INTRO TO CRIM.
- emphasizing the scientific investigation into the nature and
Etymology of Criminology
Criminology- study of crime. Derived from Latin Crimen means
accusation. Transliterated Greek Logia which has come to denote
the Study of.
- study of crime and criminals, especially their
behavior; scientific study and investigation of crime
and criminals.
Raffaele Garofalo- coined term criminology
Paul Topinard- used criminology first time in
French(criminologie)
- introduces term criminologish in english language
Development of Criminology
Beginning of 18th Century/ Era of Classical Criminology
- first distinguished crime from sin. They made explanations of
criminal behavior that were not theological.
- primarily concerned with the ending brutality and inequality
against criminals by enforcing limitations on government power.
- criminology behavior was product of offender’s rational
choice and crime could be prevented through speedy and certain
application of penalties that attached painful and unattractive
consequence to such behavior.
Beginning of 19th Century/ Modern Criminology
- criminology is a sub speciality w/in the societies and founded
criminology journals.
- criminologist conducted empirical test of their theories rather
than relying on population and consequently developed a wide
range of theories.
- why crime occurred.
Second half of 20th Century/ Independent Criminology
-Criminology began to assert from the traditional discipline
that spawned it.
- A numbers of university developed graduate programs in
Criminology
- tend/seek to understand crime itself rather than study of crime
as one aspect of an overall sociological or psychological theory.
- Contemporary scholars believe that criminal motivation is the
product of one or more complex set of factors.
Theories considered in one of the three categories:
1. Theories attributing criminal behavior to biological or congenital
defects of the offender
2. Theories relating crime to psychological factors or mental
disorder, and
3. Theories relating crime to environment or social factors.
Criminology Definition(EPMwffGvrhElDrGbWdEsc)
 Edwin Sutherland- Criminology is the body of knowledge
regarding social problem of crime.
- criminology is science regarding crime and delinquency as
social phenomenon.
- Dean of Modern Criminology
 Prof. Cirilo Tradio- body of knowledge regarding crimes as
social phenomenon.
Scope of Criminology covers: Making laws, Breaking of
laws, reaction towards breaking of laws.
- scientific of crime as an individual and social phenomenon
- Criminology is an interdisciplinary field of behavioral
sciences
 Marvin Wolfgang and Franco Ferracuti- Criminology is the
scientific study of crime, criminals, and criminal behavior
- Criminology scientifically study: NPEC
 Nature and Extent of Crime
 Patterns of Criminality
 Explanations on the causes of crime and criminals
behavior
 The control of crime and criminal behavior
 Gennaro F Vito and Ronald Holmes- Criminology is the
study of causes of crime.
 Elliot- Crim. As scientific study of crime and its treatment.
etiology of crime
 D.R. Taft- Crim. Includes all the subj. Matter necessary to
understanding and prevention of crime together with punishment
and treatment of delinquents and criminals.
- Crim. Is concerned not with the offenses committed by
adults only but also deal with juvenile offenses.
 Gregg Barak- Criminology is an interdisciplinary study of
various body of knowledge, which focuses on the etiology of crime,
behavior of criminals, policies and practices of crime content.
 Webster Dictionary- Criminology as the scientific study of
crime as social phenomenon, or of criminals and their mental traits,
habits or discipline.
 European Society of Criminology- Criminology as scholarly,
scientific, and professional knowledge concerning the explanation ,
prevention, control and treatment of Criminal delinquency,
offenders and victim.
Definition of Terms (ATCaCoCiDfCyCjCjsEc)
1. Applied Criminology- art of creating typologies,
classifications….
2. Theoretical Criminology- subfield of general criminology most
often found in universities and colleges.
3. Constitutional Approach- approach to explaining criminal
behavior is influenced by structure or physical characteristics of
persons body.
4. Criminologist- who studies criminology. Term recorded from
1857. who trained in field of criminology.
5. Criminalist- who reconstruct crime scene or works with crime
scene evidence for forensic purposes.
6. Dualistic Fallacy- assumption that there is distinct difference
between 2 groups: criminals and noncriminals.
7. Criminality- behavioral predisposition that disproportionately
favors criminal activity
8. Criminal Justice- scientific study of crime, criminal law and
components of criminal justice system.
9. Criminal Justice System- agencies of justice whose goal is to
apprehend, convict, punish, and rehabilitate law violators.
10. Experimental Criminology- form of contemporary
criminology that makes use of rigorous social scientific techniques.
Goals of Studying criminology(DUPC)- to describe, understand,
predict, and control criminal behavior.
Nature of Criminology(ASDN)
1. Applied Science- in study of causes of crimes, anthropology,
psychology and other natural science. In crime detection-chemistry,
medicine, physics may be utilized.
2. Social Science- social creation that exists in a society being as a
social phenomenon.
3. Dynamic- criminology changes as social condition changes. It is
concomitant with advancement of other science that has been
applied.
4. Nationalistic- study of crime must be in relation to existing
criminal law w/in territory or country.
Principal Divisions of Criminology by Edwin Sutherland (SCP)
1. Sociology of Law(Making of Law)- attempts to offer scientific
analysis of conditions under which criminal laws are developed as
process of formal social control.
2. Criminal Etiology(Breaking of law)- attempts to provide
analysis of causes of crime.
3. Penology(Reacting toward the breaking of law)- concerned with
control and prevention crime and treatment of youth offenders
Components of Criminology by Clarence Ray Jeffery(DTE)-
Detection, treatment and Explanation of crime and criminal
behavior
Theory- an explanation, attempt to relate two or more variables.
Can be either incorrect or at least questioned.
- series of interrelated propositions that attempt to describe,
explain, predict and control class of events.
Attributes of Theory(CBISEVH)
1. Theory Construction- something known with something
unknown
2. Theory Building- efforts to come up with formal, systematic,
logical and mathematical ways.
3. Theoretical Integration- efforts to come up with grand
4. Theoretical Specification- efforts to figure out details of theory,
how variables work together
5. Theoretical Elaboration- efforts to figure out implications of
theory
6. Variables- building blocks of theories; things that vary
7. Hypothesis- explanation that accounts for a set of facts
Eras of Criminological Theory
First Era: Golden Age of Research- data were largely gathered
and evaluated independent of any particular ideational framework
Second Era: Golden Age of Theory- intellectual theorizing
dominated the scene. No systematic attempt to link criminological
research to theory.
Third Era: Age of Extensive Theory Testing- testing dominant
theories using largely empirical methods. Scientific examination of
criminological theories that had been previously advanced.
Explaining Scope of Theory(GUI)
1. General Theory- attempts to explain all form of criminal
conduct through single overarching approach.
2. Unicasual Theory- posits only one source
3. Integrated Theory- provides explanatory perspective that
merges concepts drawn from diff. Sources. Contrast to General
Theory.
Crime- an act or omission punishable by law
Types/Categories of Crime(FOM)
1. Felony- act punishable by revised penal code of Phil.
2. Offense- act punishable by special penal law
3. Misdemeanor/ Delinquency- violation of simple rules and
rugalations.
Elements of Crime( IFI )- Intent, Freedom, Intelligence
Victimology- scientific study of victimization including relationship
between victims and offenders and interaction between victim and
cjs.
- meaning rooted in idea of sacrifice or scapegoat(the
execution or casting out of a person/animal to satisfy a deity)
Mendelson, Von Hentig, and Wolfgang- defines victims as
hapless dupes who instigated their own victimization
Feminists- victims as anyone caught up in an asymmetric
relationship
Asymmetry- unbalanced, exploitative, parasitical
Victims- any person who experiences injury, loss/ hardship due to
any cause.
- who suffered injury and harm by forces beyond his or her
control.
Crime Victim- who suffered injury or loss due to illegal activity.
- suffered as a result of commission of crime
Benjamin Mendelson- father of Victimology. Coined term 1940.
- interviewed victims to obtain info
- coined victimal(the victim counterpart of criminal and
word)
Von Hentig- studied victims of homicide and formed type of
victim.
 Victims became the forgotten process of CJS while criminal is the
celebrity.
 Victim only valued for their capacity to report crimes and appear
in court and witnesses.
 New Victimologists study the behavior and vulnerabilities of
victims
Typologies of Criminal Victim
General Classes by Hans Von Hentig (YFOMdIM)
 Young- weak by virtue and immaturity
 Female- less physically powerful and easily dominated by men
 Old- incapable of physical defense
 Mentally Defective- unable to think clearly
 Immigrant- unsure of rules.
 Minorities- unequal treatment by agency/ justice
Psychological Types(DGOWHT)
 Depressed- submissive person by virtue of emotional
condition
 Greedy- want more than what is sufficient
 Old- incapable of Physical defense
 Wanton/ Overly Sensual- wanting affection
 Heartbroken- disturbed by virtue of heartaches/pain
 Tormented- who asked for it, often from friends/ family
Other type by Mendelson
 Complete Innocent Victims- an ideal form of popular
perception in this category
 Victims w/ only minor guilt and those victimize due to
ignorance
 Victim who is Guiltier than the Offender- containing person
who provoked criminal/ induced victimization
 Most Guilty Victim who is guilt alone- an attacker killed
would be a victim in act of defending themselves
 Imaginary Victim- suffering from mental disorder
Penal Couple- describes the relationship between victim and
criminal
Victimicity- signified opposite of criminality
Loser- initially attacker but later, situation is reversed
Theories and Victimology(LuBLaVLD)
1. Luckenbill’s Situated Transaction Model- commonly found in
sociology of deviance textbooks. Interpersonal level, crime and
victimization.
a. Insult b. Clarification c. Retaliation d. Counter Retaliation e.
