝑇23 𝑣2
𝑢3 𝑇31 𝑇32 𝑇33 𝑣3
In much the same way the product w = v. T or 𝑤𝑖 = 𝑣𝑗 𝑇𝑗𝑖

appears as:
𝑇11 𝑇21 𝑇31
𝑤1𝑖 = 𝑣1𝑗 𝑇𝑗 𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑤1 𝑤2 𝑤3 = 𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3 𝑇12 𝑇22 𝑇32
𝑇13 𝑇23 𝑇33
𝑤 = 𝑣. 𝑇 = (𝑇. 𝑣)𝑇 = 𝑣 𝑇 . 𝑇 𝑇 = 𝑢𝑇 = 𝑇. 𝑣

Problem 7. Show that the square matrices
1 0 0
and 5 2
𝐵𝑖𝑗 = 0 −1 0 𝐶𝑖𝑗 =
−12 −5
0 0 1
are both square roots of the identity matrix

Transformations of Cartesian Tensors
Transformation table between 𝑂𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝑥1′ 𝑥2′ 𝑥3′
𝑒Ƹ1 , 𝑥1 𝑒Ƹ2 , 𝑥2 𝑒Ƹ3 , 𝑥3

𝑒Ƹ1′ 𝑥1′ 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑒Ƹ2′ 𝑥2′ 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23
𝑒Ƹ3′ 𝑥3′ 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑥𝑖′ , 𝑥𝑗 )
𝑒Ƹ𝑖′ = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑗

𝑒Ƹ𝑖 = 𝑎𝑗 𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑗′

𝑒Ƹ1′ = 𝑎11 𝑒Ƹ1 + 𝑎12 𝑒Ƹ2 + 𝑎13 𝑒Ƹ3 = 𝑎1𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑗
In matrix form:
𝑒Ƹ1′ 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑒Ƹ1
′
𝑒Ƹ𝑖1 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑒Ƹ2′ = 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑒Ƹ2
𝑒Ƹ3′ 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑒Ƹ3
Transformation matrix

Because of the perpendicularity of the primed axes,
𝑒Ƹ𝑖′ . 𝑒Ƹ𝑗′ = 𝑎𝑖𝑞 𝑒Ƹ𝑞 . 𝑎𝑗𝑚 𝑒Ƹ𝑚 = 𝑎𝑖𝑞 𝑎𝑗𝑚 𝛿𝑞𝑚 = 𝑎𝑖𝑞 𝑎𝑗𝑞 = 𝛿𝑖𝑗
𝑎𝑖𝑞 𝑎𝑗𝑞 = 𝛿𝑖𝑗 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 𝐼
Consider next an arbitrary vector v having components vi in the unprimed system, and
vi´ in the primed system, then:
𝑣 ′ = 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑣𝐴𝑇
𝑣𝑗′ = 𝑎𝑗𝑖 𝑣𝑖
They are not the components of a second order cartesian tensor

The unprimed components in terms of the primed:
𝑣 = 𝑣 ′ 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑇 𝑣 ′
𝑣𝑘 = 𝑎𝑗𝑘 𝑣𝑗′
To the dyad uv we have:
𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑗 = 𝑎𝑞𝑖 𝑢𝑞′ 𝑎𝑚𝑗 𝑣𝑚′ = 𝑎𝑞𝑖 𝑎𝑚𝑗 𝑢𝑞′ 𝑣𝑚′
A dyad is, after all, one form of a second-order tensor, then the transformation
law for a second-order tensor, T is:
′
𝑡𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑞𝑖 𝑎𝑚𝑗 𝑡𝑞𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 𝑇 ′ 𝐴
𝑡𝑖𝑗′ = 𝑎𝑖𝑞 𝑎𝑗 𝑚 𝑡𝑞𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 ′ = 𝐴𝑇𝐴𝑇

Rotation and reflection of reference axes
The primed axes may be related to the unprimed axes through either a rotation
about an axis through the origin, or by a reflection of the axes in one of the
coordinate planes, (or by a combination of such changes).
Example: Consider a 90° (counterclockwise) rotation about the x2 axis in figure:
0 0 −1
𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 1 0
1 0 0
det A = -1
proper orthogonal transformation

