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DLP/BOE-II/ 16/ 01092001
CHAPTER - 16
Fundamentals of Instrumentation

1. Role of Control and Instrumentation:

Boilers are Pressure Vessels meant for generation of Steam, in controlled quantity
(tonnes/hour) and at required pressure and temperature. Like any machinery or
device, boilers too passed through a period of technological evolution and
development. Early boilers were equipped with least facilities or devices for
proper controls of their working. Gradually, as more and more experience was
gained on boilers devices were developed for this purpose depending upon
necessity. Simultaneously, as scientific and technological developments took
place, their application to boilers was just a natural consequence.
Even in the very primitive boilers it was impossible to determine the ‘Level’ of
Water in the boiler. Necessity demanded invention of ‘Water Level Gauge’.
Similarly, ‘Pressure Gauge’ for determination of ‘Pressure’ of Steam and Feed
Water and ‘Temperature Gauge’ for determination of ‘Temperature’ of Steam and
Feed Water were the very minimum of Instruments required for just being able to
operate the boiler. These items are so essential that they have been classified as
‘BOILER MOUNTINGS’ although basically these are instruments. Another
device, that falls under the category of ‘BOILER MOUNTINGS’ is the ‘Safety
Valve’, although it is an instrument. There are several other devices such as
‘Control Valves’ and ‘Dampers’ that fall under the category of instrumentation &
control devices.
In modern times, it is possible due to technological advancements to design and
build boilers that can be operated totally automatically and unmanned. However,
the cost of such degree or level of automation does not justify the investment
required for achieving this. Therefore, in modern times the Role of Control and
Instrumentation (“C&I”) is considered to be the following:
 Maintaining an adequate margin from the safety and operational
constraints,
 Monitor these margins and the plant conditions, and provide immediate
indications and permanent records,
 Draw the attention of the operator by an alarm system to any unacceptable
reduction in the safety margins and
 Shut down the Plant, if the operating constraints are violated.
2. Measurements and Controls:
From the above it can be appreciated that there are two important functions that are
serves by C&I. These are (i) Measurement and (ii) Controls.
Measurements involve devices for sensing various parameters and either indicating
them directly to the operator (for example direct indication of ‘Level’ by a ‘Level
Gauge’) or generating signals corresponding to the measured parameters and
transmitting these signals to a central location, called Control Room, for information of
the operator. Few other examples of measuring devices are:

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DLP/BOE-II/ 16/ 01092001
 Direct Measuring and Indicating Devices: ‘Pressure Gauge’, ‘Thermometer’,
‘Manometer’, ‘position indicating devices equipped with lever mechanisms’
etc., come under this classification;
 Remote Sensing and Indicating Devices: ‘Thermo couple’ and corresponding
voltage based Temperature Indicator and Recorder, ‘Pressure transducer’ and
corresponding transmitter and Electrical/Electronic/Pneumatic Pressure
Indicator and Recorder, ‘Differential Pressure transducer’ and corresponding
transmitter and Electrical/Electronic/Pneumatic Flow and/or Level Indicator
and Recorder etc., fall under this classification.
Controls involve (i) devices called ‘Controller’ for analysing the sensed operating
parameters and comparing them with the required value and generating control signals
for regulating or modulating corresponding control element (such devices valve or
damper or feeder etc.), (ii) devices called ‘Positioner’ for accepting the control signals
and actually regulating or modulating corresponding control element (such devices
valve or damper or feeder etc.)
3. Instrumentation &Control Sub-systems:
In case of Power Plants information plant-mounted Sensors and their associated
Transmitter systems provide regarding the complete Power Plant Operating Conditions.
There are about 5000 of these in a typical 660 MW coal-fired power generating unit.
Electrical quantities, mechanical displacements, flow of various fluids and materials,
positions and openings of various valves and dampers, levels of various vessels,
pressure and temperatures of various fluids involved in the process, metal temperatures,
flame in furnace of the boiler, rpm and vibrations of rotating machinery are some of the
important parameters that are monitored and controlled through C&I Sub-systems.
4. Definition of Terms related with C&I:
In the following are given definitions of some of the important terms related with
C&I, based on BS 1523:
Process: A physical or chemical change of matter or conversion of energy in the
widest sense.
Controlled condition: The condition of the process (or characteristic parameter)
which it is the direct purpose of the system to control.
Detecting element: The element which responds directly to the value of the
controlled condition (for example, a thermocouple).
Measuring element: the element which responds to the signal from the detecting
element and gives the measured value of the controlled condition (for example, a
thermocouple amplifier).
Measuring unit: A unit comprising the detecting and measuring elements (for
example, a pressure transmitter).
Comparing element: That part of a controller (or control system) which generates
a signal proportional to the deviation.
Desired value: The specified value of a controlled condition or an agreed or
agreeable value.
Set value (or Set point): The value of the controlled condition to which the
automatic control mechanism (or automatic control system) is set. If integral