Presence of Weapon f. Onlooker
2. Benjamin and Master’s Threefold Model- from prison riots to
strain theories. (PAPr)
a. Precipitating Factors- wrong place, wrong time
b. Attracting Factors- choices, options, lifestyles
c. Predisposing Factors- sociodemographic characteristics
3. Lawrence and Marcus Felson’s Routine Activities Theory-
anxious to test theory. (StMoAg)
a. Suitable targets- poverty
b. Motivated Offenders
c. Absence of Guardians- few defensible spaces and absence
of private securities
4. Victim Precipitation Theory- people initiate confrontation that
leads to injury (AP)
a. Active- use threat/ fighting words
b. Passive- personal conflict
5. Lifestyle Theory- crime is not random occurrence
6. Deviant Place Theory- victim prone bec. Reside in high-crime
areas.
Victim Defense- cases of parricide and homicide of batterers
Emotional Distress- result of crime of recurring theme for all
victims of crime
PTSD(Post Traumatic Stress Disorder)
Post Crime Distress also linked to pre-existing emotional problems
and socio-demoraphic variables. Leading cause of elderly to be
more adversely affected.
Models of Victimization
1. Victim of Crime Model (Man-made cause)- homicide, rape
and others.(IdRcRo)
Stages:
a. Stage of Impact and Disorganization- depicts
attitude or activity of a victim
b. Stage of Recoil- during w/c the victims formulates
psychological defenses and deals w/ conflicting
emotions of guilt, anger, acceptance and desire of
revenge(last 3 to 8 mos.)
c. Reorganization Stage- occurs during w/c the victim
put his/her life back to normal daily living
2. Victim of Disaster Model (Natural Cause)- applicable to
victims of natural causes like earthquakes, flood, volcanic eruption,
etc. (PiIPoiBo)
Stages:
 a. Pre-impact Stage- state of victim prior to being
victimized
b. Impact Stage- the phase in w/c victimization
occurs.
c. Post-Impact Stage- entails the degree and duration
of the personal and social disorganization ff. Victimization.
d. Behavioral Outcome- describes victim’s
adjustment to the victimization experience
Kinds of Crime Victim (PST)
1. Direct or Primarily Crime Victim- victim directly suffers the
harm or injury which is physical, psychological and economic
losses.
2. Indirect or Secondary Crime Victim- ex. Rape victim or
children of battered woman
3. Tertiary Crime Victim- who experience harm vicariously such
as through media accounts.
Etiology- refers to cause, set of causes, manner of causation od
disease/ condition, investigation or attribution of the cause or reason
for something
Etiology on Crime
Etiology- analyzes and studies causal links between circumstances
and diff. Factors of criminality.
- studies and research of causes and circumstances that deal
w/ all criminal behavior and other phenomena in society.
Criminal Etiology- division of criminology w/ attempts to provide
scientific analysis on the causes of crime.
Causes of Crime- factors or circumstances that apply significantly
more to offenders than to non-offenders and potentially a direct but
not necessarily immediate link to crime.
Historical Views of Crime Causation(AMFCPS)
1. Antique Philosophy- Aristotle offers philosophical standpoint
on crime causation. Poverty as mother of all revolutions and crimes.
2. Medieval Philosophy- Francis Bacon stated criminality will
depend on social situations. Opportunity makes a thief. Human
behavior depend on situations.
3. French Renaissance Philosophy- Voltaire and Rousseau
introduce concept of free will. Crime as hedonistic behavior and
failure to fulfill social contrect obligations.
4. Classical Criminology- crime as product of belief that
benefits of committing crimes are far greater.
- ‘Crime isn’t profitable bec. you’ll get caught’ and ‘that you’ll
never get caught’
-Crime is a behavioral human characteristics and a choice.
5. Positivist Criminology- explain crim causation using
determinism.
- Atavism- born criminal/ genetically evolved.
- Crime is inheritable and some people are born to be
criminals.
6. Sociological Criminology- crime is a result of multiple
factors, can be divided to biological, psychological and social
factors.
a. Social Darwinism- Herbert Spencer. Most successful and
wealthiest are product of social evolution. Evolved
through natural selection. Criminals are who stupid
enough to get caught.
b. Social learning Theory- A. Bandura, Aggressive
behavior is largely learned.Can be direct(result from
positive/ negative behavior) or indirect(based on
perception of other’s behavior as desirable or non-
desirable).
-Corporal punishment are extreme form of negative
behavior, child can develop negative association from parents.
7. Psychology and Crime Causation - based on notion that
hidden unconscious motives affect human behavior.
8. Biological Criminology- chromosome aberrations may be
cause of crime.
Macho men- who have an extra Y chromosome,
predisposed to commit crimes.
Approaches in Criminal Etiology
A. Single or Unitary- caused only one factor or variable: social,
biological or mental.
B. Multiple Factor Approach- criminal conduct is combination of
several factors.
C. Eclectic Approach- views that criminal behavior is caused by
one or more factors rather than cause
Criminal Behavior-behavior in violation of the criminal law
Risk Factors fro criminal Behavior
No single risk factor is big enough to predict without a doubt
that a youth will become a violent criminal. It’s usually a
combination of factors that increase an individual’s risk. Child with
six or more factors is 10 times more likely to be violent by age 18
his peer who was exposed to only risk factor.
Top Risk Factors for Criminal behavior are:
1. Family Issues Contribute to Criminal Behavior- no criminal
behavior is passed through our genes. Children with violent
parents are more likely to become violent through learned
behavior. Negative factors might influence criminal behavior
such as poor parenting skills, family size, discord in the
home(annul or left to grandparents), antisocial parents conflict
and punitive discipline(punish).
2. Mental Illness and Its Effect on Crime-more than half
population in jails and state and federal prisons have some
kind of mental illness. Mental illnesses do not cause people to
become violent criminals though there is strong correlation
between two.
Jail- penalty 1 to 3 years, under hearing.
Penalty- 3 years and above.
3. Peer Pressure Influence to Criminal Behavior- Journal of
Abnormal Child Psychology support that peer pressure has
negative influence on deviant behavior in children.
4. How our Socioeconomic Status Contributes to
Delinquency- our income, education levels and occupations
have strong influence to become violent criminals. Low-
income homes are charged with crimes at age of 24 compared
to Middle-income families and high-income families.
Crime- violation of law
-under the Philippine Law, refers to act committed or
omitted in violation of public law forbidding or commanding
it.
a. Felonies- violation of Revised Penal Code.
b. Offenses- violation of statutes
c. Misdemeanors- violation of ordinances
- acts perceived by those in power as direct or indirect
threats to their interests.(Political Definition)
- an anti-social act of such a nature that its repression is
necessary or supposed to be necessary to preservation of
existing system of society.(Sociological Definition)
- form of social maladjustment-commit crime bec. He can’t
fit in society so he made his own group.(Psychological
Definition)
Criminological Classification of Crime
1. As to the result of:
a. Acquisitive Crime-when offender acquires something as
a consequence of his criminal acts
b. Extinctive Crime- when the end of result of a criminal
act is destructive.
2. As to the time or period of commission:
a. Seasonal Crime- committed only during a certain period
of the year like violation of tax law.
b. Situational Crime- committed only when given the
situation conducive to its commission. Opportunity
3. As to length of time of commission:
a. Instant Crime- committed in shortest possible of time.
b. Episodic Crime- commiteed by series of acts in a lengthy
space of time. Ex. Serial Killing
4. As to the place or location of the commission:
a. Static Crime- committed in only one place
b. Continuing Crime- can be committed in several places.
Kidnapping. Filed where committed.
5. As to the use of Mental Faculty:
a. Rational Crime-committed w/ intent and offender is in
full possession of his sanity
b. Irrational Crime- committed by persons who do not
know the nature and quality of their act. Has hallucination
6. As to the social status of the offender:
a. White Collar Crime- committed by persons of
respectability and upper socio-economic class
b. Blue Collar Crime- committed by ordinary professional
criminals to maintain their livelihood,
7. As to the standard of living of the criminals:
 a. Crime of the upper world- committed with high degree
of skill.
b. Crime of the underworld- committed through limited
ability.
When does crime exist?
Crime exist when person has been proven guilty by court. Crime
exist when it is reported.
Why does crime exist?
Crime exist because of the existence of the law.
Logomacy- there is no crime if there is no law punishing it. Nullum
crimen nulla poena sine lege.
Eliminating crime requires the abolition of criminal law.
Law- form of social control and absence of regulation in the
community leads to chaos among people.
Law of Jungle speaks about Survival of the Fittest(Matira ang
Matibay)
Elements of Crime
1. Motive(M)- movi- ng power w/c impels one to act for a definite
result. No evidence found. Identity of the felon has not been
clearly established.
Intent- purpose in using particular means. Element of
International Felony.
2. Opportunity(O)- chance or time given to the offender in
committing the crime.
3. Instrumentality of capacity(I/C)-
Instrumentality- use of material or other means in
commission of crime.
Capability- physical capability of a person to perpetrate a
crime.
Crime vs Sin
Crime- act or omission against penal law of state. Imprisonment
or fine or both
Sin- against spiritual or divine law. Death.
Crime vs Immorality
Crime- against law of state. Nationalistic
Immorality- against unwritten social norms. Regionalistic
Why must members of society be concerned with the study of
crime?