Example: For a reflection of axes in the x2 x3 plane shown in figure:
−1 0 0
𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 1 0
0 0 1
det A = -1
Improper orthogonal transformation

Principal values and principal directions of symmetric second-
order tensors
The inner product of a second order tensor T with a arbitrary vector u:
𝑡𝑖𝑗 𝑢𝑗 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑇. 𝑢 = 𝑣
Any second-order tensor may be thought of as a linear transformation which

transforms the antecedent vector u into the image vector v in a Euclidean three-
space.
If: 𝑡𝑖𝑗 𝑢𝑗 = λ𝑢𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑇. 𝑢 = λ𝑢
Then, the direction defined by ui is called a principal direction, or eigenvector of

T, and the scalar λ is called a principal value, or eigenvalue of T.

Using the kronecker delta:
𝑡𝑖𝑗 − λ𝛿𝑖𝑗 𝑢𝑗 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 − λ𝐼 . 𝑢 = 0
This equations have non-trivial solutions only if the determinant of coeficients

vanishes. Thus:
𝑡𝑖𝑗 − λ𝛿𝑖𝑗 = 0
Which upon expansion leads to the cubic in λ (called the characteristic equation)
𝜆3 − 𝐼𝑇 𝜆2 + 𝐼𝐼𝑇 λ − 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑇 = 0
Where,
𝐼𝑇 = 𝑡𝑖𝑖 = 𝑡𝑟 𝑇
1 1 2
𝐼𝐼𝑇 = (𝑡𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑗𝑗 − 𝑡𝑖𝑗 𝑡𝑗𝑖 ) = 𝑡𝑟 𝑇 − 𝑡𝑟(𝑇 2 )
2 2
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑇 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑡1𝑖 𝑡2𝑗 𝑡3𝑘 = det 𝑇

I, II, III, are known as the first, second and third invariants of the tensor T.
(𝑞)
With each of the roots λq we can determine a principal direction 𝑛𝑖
𝑡𝑖𝑗 − λ𝑞 𝛿𝑖𝑗 𝑛𝑖𝑞 = 0
with 𝑛𝑖𝑞 . 𝑛𝑖𝑞 = 1 (𝑞 = 1,2,3)
If the λq are distint, the principal directions are unique and mutually perpendicular. If, there is
a pair of equal roots, say λ1 = λ2, then only the direction associated with λ3 will be unique. In
this case any other two directions which are orthogonal to 𝑛𝑖(3) and to one another so as to
form a right handed system, may be taken as principal directions.
If λ1 = λ2 = λ3 , every set of right-handed orthogonal axes qualifies as principal axes, and every
direction is said to be a principal direction.

Let the components of the tensor T be given initially with repect to arbitrary
cartesian axes , 𝑂𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 and let the principal axes of T be designated by 𝑂𝑥1∗ 𝑥2∗ 𝑥3∗ ,
as shown in the figure:

Principal axes 𝑂𝑥1∗ 𝑥2∗ 𝑥3∗ relative to axes 𝑂𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑥1 𝑜𝑟 𝑒Ƹ1 𝑥2 𝑜𝑟 𝑒Ƹ2 𝑥3 𝑜𝑟 𝑒Ƹ3

𝑥1∗ 𝑜𝑟 𝑒Ƹ1∗ 𝑎11 = 𝑛1
(1)
𝑎12 = 𝑛2
(1)
𝑎13 = 𝑛3
(1)
𝑥2∗ 𝑜𝑟 𝑒Ƹ2∗ (2)

𝑎21 𝑛1 𝑎22 = 𝑛2
(2)
𝑎23 = 𝑛3
(2)
𝑥3∗ 𝑜𝑟 𝑒Ƹ3∗ (3)

𝑎31 𝑛1 𝑎32 = 𝑛2
(3)
𝑎33 = 𝑛3
(3)
The transformation matrix here is orthogonal and in accordance with the

transformation law for second-order tensors:
𝑡𝑖𝑗∗ = 𝑎𝑖𝑞 𝑎𝑗𝑚 𝑡𝑞𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 ∗ = 𝐴𝑇𝐴𝑇
Where T* is a diagonal matrix whose elements are the principal values λ(q)

