1.

Introduction
0 Stress:
1 Stress, = P/A
Where P = Force or load acting on a body, and A = Cross-sectional area of the body. In S.I. units, the
stress is usually expressed in Pascal (Pa) such that 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. In actual practice, we use bigger
units of stress i.e. megapascal (MPa) and gigapascal (GPa), such that
1 MPa = 1 × 106 N/m2 = 1 N/mm2
and 1 GPa = 1 × 109 N/m2 = 1 kN/mm2
0 Strain:
2 Strain, ε = δl / l or δl = ε.l
where δl = Change in length of the body, and
l = Original length of the body.
0 Tensile Stress and Strain:
3

Let P = Axial tensile force acting on the body,

A = Cross-sectional area of the body,
l = Original length, and
δl = Increase in length.
∴ Tensile stress, σt = P/A
and tensile strain, ε t = δl / l
0 Compressive Stress and Strain:
4

Let P = Axial tensile force acting on the body,

A = Cross-sectional area of the body,
l = Original length, and
δl = Increase in length.
∴ Tensile stress, σt = P/A
and tensile strain, εt = δl / l
0 Young's Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity:
5

0 Shear Stress and Strain:

6

0 Torsional Shear Stress:

7

where τ = Torsional shear stress induced at the outer surface of the shaft or maximum
shear stress, r = Radius of the shaft, T = Torque or twisting moment, J = Second moment of area of the
section about its polar axis or polar moment of inertia, C = Modulus of rigidity for the shaft material, l
= Length of the shaft, and θ = Angle of twist in radians on a length l.
0 Bending Stress in Straight Beams:
8
 where M = Bending moment acting at the given section, σ = Bending stress, I = Moment of inertia of the
cross-section about the neutral axis, y = Distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fibre, E =
Young’s modulus of the material of the beam, and R = Radius of curvature of the beam.
Also from the above equation, the bending stress,

The ratio I/y is known as section modulus and is denoted by Z.

0 Bearing Stress:
8

where d = Diameter of the rivet, t = Thickness of the plate, d.t = Projected area of the rivet, and n =
Number of rivets per pitch length in bearing or crushing.

where pb = Average bearing pressure, P = Radial load on the journal, l = Length of the journal in
contact, and d = Diameter of the journal.
Principal Stresses and Principal Planes:

Theories of Failure Under Static Load:

1. Maximum principal (or normal) stress theory (also known as Rankine’s theory).
2. Maximum shear stress theory (also known as Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).
3. Maximum principal (or normal) strain theory (also known as Saint Venant theory).
4. Maximum strain energy theory (also known as Haigh’s theory).
5. Maximum distortion energy theory (also known as Hencky and Von Mises theory).
0 Factor of Safety:
9

2. Design of simple machine parts

0 Knuckle Joint: D- Diameter of each rod
1 D1- Enlarged diameter of each
rod
d- Diameter of knuckle pin
do- Outside diameter of eye or
fork
a-Thickness of each eye of fork
b- Thickness of eye end of rod-
B
d1- Diameter of pin head
X- Distance of the center of
fork radius R from the eye
i)Diameter of rods-
4P 4P
σt
π D2
or D
√ π σt
ii) Enlarged diameter of each rods-
D1  1.1D
iii) Dimensions of “a” and “b”-
a  0.75 D b  1.25 D
iv) Calculate the diameters of the pin by shear and
bending consideration and select whichever is
maximum-
2P 2P
πd 2 d
π √
OR
16 P b a
σb +(
π d3 4 3 ) d √ 16π σP ( b4 + a3 )
3

Note- If in problem bending stress σb is not given

then assume bending stress equal to tensile stress σt
v) Calculate dimensions do and d1 by following
relation-
do 2d and d1  1.5d
vi) Checking the tensile, crushing and shear stresses
in eye-
P
σt
b ( d o−d )

P
σ ck
bd

P
b ( d o−d )
 vii) Checking the tensile, crushing and shear stresses in fork-
P
σt
2 a ( d o −d )

P
σ ck
2 ad

P
2 a ( d o−d )

0 Turn buckle:
2