1. Crime is Pervasive- all members of free society were once
upon a victim or an offender
2. Expensive- gov’t and private sector spend enormous amt. Of
money
A. Direct expenses
B. Indirect expenses
3. Destructive - many lives have been lost because of crime
4. Reflective- crime rate is reflective of the effectiveness of social
defenses
5. Progressive- crime increase in volume on acc. Of the
increasing population
Criminals - committed wrongly act in the course of the standard
judicial process. There must be a final verdict of his guilt.
Classifications of Criminals
1. On the basis of etiology:
a) Acute Criminal - who violates criminal law bec. Of the impulse
of moment.
b) Chronic Criminal- who acted in consonance with deliberate
thinking
2. On the basis of behavioral system
a) Ordinary Criminals - lowest form of criminal career. Engage
only on conventional crimes w/c require limited skill. Lack
org. to avoid arrest and conviction
b) Organized Criminals- have high degree of org. Commit crimes
w/out being detected and committed to specialized activities.
c) Professional Criminals- highly skilled and obtained amt. Of
money w/o being detected bec. they are organized and
contacted to other criminals. Able to escape conviction.
3. On the basis of Activities
a) Professional Criminals - earn living through criminal activities.
b) Accidental criminals- who commit criminal acts as a result of
anticipated circumstances.
c) Habitual Criminals - continue commit criminal acts for such
diverse reasons. Same crime committed after 10 years.
Recidivist - commit crime repeatedly
d) Situational Criminals- actually not criminals but in trouble w/
legal authorities bec. they commit robbery
4. On the basis of mental attitudes:
a) Active aggressive criminals- who commit crime in an impulsive
manner. Attitude is clearly shown in crimes of passion,
revenge and resentments.
b) Passive inadequate Criminals - commit crime bec. they are
pushed to it by inducement.
c) Socialized delinquent criminals - normal behavior but merely
defective in socialization processes.
Classical School - human are rational beings that crime is
the result of the exercise of free will, and that punishment can be
effective
1. Age of enlightenment(age of reason) - social movement that
built upon ideas like empiricism, rationality, free will, humainism,
and natural law.
2. Social contract - enlightenment era concept that human beings
abandon their natural state of individual freedom to join together
and form society.
3. Natural law - immutable laws are fundamental human nature and
can be readily ascertained through reason.
4. Natural rights-individual retain in the face of gov’t action and
interests.
5. Hedonistic calculus - behavior holds value to any individual
undertaking it according to amt. Of please or pain that is expected to
produce for that person. Known also as Utilitarianism
6. Panopticon - prison designed w/c is a circular building w/ cells
along the circumtance.
7. Neoclassical Criminology - contemporary version of classical
criminology that emphasizes deterrence and retribution.
8. General Deterrence - criminal sentencing that seeks to prevent
others from committing crime.
9. Specific deterrence - criminal sentencing that seeks to prevent
particular offender from engaging in repeat criminality.
10. Mala In Se - acts that are thought to be wrong in and of
themselves.
11. Mala Prohibita - acts that are wrong only bec. They are
prohibited.
12. Free will - ability of human beings to purposely and deliberately
choose to follow a calculated course of action.
Classical theorist: Cesare Beccaria, Jeremy Bentham
Cesare Beccaria - Italian philosopher and politician.
- Crimes and punishment - condemned torture and
death penalty. Seiminal treatise on legal reform and considered one
of founding texts of classical criminology.
Three types of crime by Beccaria - threaten security of state,
injure citizen of property, and run contrary to social order.
Two types of Proof
A. Perfect proof- no possibility of innocence.
B. Imperfect proof - possibility of innocence remained.
Jeremy Bentham - English jurist, philosopher, legal and social
reformer.
- advocate of utilitarianism and fair treatment of
animals. Mas mataas na punishment, the more effective deterring
criminal behavior.
- Introduction to the principles of morals and
legislation- nature has placed mankind under governance of of 2
sovereign masters: pain and pleasure.
-Principle of utility- greatest happiness for
greatest number
-Hedonist who seeks pleasure and avoid pain.
-Rational calculator weighing up costs and
benefits of consequences of each action.
Eleven Types of Punishment by Bentham
1. Capital Punishment - death
2. Afflictive Punishment - whipping and starvation
3. Indelible Punishment - branding, amputation, mutilation
4. Ignominious Punishment - use of stock and pillory
5. Penitential Punishment - censured by his or her community
6. Chronic Punishment - banishment, exile, imprisonment
7. Restrictive Punishment - license revocation or administrative
sanction
8. Compulsive Punishment - make restitution or keep in touch of
police officer
9. Pecuniary Punishment- use of fines
10. Quasi-pecuniary Punishment - denied services
11. Characteristic Punishment - mandating prison uniform
Theories of Crime
1. Demonological of Crime - individual were thought to be
possessed by good or evil spirit which caused good/evil result
2. Neo-classical Theory - children and lunatic cannot calculate pain
and pleasure
3. Classical Theory - Men are rational being who has freewill to
choose good or evil.
Duration of Penalty
Death
Life Imprisonment
Reclusion perpetua
Reclusion Temporal
Prision Mayor
Prision Correccional
Arrestor Mayor
Arrestor Menor
Destierro - banishment or only a prohibition from residing within
the radius of 25 kilometers from the actual residence of the accused
for a specified length of time.
The heritage left by the Classical School is still operative today
in the ff. Five Principles to wit:
1. Rationality - human beings have free will and actions the
undertake are result of choice
2. Hedonism - Pleasure and pain, or reward and punishment are
major determinants of choice
3. Punishment - a deterrent to unlawful behavior, and deterrence is
the best justification for punishment
4. Human rights - society owes to its citizen for their rights in the
face of gov’t action
5. Due Process - an accused shall be presumed innocent until
proved otherwise, and an accused should not be subject to
punishment before guilt is lawfully established.
Prison Uniforms
Orange - maximum security Blue - medium “”
Brown = minimum “” Yellow - detainee
THEORIES
 Positivist Theory - Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri,
Raffaele
Garofalo
- Criminals are like sick people who requires
rehabilitation rather than imposition of punsihment
 Anomie Theory - David Emil Durkheim
- Crime is an important ingredient to all healthy
society. Crime is normal and functional.
 Psychoanalytical Theory - Sigmund Freud
- Crime is symbolic expression of one’s
inner tension w/c a person has but fails to
control,
-Your inner tension is your inner criminal
 Somatotyping Theory - William Sheldon
- Heredity is the primary determinant of
one’s behavior and body physique is a
reliable indicator of one’s personality.
- Endomorph - soft, roundness, relaxed
- Mesomorph - athletic type, heavy, hard
- Ectomorph - thin, flat, poorly muscled
 Differential Association Theory - Edwin Sutherland
- Criminal behaior is learn through social
interaction in communication
 Strain Theory - Robert King Merton
- It maintains that failure of man to achieved a
higher status of life caused them to commit crime in
order for that status or goal to attained.
- Conformity(++). Innovation(+-), Ritualism(-+),
Retreatism(--), Rebellion(+-/+-)
 Catographic School of Criminology - Adolphe Quetelet
- Crime against person increase during summer
and crime against property increase during winter
 General inferiority Theory - Earnest Hooton
- Criminals are originally inferior and
that crime is the result of impact of the
environment
 Evolution Theory - Charles Darwin
- Humans like animals are paeasites. Man is an
organism having an animalistic behavior that is
dependent on other animals for survival. Thus,
man steals and kill to live.
 Differential Opportunity Theory - Lloyd Ohlin
- It explains that society leads the lower clss to and
things and society does things to people.
 Labeling Theory - Frank Tannenbaum, EdwinLeunert,
Howard Becker
- Behavior becomes criminal if it is labeled as
much. Once a convict, always a convict.
 Human Ecology - Robert Ezra Park
- It maintains that crime is a function of social
change that occurs along environment.
- It maintains that isolation, segregation,
competition, conflict, social contract, interaction
and social hierarchy of people are major influences
of criminal behavior and crimes.
 Containment Theory - Walter Reckless
- This theory is a form of control which
suggests that a series of both internal and
external factors contribute to criminal
behavior.
 Social Class Conflict and Capitalism Theory - Karl Marx,
Frederick
Engel and William Bonger
- It claims that ruling class in a capitalist
society is responsible for the creation of
criminal law and their ideological bases in the
interpretation and enforcement of their laws.
 Subculture Theory - Albert Cohen
- He claims that the lower class cannot
socialize effectively as the middle class in what
is considered appropriate middle class behavior.
Thus, lower class gathers together to share their
common values forming a subculture that rejects
middle class values.
 Neutralization Theory - Gresham Sykes
- It maintains that an individual will obey
or disobey societal rules depending upon
his or her ability to rationalize whether he
is protected from hurt or destruction.
Positivist School - criminal behavior is caused by
Internal(nature) and external factor(nurture).
- three segments: Biological,
psychological, social positivism
Definition of Terms
1. Positivism -application of scientific techniques on the study of
crime and criminals
2. Hard Determinism - belief that crime results from forces that are
beyond control of individual
3. Nothing-work Doctrine - popularized by Robert Martinson that
correctional treatment programs have little sucess in rehabilitating
offenders.
4. Three-strikes Legislation - mandate life imprisonment for
criminals convicted of 3 violent felonies
5. Soft Determinism - belief that human behavior is the result of
choices and decisions made within context of situational constraints
and opportunities
Positivist Theorist: Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, Raffaele
Garofalo
Cesare Lombroso - Italian criminologist and founder of Italian
school of positivist criminology. Italian prison doctor. Founder of
criminal anthropology
- Father of fathers, Criminology, Modern
Criminology, Scientific Criminology
- crime was a characteristic of human nature.