Example:
Determine the principal values and principal directions of the second-order

tensor T whose matrix representation is:
5 2 0
𝑡𝑖𝑗 = 2 2 0
0 0 3
Solution:
5−𝜆 2 0
2 2−𝜆 0 =0
0 0 3−𝜆
3 − λ 10 − 7λ + λ2 − 4 = 0
For λ1=3: n1 = n2 = 0 and so from nini =1 we have n3 = ± 1

For λ2 = 6: n3 = 0; n1= ± 2/ 5; n2 = ±1/ 5
For λ3 =1: n3 = 0; n1= ± 1/ 5; n2 = ±2/ 5
From these results the transformation matrix A is given by:
0 0 ±1
2 1
± ± 0
𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 5 5
1 2
± ± 0
5 5
Finally,
0 0 1 2 1
2 1 0
0 5 2 0 5 5 3 0 0
5 5 2 2 0 1 2 = 0 6 0
1 2 0 0 3 0 5
−
5 0 0 1
− 0
5 5 1 0 0

Example: Determine the principal values and principal directions of the second-
order tensor T whose matrix representation is:
5 1 2
1 5 2
2 2 6

Tensor Fields, Tensor Calculus
A tensor field assigns to every location x, at every instant of time t, a tensor tij…k(x,t),for
which x ranges over a finite region of space, and t varies over some interval of time.
∅ 𝑥, 𝑡 Scalar field
𝑣𝑖 (𝑥, 𝑡) Vector field
𝑡𝑖𝑗 (𝑥, 𝑡) Tensor field
Partial differentiation of a tensor field with respect to the variable t is symbolized by

𝜕
the operator 𝜕𝑡 and follows the usual rules of calculus. Partial differentiation with
𝜕
respect to the coordinate 𝑥𝑞 will be indicated by the operator 𝜕𝑥 , which may be
𝑞
abbreviated as simply 𝜕𝑞 .

𝜕2
Likewise, the second partial may be written 𝜕𝑞𝑚 , and so on.
𝜕𝑥𝑞 𝜕𝑥𝑚
𝜕∅
∅,𝑖 =
𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝜕𝑣𝑖
𝑣𝑖,𝑗 =
𝜕𝑥𝑗
𝜕𝑡𝑖𝑗
𝑡𝑖𝑗,𝑘 =
𝜕𝑥𝑘
Note that differentiation with respect to a coordinate produces a tensor of one

order higher.
𝜕 2 𝑢𝑖
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑘

Also,
𝜕𝑥𝑖
= 𝛿𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑥𝑗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻= 𝑒Ƹ + 𝑒Ƹ2 + 𝑒Ƹ = 𝑒Ƹ = 𝜕𝑖
𝜕𝑥1 1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 3 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝑖
𝛻∅ = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 ∅ = 𝜕𝑖 ∅ = ∅,𝑖
𝛻𝑣 = 𝜕𝑖 𝑣𝑗 = 𝑣𝑗,𝑖
𝛻. 𝑣 = 𝜕𝑖 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑖,𝑖
𝛻 × 𝑣 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝜕𝑗 𝑣𝑘 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑣𝑘,𝑗

Example:
Show that div(curl v) = 0
Solution
For any vector v we write 𝜕𝑖 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑣𝑘,𝑗 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑣𝑘,𝑗𝑖 = 0
And because the first term of this inner product is skew-symmetric in i and j, whereas
the second term is symmetric in the same indices, (since vk is assumed to have
continuos spatial gradients), their product is zero.

Problem 8. Show that the square matrices are both square roots of the identity matrix.
1 0 0
𝐵𝑖𝑗 = 0 −1 0
0 0 1
5 2
𝐶𝑖𝑗 =
−12 −5
Problem 9. The angles between the respective axes of the 𝑂𝑥1∗ 𝑥2∗ 𝑥3∗ and the 𝑂𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
cartesian systems are given by the table below
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑥1′ 450 900 450
𝑥2′ 600 450 1200
𝑥3′ 1200 450 600
Determine the transformation matrix between the two sets of axes, and show that it is a proper
orthogonal transformation.