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TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 16/ 01092001
control action is absent, the set value has to be offset from the desired value to all
the measured value to take up the desired value in the steady state.
Deviation: The difference between the set value of the controlled condition and
the measured value.
Controlling element: The element which provides the control signal, which is
dependent on the deviation, to the correcting unit.
Correcting condition: The condition of the process the value of which is adjusted
in order to reduce the deviation.
Correcting element: that part of a correcting unit which directly affects the value
of the correcting condition (for example, a valve).
Correcting unit: A unit comprising both the motor (or actuator element) and
correcting element.
Actuator element: That part of the correcting unit which adjusts the correcting
element in response to the signal from a Correcting element (Not necessarily a
rotating device - can be a linear actuator).
Offset: A sustained deviation due to an inherent characteristic of proportional
control action.
Algorithm: A detailed logical procedure representing a solution of a particular
problem.
Validation: Model validation is the process in which modal responses are
compared with reference responses to establish model validity.
Principle of superposition: If the response of a linear system is y 1 when the input
is x1 and the response is y2 when the input is x2, then response is y1 + y2 when the
input is x1 + x2. This is the principle of superposition.
Linear: A system is linear if the principle of superposition holds.
Non-linear: A system is non-linear if the principle of superposition fails.
Special modelling environment: These are the software packages provided for
the purpose of setting up and solving plant mathematical models.
Plant design database: The full set of plant design information available from the
plant design authority.
Signal processing: The complete set of operations completed by a control system
in performing its function.
Steady state: A state of a given system at which it will remain if undisturbed.
Linearising: The mathematical process by which a non-linear system is made
linear for the purpose of analysis.
Model reduction techniques: These are applied to reduce the size of plant model
whilst retaining its dominant transfer properties.
Computational robustness: Model are robust, if over a wide range of model
states they can be resolved in a stable state and in real time.
5. Introduction to Control Theory:
5.1 ‘Open loop’ and ‘Closed loop’ control:
If an operator is monitoring the performance of plant, by observing the variations
in the indicated value of a characteristic parameter, and is acting on his

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observations by regulating the plant to correct deviations of the measured value
from the desired value, he is effectively performing a ‘closed loop’ control.
The elements of the ‘loop’ are shown in the figure 1 below.

Figure 1

The element of the ‘loop’ comprise:

 The connecting cable from the desk controls to the actuator and regulating
element,
 The plant process being regulated,
 The measured value signal transmitted from plant and
 The operator.
The operator thus ‘closes the loop’, by observing the transmitted signal and
operating the controls in response to it. If the operator is replaced by automatic
control equipment, the equipment performs closed loop control.
However, if the operator adjusts the regulating element to some prejudged
position, taking no account of any measurement which is directly indicative of the
state of the plant process being regulated, he is performing ‘open loop’ control,
i.e., the measured value signal is either not present or is being disregarded. For
example, the speed of a feed pump is often regulated in a ‘closed loop’ manner to
maintain a desired value of pressure drop across feed regulating valves; however,
if the feed pump speed were to be regulated to comply with some approximate
relationship with the steam flow from the boiler, ignoring feed valve pressure
drop, this would be ‘open loop’ control in relation to the feed water system. (In
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TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 16/ 01092001
this example, if the operator is performing this control by monitoring pump speed,
he is performing ‘closed loop’ control of pump speed but ‘open loop’ control of
the feed valve pressure drop.)
5.2 Feedback and gain:
In the example given above, close loop control is made possible because the
measured variable signal has been ‘fed back’ from plant process to the operator
(or automatic control equipment). The appropriate corrective action is then judged
by comparing the measured value with a desired value, i.e., the measured value is
subtracted from the desired value to produce a ‘deviation’, from which the
corrective action is judged.
Because of this subtraction, the feedback signal may be regarded mathematically
as being applied in the negative sense when it forms part of a closed loop. Thus, as
an aid to understanding closed loop control, consideration may first be given to
the analogous behaviour of the ‘negative feedback amplifier’ shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Negative Feedback Amplifier

In the figure, the amplifier has a gain A and the signal fed back from the output is
attenuated by a factor B. The output voltage from the amplifier is eo, and the feedback
voltage is subtracted from the incoming signal voltage ei to produce the input voltage to
the amplifier eg.

Thus,
eo = A.eg
eg = ei - B.eo
= ei - A.B.eg
eg = ei / (1 + A.B)
So the overall gain, allowing for feedback, is
eo/ei = A/(1 + A.B)

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DLP/BOE-II/ 16/ 01092001
The effect of feedback is to reduce the gain by a factor ‘1/(1+A.B)’. The product
AB, which is the overall gain that operates on the input to the amplifier to give the
feedback signal, is called ‘loop gain’. The function ‘1/(1+A.B)’ is called the
‘feedback ratio’.
The overall gain, allowing for feedback, is expressed above in terms of voltage
ratio. However, the primary interest is in the power transferred from input to
output and it is often more convenient to express the power ratio in logarithmic
form. A unit called ‘Bel’ has been created, which is defined as log10 (power
ratio); however, a more conveniently sized unit is called ‘decibel’ and, since
power is proportional to voltage squared, the ‘decibel’ is defined as 20.log10
(voltage ratio), and is normally abbreviated to ‘dB’.
5.3 Control Action and Modes of Control:
Control Action can be made to occur in the following three modes:
5.3.1 Proportional Action:
At the simplest level, the obvious form of control action would seem at first sight
to be that depicted in figure 3, below:

Figure 3: Close Loop control system containing two sample tags.

In the above the Output control signal V is directly proportional to the input
deviation signal θ, but have the opposite sign.
Thus, the equation V = -G.θ is the basis of proportional action. The constant of
proportionality G is the Gain of the controlling element.
However, traditionally, the output control signal has been assumed to have a range
which corresponds to the full range of movement of the correcting element, and
the Gain of the correcting element is often expressed as the change in input, as a
proportion of the output which will produce a 100% change in the output. It is
referred to as the ‘proportional band’ (PB); for example, a proportional band of
20% corresponds to a gain of 5.
But it can be seen from the equation, V = -G.θ, that if V is to have a value which
is not zero, θ cannot be zero; in general terms, if the control action is solely
proportional, the set value must differ from the measured value and the measured
value can only be controlled to a desired value by offsetting the set value.