Criminality was inherited and born criminal could be identified by
physical defects.
Three types of Criminals according to Lombroso:
1. Atavistic - born criminals
2. Insane Criminal - alcoholism, kleptomaniac, child molester,
nymphomaniac
3. Criminaloid - Habitual Criminals - contact w/ other criminals
- Juridical Criminals - fall afoul of the law by accident
-Criminals by passion - hot-headed and impulsive
person who commit violent acts when provoked
Some of stigmata Related to Atavistic Criminal are:
1. Deviation in head size and shape
2. Asymmetry of the face
3. Eye defects and peculiarities
4. Excessive dimensions of the jaw and cheekbones
5. Ears of unusual size
6. Nose twisted, upturnedm or flattened
7. Lip fleshy, swollen, and protruding
8. Pouches in the cheek
9. Peculiarities in the plate
10. Abnormal Dentition
Enrico Ferri - student of Lombroso.
- Social as well as biological factors played a role
and held the view that criminals should not be held
responsible for the factors causing their criminality
were beyond their control.
Raffaele Garofalo - italian jurist and student of Lombroso.
- Rejected doctrine of free will and supported
the position that crime can be understood only if
it studied by scientific methods.
- Crime that would designate those acts which
can be repressed by punishment.
- constituted Natural Crime and considered
offenses violating the two basic altruistic
sentiments common to all people namely
probity(integrity, honesty) and pity(compassion,
sympathy)
POLSCI
✓ Power of the Gov’t
Eminent Domain, Power of taxation, Police Power
✓ 3 Branches of Gov’t
Executive- implementing of law, President
Legislative- making of law, Senator and Congressman
Judiciary- interpret law, Chief Justice
Politics and Political Science is interchangeable
✓ Politics- actual participation of a population in the activities of
affairs of state
-shaping or sharing of power
✓ Science- unique, SCIRE means to know
✓ Science of Politics- basic knowledge and unerstanding of state
and principles of ideas, concerned w/ association of human beings
into body politic
✓ Political Theory- political vies and thoughts relating to state
✓ Public Law- study of gov’t power, duties, its organization and
limits of authority
✓Political Science- study of politics
- deals with aspects of individual in society relate to
activities and org. Devoted seeking of power
- study of sharing/ shaping of power
- systematic study of state and gov’t
J.W. Garner- politics begins and end with the state
-State is a community of persons, more/less
Polis- state, city or sovereign state
✓ Four Essential elements of State
1. People- no state w/out population. No limit. Less than 1000
2. Territory- geographical surface of earth w/c state is located
3. Sovereignty- distinctive mark of statehood. Supreme power.
4. Government- absence will cause chaos. The agent of state
through w/c the will of state is translated into action
✓ Theories of PolSci
 Natural Theory- every city exists by nature and man is by nature
a political animal. Men interact w/ their common needs
 Divine Theory- God/ god established the state and appointed
someone to rule over it.
 Force Theory- state is created by conquest, force or coercion
 Social Contract Theory- state formed by deliberate and
voluntary agreement among people.
Stages in study of Political Science
Law of Adoption -adoption and elimination of those who can’t
adopt in the kind of natural selection.
Classical versus Positivist
1. Focus
Classical - focus is the crime or criminal act not the man
Positivist - focus is the man not the crime committed
2. View of Human Nature
Classical - Hedonistic, free willed, rationality, morally responsible
for own behavior
Positivist - Malleable, determined by biological, psychological, and
social environment
3. View of Justice System
Classical - Social Contract, exist to protect society
Positivist - scientific treatment system to cure pathologies and
rehabilitate offender
4. Form of Law -
Classical - Statutory law
Positivist - Social Law
5. Purpose of Sentencing
Classical - Punishment for deterrence
Positivist - form of treatment
6. Purpose of school
Classical - reform and humanize the legal and penal system
Positivist - apply scientific method to the study of crime and
criminality
7. Criminological Experts Age of Enlightenment
Classical - Philosophers, social reformers
Positivist - Scientist, treatment experts
 Religious Stage- the gov’t, leaders and laws was considered as
divinely inspires
 Metaphysical Stage- state was concerned as human institution
 Modern Stage- state was capable of being improved by rulers
and subj. According to certain principle of laws
Niccolo Machiavelli- father of political science
Prof. Francis Lieber- father of modern political science
State- group of persons permanently occupying a definite
proportion of territory possessing a gov’t to w/c great of inhabitants
render habitual obedience
- legal or juristic concept
- community of persons, more or less numerous, permanently
occupying a definite portion of territory, independent of external
control, and possessing a government to which a great body of the
inhabitants render habitual obedience
Nation- ethnic or racial concept
Nasci- to be born indicates a relation of birth origin and implies
common race
Citizenship- legal can be changed
Nationality- ethnic or racial-absolute, innate
Duties of State
 Peace and order
 Political Harmony
 Social Justice
 Economic Development
✓ Models and characteristics of various forms of Gov’t
Monarchy, Aristocracy, Political Regime, Democracy vs
Authoritarianism
✓ Monarchy- state w/c supreme power is actually lodged in a
monarch. Held by a single person. Hereditary.
- political system based upon the undivided sovereignty /
rule of single person.
- supreme authority is vested on a a monarch, an
individual ruler who functions as the head of state and achieved
his/her position through hereditary. Must allow only male
succession
- coined term 20th century by Norbert Elias, German
sociologists
Absolute Monarch
Limited Monarch
King- feminine queen, a supreme power, sovereign over a nation or
territory, of higher rank than any other secular ruler except an
emperor to whom king may be subject
- often stood as mediator between his people and their god, or
as in ancient Sumer, the god’s representative
Kingship- a worldwide phenomenon can be elective, usually
hereditary and takes the form of a monarchy. Maybe absolute or
constitutional
Functions of Monarchy
 Consists of distinct but interdependent institutions- a
gov’t and a state administration
 And a court and a variety of ceremonies on the other
provide for social life of the members of dynasty , friend and
elite
 Entails not only political administrative organization but
also a court society
Pre Modern Monarchy- european monarchies underwent a process
of evolution and transformation
Theocratic Kingship- leading kings assume their status as
God’s representatives on earth
Renaissance- newly adapt type of monarch in Europe,
initiating voyages of discoveries to other continents, developing
new form of mercantile trade, building armies and large gov’t
bureaucaries that represented forms of political administrative.
✓ Aristocracy- high class in certain agencies
- power is helb by nobility
- high-level technocrats make up large part of technical
aristocracy
- conceived by Plato. Means the rule of the few best
✓ Political Regime- institution w/ clear, substantive and
geographical limits bounded by explicit rules, agreed on gov.t
✓ Democracy- rule by people. Derived from Greek demokratia
coined from demos(people) and kratos(rule) in middle 5 th century to
denote political systems
✓ Authoritarianism- principle of blind submission to authority
- denotes any political system that concentrates power in the
hands of leader/small elite that is not constitutionally responsible
Constitution- body of rules and maxims in accordance w/ w/c the
powers of sovereignty are habitually exercised
- social contract(Marcos V. Manglapus)
Purpose of Constitution
- to prescribe the permanent framework of a system of gov’t to
assign to the several dept. Their respective powers and duties and
establish certain 1st principles on w/c gov’t is founded
Constitution as Municipal Law- binding only w/in the territorial
limits of sovereignty pomulgating the constitution
1987 Constitution- 4th fundamental law to govern the Philippines
since it became independent on July 4, 1946
Background of 1987 Constitution
1. Proclamation of Freedom Constitution
Proclamation February 25, 1986, announcing Corazon and
VP Laurel were assuming power
Executive Order No.1(Feb 28, 1986)
2. Adoption of the Constitution
3. Effectivity (February 2, 1987)
Judicial Review- power of /the courts to test the validity of
governmental acts in light of their conformity with higher form
Preamble- source of obligation. Means ‘to walk before’
We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of
Almighty God, in order to build a just and humane society, and
establish a Government that shall embody our ideals and aspirations,
promote the common good, conserve and develop our patrimony,
and secure to ourselves and our posterity, the blessings of
independence and democracy under the rule of law and a regime of
truth, justice, freedom, love, equality, and peace, do ordain and
promulgate this Constitution.
Preambulus- ‘walking in front’
State- element of people, gov’t, sovereignty, territory
- more/less numerous
PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES ART. II – DECLARATION OF
PRINCIPLES AND STATE POLICIES Principles [sec.1-6]:
Binding rules which must be observed in the conduct of government
[BERNAS]
Forms of Government
“Government of the Philippines” is defined as: the corporate
governmental entity through which the functions of government are
exercised throughout the Philippines, including the various arms
through which political authority is made effective in the
Philippines, whether pertaining to:
(a) the autonomous regions, (b) the provincial, city, municipal, or
barangay subdivisions, or (c) other forms of local government.