BIBLIOGRAFIA
[1] G. Thomas Mase, Ronald Smelser. Continuum Mechanics for Engineers. CRC Press
2010
[2] Xavier Oliver Olivella, Carlos Agelet de Saracibar Bosch . Mecánica de Medios
Continuos para Ingenieros. Ed. Alfa Omega. 2002.
[3] I. S. Sokolnikoff. Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. Ed. McGraw-Hill.1956.

01 Álgebra de Tensores

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CONTINUUM

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A body is really a collection of discrete atoms stacked on one

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- On the scale by which we consider bodies, the characteristic dimensions are

- Our knowledge of the mechanical behavior of materials is based almost

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The analysis of the mechanical behavior of materials modeled on the

- The derivation of fundamental equations which are valid for all

- The development of so-called constitutive equations characterizing the

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A tensor, or linear transformation, assigns any vector v another vector Tv

Because of these properties, tensors constitute a vector space

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As it happens, a considerable variety of physical and

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Rectangular components of the vector v

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𝑽 = 𝑣1 𝑒Ƹ1 + 𝑣2 𝑒Ƹ2 + 𝑣3 𝑒Ƹ3 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑖

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Summing first on i, and then on j,

𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑖 𝑤𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 = 𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 + 𝑢3 𝑣3 𝑤1 𝑒Ƹ1 + 𝑤2 𝑒Ƹ2 + 𝑤3 𝑒Ƹ3

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Summing first on i, and then on j,

= 𝑻𝟏𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝑻𝟐𝟏 𝒗𝟐 + 𝑻𝟑𝟏 𝒗𝟑 𝒆Ƹ 𝟏 + 𝑻𝟏𝟐 𝒗𝟏 + 𝑻𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝟐 + 𝑻𝟑𝟐 𝒗𝟑 𝒆Ƹ 𝟐

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𝛿𝑖𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 = 𝑒Ƹ𝑖

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1 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 12312

The cross product:

𝑒Ƹ𝑖 × 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑒Ƹ𝑘

ε-δ identity: 𝜀𝑚𝑖𝑞 𝜀𝑗𝑘𝑞 = 𝛿𝑚𝑗 𝛿𝑖𝑘 − 𝛿𝑚𝑘 𝛿𝑖𝑗

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(b) dot (scalar) product of two vectors:

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𝑢 × 𝑣 = 𝑢𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 × 𝑣𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑘

(d) The triple scalar product:

𝑢. 𝑣 × 𝑤 = 𝜀𝑗𝑘 𝑞 𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑗 𝑤𝑘 𝛿𝑖𝑞 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗 𝑘 𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑗 𝑤𝑘

(e) The triple cross product:

𝑢 × (𝑣 × 𝑤) = (𝛿𝑚𝑗 𝛿𝑖𝑘 − 𝛿𝑚𝑘 𝛿𝑖𝑗 ) 𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑗 𝑤𝑘 𝑒Ƹ𝑚

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Nonion form of the dyad

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Alternative notation used for the dyad product is:

(g) Dyads can be multiplied by each other to yield another dyad:

𝑢𝑣 . 𝑤𝑠 = 𝑢𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 (𝑣𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 . 𝑤𝑘 𝑒Ƹ𝑘 )𝑆𝑞 𝑒𝑞 = 𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑗 𝑤𝑗 𝑆𝑞 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑞

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𝑣. 𝑇 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 . 𝑡𝑗𝑘 𝑒Ƹ𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑘 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡𝑗𝑘 𝛿𝑖𝑗 𝑒Ƹ𝑘 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡𝑖𝑘 𝑒Ƹ𝑘

(i) Two tensors can be multiplied resulting in a tensor:

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𝑡𝑖𝑗 = λ𝛿𝑖𝑗 𝐸𝑘𝑘 + 2𝜇𝐸𝑖𝑗

9 equations, 4 terms of each

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