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Another aspect of proportional action, which can be seen by considering the
concept of proportional band, is that the deviation cannot be permitted to exceed
the proportional band; otherwise the output will exceed the range of correcting
element. So to ensure that the offset is small, the controller element must have a
large gain from consideration of stability, this is only possible in particular
situations.
5.3.2 Integral Action:
If one considers the implications of the equation, V = -G.θ more widely, it will be
apparent that some additional control action is needed which has the effect of
removing the offset made necessary by the proportional action. To be effective,
this additional action has to change the output at a rate that diminishes to zero, i.e.,
for zero deviation there is not zero output but zero change to output:
dV/dt = - K2.θ
or V = - K2.θ.dt + VO
This resetting action is thus equivalent to the time integral of the deviation θ and is
referred to as ‘integral action’. The constant VO is the value of the output at some
time t0, when the automatic control action was first engaged, for example as a
result of a transfer of control from manual to automatic.
It can be seen from the equation, V = -G.θ, if K 2 is put equal to G/T1, the change
in output as a result of integral action over a period of time T 1 will be equal to
change in output resulting from the proportional action, represented by the
equation V = -G.θ.
The combined effect of proportional action and integral action may therefore be
written as:
V = -G.θ - (G/T1) θ dt + V0
Where, T1 is known as the ‘integral action time’.
G may be alternatively written as 100/PB.
It can be seen from the above equation giving the value of V that the effect of
integral component is to remove any standing error. It may also be seen that this
can be achieved if the integral action is applied alone, but for most applications
this produces a response which is too sluggish.
5.3.3 Derivative Action:
If one considers the response of the equation, V = -G.θ - (G/T 1) θ dt + V0 to an
input θ which is varying sinusoidally, the effect of integral action is seen to add a
component to the output which is lagging the input by 90 0. Thus, taken in
combination with the other lags in the loop, the addition of integral action could
increase the probability of the feedback signal being in phase with the demand,
i.e., increase the probability of instability.
This effect can be countered by adding a third action which adds a component to
the output which is advanced in phase by 90 0 relative to the input i.e., it is
proportional to the first derivative of the deviation θ:
V = - K3 (dθ/dt)
As with integral action, the constant K3 may be expressed in terms of gain G in
Equation V = -G.θ; if K3 is set equal to GTD, it can be seen from the equation, V =
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DLP/BOE-II/ 16/ 01092001
- K3 (dθ/dt) that, if the deviation changes by an amount θ in a period of time T D,
the change in output as a result of the derivative will be equal to the change in
output as a result of proportional action represented by the equation V = -G.θ.
TD defined in this way is, is known as the ‘derivative action time’
A disadvantage of derivative action is that it responds only to the rate of change of
θ. Thus, if there were rapid fluctuations in θ, but of small amplitude, i.e., ‘noise’
derivative action would generate an output in response to the noise. It is
customary, therefore, to avoid using derivative action wherever possible.

6. Practical realisation of theoretical control algorithms:

Control systems installed today can benefit from the advantages of modern
technology and modern computer techniques. These can generate output
commands which faithfully conform to the algorithms developed for specific
control purposes. Moreover, such systems are robust, reliable, have minimal drift
and have low power consumption.
However, when electronic technology was based on thermionic valve it clearly did
not have the above attributes, and early transistors had limitations. So the medium
which was developed for the automatic control of process plant was compressed
air. In fact pneumatic measurement and control systems have proved to be
reliable, convenient and cheap, where the control requirements are simple. They
are still widely used for the control of auxiliary plant, where the equipments can
be mounted locally to the plant and there is no requirement for manual
intervention from a central control room.
6.1 Pneumatic control equipment:
Compressed air provided is both clean and dry, is a very convenient medium for
the control and measurement of plant control processes. It can be used as a source
of power for actuating plant regulating devices. It can also be used as a means of
communicating an analog value from one location to the other, for example
communicating the value of a plant measurement to a controller, or
communicating a demanded actuator position to an actuator. For this purpose, the
numerical value being transmitted in converted to an analog value of air pressure,
the standard pressure range, generally adopted being 0.2 - 1.0 bar.
6.1.1 Basic proportional pneumatic control relay:
A fundamental requirement for the realisation of the above principle is a device
which will generate the pneumatic signal. The device most widely used is the
‘flapper and nozzle’, the principle of which is illustrated in the figure 4.
A chamber having a small volume is supplied with air through a restriction or
orifice; the source of air will be at a pressure in access of the upper limit of the
required pneumatic signal range, e.g., 1.2 bar for 0.2-1.0 range. Thus the pressure
in the chamber will be determined by the rate of escape of air from it; the greater
the rate of escape, the greater the flow through the orifice and, hence the lower the
pressure in the chamber.