[Sec. 2(1), Administrative Code]
✓ Article 1- project idea that the Phil. is an
archipelago
Archipelago - Pelagos means ‘sea’
- sea part or part of sea studded w/ islands, often
synonymous w/ all group of island
How to determine our territorial boundaries
1. The 12 Mile Rule
2. The Archipelago Principle- archipelago shall be regarded as
single unit
Enclosing main archipelago only: Scarborough Shoal and KIG as
Regime of Islands
Three Domains of Territory of State
1. Territory- land mass w/c integrate/ dismembered/ partly bound
by water consist of one island can be composed of several islands
like Philippines
2. Aerial Domain- air space above the land and water of State
res communes- rules governing high seas apply to outer
space
States have the right to launch satellites over territorial space
of other space under customary international law
Outer Space Treaty- forms the basis of international space
low
Vertical limit of territory of State
Karman Line- lies at an altitude of 100 km above the
earth’s sea level and commonly used to define the boundary
between earth’s atmosphere and outer space
3. Fluvial Domain-
a) Internal Waters- all bodies of water located inside the
base line of territory
b) Territorial Sea- out to 12 nautical miles from baseline,
costal state is free to set laws
c) Exclusive Economic Zone(EEZ)- extend to 200 nautical
miles from baseline. Introduce to halt the increasingly heated
clushes
d) Sea Bed- land that holds the sea. Lying beyond the sea
shore including mineral and natural sources.
e) Subsoil- everything beneath the surface soil and sea bed
f) Insular shelves
g) Other submarine areas
The Claim Over Sabbah
Historical Basis- sultanate of sulu granted territory as a prize for
helping sultan of Brunei against his enemies
Legal Claim Basis- lease agreement
Tomas Cloma- found several uninhabited and unoccupied group of
island
May 11, 1956- w/ 40 men, Tomas and Filemon took formal
possession of island.
res nullius- spratly group of island does not belong to any state
Innocent Passage- vessels has the right through any territorial
waters. Convention as passing through waters in an expeditious and
continuous manner.
✓ Article 2 Declaration of Principles and Policies of
the State
Republican Government is a democratic government by
representatives chosen by the people at large. Essence of a
republican state is indirect rule.
Sovereignty- implies the supreme authority inherent in the State by
which it is governed.
Exercised indirectly through public officials. - The people,
however, do not govern themselves directly. Sovereignty (i.e.,
making laws, enforcing the same and deciding cases involving life,
liberty, and property. (Art. XI, Sec. 1.) Their acts, if within the
scope of their delegated powers, are, in effect, the acts of the people.
Exercise directly though suffrage. - actual sovereignty is exercised
by the people through the electoral process. The popular will is best
expressed when electoral processes are free, clean and honest, on
the basis of universal suffrage (i.e., not granted by status or
property) and through secret vote.
International law - refers to the body of rules and principles which
governs the relations of nations and their respective peoples in their
intercourse with one another.
The doctrine of incorporation
1. When international usage to be applied- given effect by our courts
in the absence of any treaty, executive order, legislative act, or
judicial decision.
2. A treaty has force of a statute- The Constitution gives a treaty the
same weight and value as a statute of Congress
3. Constitution prevails over a treaty- the 1935 Constitution was
changed to “law of the land” in the 1973 Constitution in order to
avoid any conjecture that the generally accepted principles of
international law are incorporated into the Philippine law with the
force of constitutional provisions.
The Philippines is a democratic and republican state [Sec. 1]
Renunciation of war [Sec. 2] Only refers to wars of aggression, not
defensive war Adoption of generally-accepted principles of
international law [Sec. 2] Adherence to a policy of peace, freedom,
and amity with all nations [Sec. 2]
Civilian supremacy [Sec. 3] Civilian authority (Section 3, Article
II) is not defeated in a joint task force between the PNP and Marines
for the enforcement of law and order in Metro Manila as long as
control is left to the PNP. [IBP v. Zamora (2000)]
(6) Role of the armed forces [Sec. 3]
(a) Protector of the people and the State
(b) Secure the sovereignty of the State and the integrity of the
national territory
Compulsory military and civil service [Sec. 4] Under conditions
provided by law
Maintenance of peace and order, promotion of general welfare
[Sec. 5]
Recognition of a hierarchy of rights [BERNAS]
(a) Life (b) Liberty (c) Property
Separation of Church and State [Sec. 6]
Policies [sec. 7-28]: Guidelines for the orientation of the state
[BERNAS]
Independent foreign policy [Sec. 7]
Freedom from nuclear weapons [Sec. 8]
Promote a just and dynamic social order [Sec.9]
Promote social justice in all phases of national development
[Sec. 10]
Personal dignity and human rights [Sec. 11]
Family as basic social institution [Sec. 12]
Vital role of youth in nation-building [Sec. 13]
Role of women in nation-building [Sec. 14]
Fundamental equality before the law of women and men [Sec.
14]
Right to health [Sec.15]
Right to a balanced and healthful ecology [Sec.16, Oposa v.
Factoran]
Priority to education, science and technology, arts, culture, and
sports [Sec. 17]
Labor as a primary social economic force[Sec.18]
Self-reliant and independent national economy [Sec.19]
Role of private sector[Sec.20]
Comprehensive rural development and agrarian reform [Sec. 21]
Recognition and promotion of rights of indigenous cultural
communities [Sec. 22]
Community-based, sectoral organizations [Sec.23]
Role of communication and information in nation- building
[Sec.24]
Autonomy of local governments [Sec. 25]
Equal access for public service and prohibition of political
dynasties [Sec. 26]
Honesty and integrity in public service [Sec. 27]
Policy of full public disclosure [Sec. 28]
✓ Article III Bill of Rights
Bill of rights may defined as a declaration and enumeration of a
person’s rights and privileges which the Constitution is designed to
protect against violations by the government, or by an individual or
groups of individuals.
Classes of rights
1. Natural rights- rights possessed by every citizen without being
granted by the State for they are given to man by God as a human
being created to His image so that he may live a happy life.
Example: right to life, liability, property, and love
2. Constitutional rights- rights which are conferred a n d p r o t e c
t e d b y t h e Constitution. Since part of fundamental law, cannot be
modified or taken away by the law-making body.
3. Statutory rights- provided by laws promulgated by the lawm a k
i n g b o d y a n d , consequently, may be abolished by the same
body.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights- as the foundation of all
international human rights laws
Classification of constitutional rights
Political rights
Civil rights
Social economic rights
Right of the accused
Regulation of evidence collection
Protection from unjustified restraint
Inalienable rights
Right to privacy
Sec. 1- Guarantee of Due Process, General guarantee of equality
Due Process- Under the Constitution, person may be deprived by
the State of his life, liberty, or property provided due process of law
is observed. Deprivation of life, liberty, or property by the State is
with due process if it done.
Due process of law has, therefore, a two-fold aspect, namely:
1.Procedural due process- “which hears before it condemns, which
proceeds upon inquiry, and renders judgment only after trials.” An
indispensable requisite of this aspect of due process is the
requirement of notice and hearing.
2. Substantive due process- requires that the law itself, not merely
the procedures by which the law would be enforced, is fair,
reasonable, and just. In other words, no person shall be deprived of
his life, liberty, or property for arbitrary reasons or on flimsy
grounds.
Persons protected- “person” in the above constitutional provision
embraces all persons within the territorial jurisdiction of the
Philippines, without regard to any difference of race, color or
nationality, including aliens.
Life- as protected by due process of law, means something more
than mere animal existence. The prohibition against its deprivation
without due process extends to all the limbs and faculties by which
life is enjoyed.
Liberty- a protected by due process of law, denotes not merely
freedom from p h y s i c a l r e s t r a i n t ( e . g . , imprisonment). It
also embraces the right of man to use his faculties with which he has
been endowed by his Creator subject only to the limitation that he
does not violate the law or the rights of other.
Property- as protected by due process of law, may refer to the thing
itself or to the right over a thing. It includes the right to own, use,
transmit and even to destroy, subject to the right of the State and of
other persons.
What constitute deprivation
1. Deprivation of life
2. Deprivation of liberty
3. Deprivation of property
Sec. 2- Regulation of evidence collection, Protection from
unjustified restraint, Right to privacy
Search warrant is an order in writing, issued in the name of the
People of the Philippines, signed by a judge and directed to a peace
officer, commanding him to search for certain personal property and
bring it before the court.
Warrant of arrest- written order to arrest a person designated, i.e.,
to take him into custody in order that he may bound to answer for
the commission of an offense.
Scope of the protection
1. Persons 2. Houses 3. Paper and effect
Sec. 3- Inalienable rights, Right to privacy
Sec. 4- Freedom of assembly, of expression, of press, Right of
petition
Sec. 5- Equality and Freedom of religion, and Official religion
Sec. 6- Freedom of movement
Sec. 7- Freedom of information
Sec. 8- Freedom of association, Rights to join trade unions
Sec. 9- Protection from expropriation
Sec. 10- No law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be
passed.
Sec. 11- Right to counsel
Sec. 12- Regulation of evidence collection, Protection from self-
incrimination, Right to counsel, Prohibition of torture, Protection
of victim’s rights
Sec. 13- Regulation of evidence collection, Protection from
unjustified restraint, Right to pretrial release
Sec. 14- Regulation of evidence collection, Guarantee of due
process, Right to examine evidence/witness, Right to fair trial,
Presumption of innocence in trials, Right to public trial, Right to
speedy trial
Sec. 15- Protection from unjustified restraint
Sec. 16- Right to speedy trial
Sec. 17- Protection from selfincrimination
Sec. 18- Prohibition of slavery
Sec. 19- Prohibition of cruel treatment Prohibition of capital
punishment
Sec. 20- Rights of debtors
Sec. 21- Prohibition of double jeopardy
Sec. 22- Protection from ex post facto laws
✓ Article IV Citizenship
Citizen is one who is a member of a State who was accorded with
full civil and political rights, subject to disqualifications provided by
law, and who is duly protected inside and outside of the State where
he is a citizen.
Citizenship is a term signifying membership of a citizen in a
political community.
To be a Filipino citizen
The following are citizens of the Philippines:
1) Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the
adoption of this Constitution;
2) Those who fathers and mothers are citizens of the
Philippines
3) Those born before January 17, 1973, of Filipino mothers,
who elect Philippine citizenship upon reaching the age of
majority; and
4) Those who are naturalized in accordance with law.
There are two kinds of Filipino citizens:
1) natural – born Filipino citizen - one who was born with one of his
parents, or both, is a Filipino citizen.
– One who does not have to perform any act to acquire
his Philippine citizenship.
2) naturalized Filipino citizen– one who underwent the
naturalization process under the law of the Philippines.
Naturalization - act of formally adopting a foreigner into the
political community of a State and giving him the rights
and privileges of citizenship.
The following are the ways of acquiring Filipino citizenship by
naturalization:
1) By judgment of the court - filed in the proper Regional Trial
Court.
2) By direct act of Congress - the Congress enacts an act conferring
citizenship on a foreigner.
3) By administrative proceedings
Dual citizenship refers to the possession of two citizenships by an
individual, that of his original citizenship and that of
the country where he became a naturalized citizen.
Dual allegiance, on the other hand, refers to the continued
allegiance of a naturalized citizen to their mother
country even after acquiring Filipino citizenship.
Election - means by which the people choose their government
officials for definite and fixed periods and to whom they
entrust, for the time being, as their representatives in the
exercise of the powers of the government.
Kinds of election in the Philippines:
1) National(6 yrs), 2) Local(3 yrs), and 3) Special
Local election, usually done every three (3) years. Elective positions
are for
1) Governors,
2) Vice Governors,
3) Congressman
4) Provincial Board Members,
5) City/Municipal Mayors,
6) City/Municipal Vice Mayors, and
7) City/Municipal Councilors.
National election - election of the President and the Vice President.
done every six (6) years.
Special election - done to elect Barangay and Sangguniang
Kabataan Officials.
-replacement of an elected official who died or was
permanently disabled before his or her term expires.
Elections should be done every 2nd Monday of May
Commission on Election (COMELEC) is the instrumentality of the
government which is charged of administering elections in the
Philippines.
Omnibus Election Code of the Philippines or Batas Pambansa
Bilang 881 - primary law that governs and regulates the right to vote
and the right to be voted.
Qualifications of Voters
1) A citizen (male or female) of the Philippines;
2) Not otherwise disqualified by law;
3) At least 18 years of age; and
4) Have resided in the Philippines for at least one (1) year and in the
place wherein he proposes to vote for at least six (6) months
preceding the election
Registered voter is one enlisted himself or herself as a voter and
was accepted by the Commission on Elections (COMELEC) as a
voter.
Qualifications of the President(1 term) and the Vice –
President(2 terms) (6 years)
1) He or she is a natural – born citizen of the Philippines;
2) A registered voter;
3) Able to read and write;
4) At least forty (40) years old on the day of the election for
President;
5) A resident of the Philippines for at least ten (10) years
immediately preceding such election.
Qualifications of a Senator (24 Senators, maximum period of 6
years, 2 terms)
1) He or she is a natural – born citizen of the Philippines;
2) A registered voter;
3) Able to read and write;
4) At least 35 years old on the day of the election;
5) A resident of the Philippines for at least 2 years immediately
preceding the day of the election.
Qualifications of a District Representative (3 years, 3
consecutive terms)
1) He or she is a natural – born citizen of the Philippines;
2) A registered voter;
3) Able to read and write;
4) At least 25 years old on the day of the election;
5) A registered voter in the district in which he shall be elected; and
6) A resident of the Philippines for at 1 year preceding the day of the
election.
Qualifications of a Sectoral/Party List Representative (3 years, 3
consecutive terms)
1) He or she is a natural – born citizen of the Philippines;
2) A registered voter;
3) Able to read and write; •CONGRESS SHALL BY LAW PROVIDE FOR THE
4) At least t 25 years old on the day of the election; at least 18 but MANNER IN WHICH ONE WHO IS TO ACT AS PRESIDENT
not more than 25 years old for youth sectoral representative and SHALL BE SELECTED UNTIL A PRESIDENT OR A VP SHALL
5) A bona fide member of the sector or party list he or she wishes to HAVE QUALIFIED.
represent; and THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT
6) A resident of the Philippines for at 1 year preceding the day of the
election. VACANCY DURING THE TERM
Party – List or Sectoral Representatives •Death, permanent disability, removal from office, or resignation of
- those who represent the (marginalized) group in the society the President
like the farmers, laborers, public school teachers and others that •VP SHALL become President
are duly accredited by the COMELEC. •Death, permanent disability, removal from office, or resignation of
President AND Vice president:
✓Article VI Legislative Department •Senate President – acting capacity
Legislative Branch - Latin lex, legis means law •IN CASE OF INABILITY
- making deliberation over, enactment, •Speaker of the House – acting capacity
amendment, and repealing of law Until a President or VP shall be elected and qualified.
•Congress, by law, shall provide for the manner which one is to act
Structures of Legislative Branch as President in the event of inability of the officials mentioned
1. Unicameral- one chamber/ houses above.THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT
2. Bicameral - two chamber/ houses
TEMPORARY DISABILITY
Philippine Congress is the country’s legislative department. •When the President TRANSMITS to the SP and the SH
Congress is Bicameral - Upper House: Senate •Written Declaration that he is unable to discharge the powers
- Lower House: House of Representatives and duties of his office, and until he transmits to them a written
declaration to the contrary: such powers and duties shall be
 Parliamentary Privilege - Privilege from arrest, privilege of discharged by the VP as ACTING President.
speech and debate •Majority of ALL the Members of the CABINET TRANSMIT to the
 Senate President and House Speaker elected by majority vote SP
and SH:
•Written Declaration that the P is unable to discharge the
Power of Congress powers and duties of his office
 Appointment of Public Officials •VP IMMEDIATELY assumes the powers and duties of the
 Declare state of war Office as ACTING PRESIDENT
 Authorize limited emergency power of the President •President transmits Written Declaration that NO inability exists,
 Approve the gov’t budget •Reassume the powers of the office of the President
 Allow for referenda
 Undertake projects under the CDF POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT
1.) Executive Power
Legislative Limitations - pass ex post facto law 2.) Power of Appointment
- Grant titles of nobility 3.) Power of Removal
- Pass tax exemption 4.) Power of Control
- Increase appropriations recommended by 5.) Military Powers
executive branch 6.) Pardoning Power
7.) Borrowing Power
✓ARTICLE 7. EXECUTIVE BRANCH 8.) Diplomatic Power
Executive Branch 9.) Budgetary Power
Charged with the execution and administration of a country’s laws 10.)Informing Power
In general, the executive branch sets the direction of national policy 11.)Residual Power
EXECUTIVE POWER 12.)Other Powers
It is the power to enforce and administer the
laws (Cooley, Constitutional Limitation, 8th ed., p. 183) 1. Executive Power
The executive power is vested in the President • President shall have the control of all executive departments,
of the Philippines (Art. VII, Sec. 1) bureaus, and offices. He shall ensure that laws are faithfull executed
Salaries
 President 2. Power of Appointment
Shall receive an annual salary of three • Selection by the authority vested with the power, of an individual
hundred thousand pesos (Php 300,000). who is to exercise the functions of a given office.
 Vice – President • Kinds of Presidential Appointment(Sec.15)
Two hundred forty thousand pesos. • Appointment made by an Acting President
Presidential Succession(Sec 7-8) • Midnight Appointment
2 sets of rule: • Regular Presidential Appointment
a.) Occuring before the term • Ad-Interim Appointment
b.) Occuring mid-term • APPOINTMENT – the act of designation by the executive officer,
board, or body to whom the power has been delegated, of the
THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT RULES ON SUCCESSION individual who is to exercise the functions of a given office.
Vacancy at the beginning of the term: Appointments extended by an Acting President shall remain
•Death or permanent disability of the President-elect effective, unless revoked by the elected President within ninety days
•VP-elect shall become President from his assumption or reassumption of office.
•President-elect fails to qualify Acting President:
•VP-elect shall ACT as president until the President-elect shall • Exercises the powers & functions of the Office of the President
have qualified. • NOT the incumbent President
•President shall not have been chosen: • has not become a President to serve the unexpired portion of the
•VP-Elect shall ACT as president until a President shall have term
been chosen & qualified.
•No President and VP chosen or qualified, or both have died or According to the Commission of Appointments website, the
become permanently disabled: following need confirmation in order to assume their posts:
•SENATE PRESIDENT in an acting capacity 1. Executive Secretary
•In case of inability 2. Secretary of Agrarian Reform
•SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE in an acting capacity 3. Secretary of Agriculture
•Until a president or a VP shall have been chosen and 4. Secretary of Budget and Management
qualified. 5. Secretary of Education
•IN THE EVENT OF INABILITY OF BOTH, who shall ACT as 6. Secretary of Energy
President? 7. Secretary of Environment and Natural
Resources – Violate Open Court Doctrine(civilians cannot be tried
8. Secretary of Finance by military courts if the civil courts are open and
9. Secretary of Foreign Affairs functioning)
10. Secretary of Health – Automatically suspend the writ of Habeas Corpus
11. Secretary of Justice
12. Secretary of Labor and Employment Military power of the President
13. Secretary of National Defense 1. Powers to meet emergency situations
14. Secretary of Public Works and A. to call out the armed forces to prevent or suppress lawless
Highways violence
15. Secretary of Science and Technology B. to suspend the privilege of the writ of Habeas Corpus
16. Secretary of Social Welfare and C. to declare martial law
Development 2. Commander- in- Chief of the Armed Forces
17. Secretary of the Interior and Local
Government 6. Pardoning Power
18. Secretary of Trade and Industry The pardoning power extends to all offenses, including criminal
19. Secretary of Transportation and contempt (disrespect to or
Communications disobedience to a court which amounts to a crime). It does not give
20. Secretary of Tourism the President the power to exempt, except from punishment, anyone
21. Commission on Higher Education from the law.
21. Director General of the National
Economic and Development Authority Pardon- Act of grace which exempts individual from punishment
which the law inflicts.5. Pardoning Power(Sec.19)
As to effect:
Kinds of presidential appointments (required to be submitted to a. )Plenary or b.)Partial
the Commission on Appointments)
1. Regular appointments - As to presence of condition:
• Nomination by the President a.)Conditional Pardon or b.)Absolute Pardon
• Consent by the Commission on Appointments
• Appointment by the President Amnesty – A general pardon to rebels for their treason or political
offence; it so overlooks and obliterates the offnse with which he is
2. Ad interim appointments charged. Person released by amnest stands before the law precisely
• Voluntary- before the adjournment as though he had committed no offense.