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Figure 4: Proportional control relay based on flapper/nozzle

The air in the chamber is permitted to escape through a small nozzle, but a flexible
vane or ‘flapper’ in close proximity with the nozzle impedes the escape. (The
outlet pressure connection to the chamber communicates with a sealed system, so
there is no escape of air along that path.) Thus, a small change in air gap between
the flapper and the nozzle is able to cause a corresponding change in air pressure
in the chamber. If the tip of the flapper is moved to the right, the air pressure will
fall.
The flapper is attached to a bellows, which is spring opposed and is connected to
the chamber. So, as the tip of the flapper is moved to the right, the fall in the air
pressure in the chamber will cause the bellows to contract, thereby limiting the
size of the air gap to maintain equilibrium between the chamber air pressure, the
compression of the spring and the escape of air. The effect of the bellows and the
spring is to provide negative feedback action; this reduces the gain and makes the
chamber air pressure vary almost linearly with small movement of the tip of the
flapper.
It will be apparent, therefore, that the above device can be the basis of a means of
transmitting a pneumatic signal, which is proportional to a small linear
displacement. For example, the pressure of a fluid can be converted into small
displacement.
6.1.2 Pneumatic controllers:
In the following Figure 5, the principle of proportional pneumatic relay is being
utilized to provide a simple proportional control action.

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Figure 5: Principle of Proportional Pneumatic controller

Assuming that the controlled action is ‘steam pressure’, which is converted into a
measured value in the range 0.2 - 1.0 bar by a bellows, the set point is provided by
a spring and acts in opposition to the measured value through a beam. As a
deviation between the measured value and the set point varies, the air pressure in
the chamber varies by the action of the flapper; the outlet air pressure will be
proportional to the deviation, i.e., a proportional controller action.
By addition of further mechanical artifices, integral and derivative actions can be
added, but the control actions are not independent of one another, and are not
faithful representations of the equations given in chapter 5.
7. Electronic Control Systems:
Electronic controllers accept an electrical signal transmitted from the plant,
representative of measured value, usually 4 - 20 mA DC; compare it with a set
value (generated within the controller or transmitted as an electrical signal from a
separate device) and produce an output control signal which conforms to the
equations derived in chapter 5. The control coefficients - proportional band,
integral action time and derivative action time - may be adjusted using trimming
controls mounted on the case of the controller.
Electronic control is available in two distinct packages:
Single module controllers often referred to as single loop controllers, in which all
necessary functions (including Auto/Manual transfer and input signal
conditioning) are performed within a single electronic module, which can be
mounted on a desk or panel.
Modular Control System, where a range of different modules is available, each
providing a function (or group of functions) needed for control. Selecting the
necessary modules and connecting them together in the appropriate manner then
construct a control system. The modules are mounted in a standard rack, which is
usually remote from the operator’s controls and indicators.

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DLP/BOE-II/ 16/ 01092001
A true electronic controller generates the appropriate control algorithm with
integrated circuits (ICs), in particular with operational amplifiers. However,
controllers are now available that are similarly packaged but which generate the
control algorithms with microprocessors.
Latest development in Electronic Controls is the Field Bus System, wherein the
signals are no longer analog (i.e., 4 - 20 mA DC). Rather, digital signals
corresponding to measured values and control signals are transmitted over high
speed fibre-optic ‘Field Bus’ and the Transmitters, Controllers and Positioners are
all distributed in the field, housed in weather proof and sealed enclosures. This
type of system reduces the cable work for the control system and saves time and
money and offers the advantages of ruggedness and reliability.

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