• Compulsory- when Congress adjourns
Parole – release from imprisonment, but without full restoration of
liberty(in custody of law although not in confinement
3. Power of Removal • Remission of fines and forfeiture – Prevents the
• General Rule: This power is implied from the power to collection of fines and confiscation of forfeited
appoint(Cruz) property; cannot affect rights of third party and
• Exception – Those appointed by him where the Constitution money already in the treasury.
prescribes certain methods for separation from public service.
Kinds of pardon
4. Power of Control • Absolute
• Control – The power of an officer to alter, modify, nuillify, or set • Conditional
aside what a subordinate officer had done in the performance of his
duties and to substitute the judgement of the former for that of the 7. Borrowing Power(Sec. 20)
latter. • The President may contract or guarantee foreign loans on behalf of
• Supervision – Overseeing or the power or authority of an officer the Republic with the concurrence of the Monetary Board, subject to
to see that subordinate officers perform their duties. If the latter fail such limitations as may be provided by law.
or neglect to fulfill them, then the former may take such action or • The Monetary board shall submit to the Congress report on loans
steps as prescribed by law to make them perform these duties. within 30 days from the end of every quarter.Authority to contract
and guarantee foreign loans
5. Military Powers 1. Exclusive executive function
1.) Commander-in-Chief clause 2. Concurrence of Monetary Board required
• To call out the Armed Forces to prevent or suppress lawless 3. Checks by Congress7. Diplomatic Power(sec.21)
violence, invasion or rebellion(whenever it becomes neccessary); • No treaty or international agreement shall be valid and effective
• Vested directly by the Constitution unless concurred in by atleast 2/3 of all the Members of the Senate
• Authority to declare a state of rebellion • The power to ratify is vested in the President, subject to the
• Military Tribunals are simply instrumentalities of the executive concurrence of the Senate. Other foreign affairs powers:
power provided by the legislature for the Commander-in-Chief to a.) power to make treaties
aid him in enforcing discipline in the armed forces.4. Military b.) the power to appoint ambassadors, public ministers, and consuls
Powers c.) power to receive ambassadors and other public ministers
d.) Deportation Power• Treaty- compact made two or more states,
2.) Suspension of writ of Habeas Corpus including international organizations of states, intended to create
– A writ directed to the person detaining another, commanding him binding rights and obligations upon the parties thereto.
to produce the body of the prisoner at a designated time and place
xxx the object of which is the liberation of those who may be in 8. Budgetary Power
prison without sufficient cause. • Within 30 days from the opening of every regular session,
– Ground for suspension: invasion, rebellion, when public President shall submit to Congress a budget or expenditures and
safety requires it sources of financing, including receipts from existing and proposed
Effects of suspension of Writ: revenue measure.
• does not affect the right to bail • Congress may not increase the appropriation recommended by the
• Applies only to persons facing charges of rebellion President for the operation of the Government as specified in the
• The arrested must be charged within 3 days; if not they must be budget.
released
• Does not supersede civilian authority.4. Military Powers 9. Informing Power
3.) Martial LAW • The President shall address Congress at the opening of its regular
– Grounds for declaration: Invasion and Rebellion session. He may also appear before it at any other time.
• The following cannot be done: • The information may be needed for the basis of legislation(Cruz)
– Suspend the operation of the Constitution • The President usally discharges the informing power through what
– Supplant the function of the civil courts and is known as the State of the Nation Address
legislative assemblies
PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION - Explain, Inform, Persuade, Entertain
4 Purpose
Forms of Communication Global everyday written and oral
 Intrapersonal Global specialized written and oral
 Interpersonal
 Mass Communication Process of Communication
 Small group of Communication Sender - encoding - Message/channel - decoding - receiver -
feedback
Ethics in Communication
Ethics- Ethos means ’characteristic way of acting’
- deals w/ value relating to human, rightness of an act Speaker- person begins the communication interaction by having a
- science of the morality of human acts thought or intended message to send a listener
- branch of Philosophy that focuses on the issues of right and
wrong in human affairs Encoding- process of creating the message to be transmitted from a
sender to listener
Communication- impairing/ exchanging of information
- act of transferring information from one place, Message- what is actually communicated or transmitted to the
person or group to another listener
- involves one sender, message and recipient
- derived from Latin word Communis meaning common Channel- the means by which the message is communicated
- process by w/c information is exchange between
individuals through a common system of symbols and signs of Listener- person or people who receive the speaker’s message
behavior
- interchange of thoughts, opinions or info by speech, Decoding- how the listener interpret and processes the message
writings, or signs transmitted by sender
- process of initiating, transmitting and receiving info
Feedback- message of response sent from the listener back to the
3 Basic Principles of Ethical Communication speaker. Can be verbal or nonverbal, positive or negative
 Avoid intentional deception
 Avoid communication that harm others Situation- context in w/c the communication process occurs
 Avoid treating members unfairly
Interference- anything that could impede the process of
Ethics Trap communication. Barrier
- Necessity, end justifies that means, self-deception, relatives External- noises and sounds
Internal- feelings, emotions, thoughts of speaker and/ or
Ethical Communicator listener
 Respect audience
 Consider the result of communication 7C’s of Effective Communication
 Value Truth  Completeness- quality of communication process.
 Use information correctly Include everything that receiver needs to hear for him to
 Don not falsify information respond.
 Conciseness- keeping message short but direct or straight
Moral Principles to the point.
- Utilitarian, Deontology, Virtue  Consideration- consider relevant info such as mood,
background, race, etc.
Basic categories of Communication  Concreteness- supported by facts, figures and real-life
Verbal Communication- use of sound and words to express examples and situation.
yourself or to communicate specially in contrast of gestures/  Courtesy- respecting other culture, values and beliefs of
mannerism his or her receiver.
 Clearness- implies use of simple and specific words to
Non-Verbal Communication- includes pitch, speed, tone, and express ideas.
volume of gestures and facial expression, body posture  Correctness- increases the credibility and effectiveness
of the message.
Barriers
1. Cultural Relativism- ethnocentrism Media Literacy- concerned w/ helping students develop an
2. Lack of knowledge of other culture informed and critical understanding of nature of mass media. Aims
3. Discrimination and harassment to provide students with ability to create media products.
4. Language difference
1. All media are constructed- media do not simply reflect external
How to fight Barriers reality
1. Review Communication Principles- 7C’s 2. The media construct version of reality,
2. Analyze the message receiver 3. Audiences negotiate meaning in media.
3. Open or accepting other culture 4. Media messages have commercial implications.
4. Learn about culture 5. Media message contain ideological and value messages.
5. Consider Language needs 6. Media messages contain social and political implications.
7. Form and content are closely related in media messages.
Intercultural Communication- interaction by peoplew/ from 8. Each medium has unique aesthetic form.
diverse cultural
Media- any channel of communication. Include anything from
Forms printed paper to digital data.
1. Interracial Communication- interaction from people from
diff. races Literacy- ability to read and write. Knowledge and competence in
2. Inter-ethnic “”- diff. Ethnic origins specific area
3. International “”- between representatives from diff. nation Types of Media
4. Intracultural “”- interacting w/ members of the same racial 1. Print Media- consisting of paper and ink reproduced in
ethnic group printing process
Ex. Newspaper, Blog, Magazines, Comics, Brochures
Communication
High Context- tradition link communication system 2. Broadcast Media- such as radio and television that reach
Low Context- works on straight forward communication, short target audiences using airwaves as transmission on medium.
term Ex. Television, Radio, Satellites, Mobile Phones

8 Domains 3. Digital or New Media- contents are organized and

Local everyday written and oral distributed on digital platform.
Local specialized written and oral Digital- something using digits
 Ex. Social Media, Computers, Internet
Media Convergence- ability to transform different kinds of media
into digital code.
Convergence- Con(Together), Verge(turn towards)
Platform of Media Converge
 Social Network
 Learning Management System
 Product Advertisement
 News Agency
 Multimedia Personality
Form of Media Convergence
 Global, Technical, Cultural, Organic, Economic
Sections of Media Convergence
 Technical Tools
 Internet
 Media
Evaluating messages- developing and using strategic questions to
identify strengths and weaknesses
4 Main Qualities
1. Simplicity- answer 2 questions: Is purpose evident? Is core
message clear?
2. Specificity- choice of language and usage and order
3. Structure- organized and easy to follow
4. Stickiness- ability to easily adhere in situations
Global Communication- sharing info in international settings and
contexts.
- Broad field that incorporates multiple disciplines of
communication.
- most common form is email.
Local Communication- can use extensively in diverse ways.
- implement user-defined interfaces that define methods and
events will be passed between the workflow and host progress.
Multi-cultural- relating to diff. Cultures especially to traditions of
people of diff. Religion and races
Local and Global Communication in Multicultural Settings-
Multiculturalism presence of people w/ several cultures.
Barriers to Local and Global Communication in Multicultural
Settings- language, medium of communication =, personality and
culture.
Varieties of Language- Wardhaugh defined it as specific set of
linguistic items.
Register of Language- variety of language used for purpose.
- first used by Thomas Reid
Spoken Language- language produced by articulate sounds.
- oral language produced w/ vocal tract. To convey subjective
info.
- Speech usually used for immediate interaction.
- full of repetition, incomplete sentence, corrections and
interruptions.
Written Language- representation of spoken. Permanent.
Multimedia Presentation
-can be an overwhelming experience if you allow it to be one.
The strategies and steps below are provided to help you break down
what you might view as a large job into smaller, more manageable
tasks.
Step 1- analyze your audience
Step 2- select topic
Step 3- define the object of the present
Step 4- Prepare the body of the present
Step 5- prepare the introduction and conclusion
Step 6- practice delivering the Presentation
Strategies of the presentation
 Make the introduction relevant to the listeners goals
values and needs.
 Ask questions to stimulate thinking
 Share a personal experience
 Begin with a joke or humorous story
 Project a cartoon or colorful visual
 Make a stimulating or inspirational statement
 Give a unique demonstration.
Pecha Kucha Presentation
- (Japanese: ぺちゃくちゃ, IPA: [petɕa kɯ̥tɕa], “the sound of
conversation” or “chit-chat” )
- It is a presentation form of 20 images for 20 seconds. The
slides change automatically and the speaker must synchronise their
speech with the images. It’s sometimes also called a 20×20
presentation. So the entire presentation always lasts for exactly 6
minutes and 40 seconds. It is concise powerful.
 Choose a topic
 Be organised
 Create a PowerPoint
 Practice your presentation
Blogging
- is term taken from "weblog"
- is a part of sharing your knowledge in which you not only
share your perception, but readers can also comment and participate
in the discussions made on the blog.
- The act of creating and writing on a blog is called blogging
- The writer and creator who does all the tasks is known to be
as Blogger.
- The all collective community of blogs is called blogsphere.
Different types of Blogs & Blogging
Corporate Blog- A blog can be of any type if it is a corporate
blog, then it contains information about the organization, it’s culture
or it’s strategies, purposes that is called corporate or official blog.
Niche Blog- Fix type of stuff blog which provide information
on a particular topic is called a particular/Niche blog , like their
niche is fix it may be education, phones, Music, fashion, arts, web
designs, sports and thoughts.
Personal Blog- commonly written in the personal language
and with emotional touch for friends and colleagues.
Forum Blogging- It is a place to discuss general blogging
issues of where blogger can share their thoughts about blogging.
Review blog- blog where a blogger share reviews about like
Mobiles, iphones and other products. Readers can also give
comments on the product reviews and discuss more about it.
Tips for becoming a Successful Blogger
 You must keep on posting continuously.
 Don’t move away from your niche, stick on specific
topics you usually talk upon.
 Don’t blog only for money, but for passion
 Respond to Commentators
 Respect your readers.
 Use tags, which will help you in come up in searches.
Informative Communication- when people share knowledge.
Attempt to present an objective that is truthful and unbiased view of
topics.
-tend to educate the audience.
Goals- to inform the audience about a particular topic.
- should combined organization, repetition and focused.
- delivering information in a neutral way that does not bore the
audience.
Types of Informative Speech
Explanatory, Definition, Descriptive, Demonstrative
Tips for informative speaking
 Analyze the audience
 Use appropriate language
 Explain the importance of topic
 Express interest in subj. Material
 Show,don.t tell
 Be specific.
Persuasive Communication- to attempt to influence the beliefs or
actions of others.
Goals of Persuasive Communication
 Convincing- to cause audience to internalize and believe a
viewpoint. Change audience’s mind
 Actuation- cause audience to do something, to take some
action
 Stimulation- used to enhance how fervently the audience
believes in an idea.
Types of Persuasive Communication
 Intrapersonal Persuasive Communication- reflective
thinking or internal vocalization. Try to convince yourself to
do something.
 Interpersonal Persuasive Communication- between 2 people
who possess close bond.
 Group Persuasive Communication- between individuals.
Happens in a larger setting where more than two people are
present.
 Persuasive Public and Mass Communication- Public
communication focuses on person delivering the message.
Mass communication transmitted through media to larger
audience
Argumentative Communication- persuades audience to the side of
speaker. Speaker makes a specific claim and then addresses points
that support the claim. Heavily on sound proof and reasoning
Sound proof- Logos(word), ethos(character), Pathos(suffering or
experience), Mythos(plot/narrative)
Essential components of an Argumentative Speech
 Pick up debatable topic
 Take a strong standpoint
 Give some supportable arguments
 Refute alternate positions
Public Speaking- process of speaking in structured, deliberate
manner to inform, influence or entertain
Speech- used to refer the body spoken expressions of info and ideas
Modes
 Manuscript- details are complicated and essential such as
that they need to be given completely
 Memorized- requires speaker to commit everything to
memory
 Extemporaneous- short/long presentation. Uses an
outline to guide him through his speech
 Impromptu- means speaking at the spur of moment
Public Speaking:
 Ceremonial Speaking- mark special occasions. Involves
toast intimate emotional connection
 Demonstrative Speaking- able to speak clearly and
concisely. Explain process behind generating power.
Audience leave w/ knowledge about how to do something
Communication for Tourism: Tour Guiding
Tour guides need to communicate effectively. It is of utmost
important that your travellers understand the information and ideas
shared by you.
 To clarify and to avoid confusion and
misunderstanding:
 To promote and persuade:
 To build relationships:
 To evaluate your services:
Communication Skills for Tour Guides
 Open Communication - You can have open communication
by engaging your travellers, asking questions, inviting their
feedback and point of view.
Teaching is all about communication - listening, speaking, reading,
presenting and writing. Teachers who hone their communication
skills are prepared to instruct, advice and mentor students entrusted
in their care.
Communicating Caring
Good teachers communicate concern and caring by their tone of
voice and use of body language. They transmit genuine commitment
and affection for their students.
Communicating to Parents
They need to explain the strengths and weaknesses of their students
so that parents will understand the message and be receptive rather
than defensive.
 Informative Speaking- explain concept, disseminating
vital information. Giving than asking. Ignorance shall
eliminated.
 Expand awareness
 Become more competent
 Abide curiosity
 Persuasive Speaking- requires practicing voice
inflections and nuances. Art of gaining fair and favorable
consideration for our point of view
Inquiry Letter- written when a person needs more information
about products, services, internships, scholarships
- sent when a person has specific questions that are
not addressed by general information available
provided by brochures, websites, advertisements,
classified ads.
- telephone or personal interview
- Format: Pure Block, Semi Block or Modified
Block(indention)
Content and Organization of Letter of Inquiry Letter:
a) Heading or letterhead(Logo or address)
b) Inside Address(place, address)
c) Salutation(Dear)
d) Body of Letter- First paragraph(background of inquiry),
Second Paragraph(specify the info you are seeking), Third
Paragraph(express your expectation from address and thank
him/her)
e) Complimentary close(respectfully yours)
f) Signature
COMMUNICATION FOR WORK PURPOSES
Communication for Journalist: Writing a Lead
What is journalism? Journalism is the activity of gathering,
assessing, creating, and presenting news and information. It is also
the product of these activities.
What makes journalism different than other forms of
communication? journalists use to find not just the facts, but also
the “truth about the facts.”
A lead (or an intro) is the beginning paragraph for a story. It is the
hardest part to write as it sets the tone and introduces the reader to
the rest of the story
What is a lead in writing? It’s the opening hook that pulls you in to
read a story. The lead should capture the essence of the who, what,
when, where, why and how — but without giving away the entire
show.
Two Types of Lead
The summary lead - a person wants to determine which aspect of
the story — who, what, when, where, why and how.
A creative or descriptive lead- an anecdote, an observation, a
quirky fact or a funny story, among other things.
Main Reasons for Communicating in Tour guiding
 To inform, remind and advise:
 Active Listening - Being a good listener is one of the best
ways to be a good communicator. By listening, you can
understand the needs of your travelers better.
 Speak Clearly, at the Desired Pace
 Non-Verbal Communication - it is also an important part of
the communication skills for tour guides. Your body language,
eye contact and hand gestures are all part of the message and
stories a tour guide is conveying.
Communication for Teacher: Storytelling
Teaching strategies refer to methods used to help students learn the
desired course contents and be able to develop achievable goals in
the future.
Storytelling is a unique way for students to develop an
understanding, respect and appreciation for other cultures, and can
promote a positive attitude to people from different lands, races and
religions.
Benefits of Storytelling
Storytelling and intercultural understanding
COMMUNICATION FOR BUSINESS AND TRADE- you must
learn how to understand the demand of industry. You need to
enhance your English communication skills because it is the one that
you will need when you will communicate. you need to do is to
enhance your oral presentation to succeed in your future internship
and future career.
What is a SWOT Analysis?
-SWOT analysis using SWOT diagrams or matrices is a key part of
any business planning or analysis.
-SWOT stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and
threats. Strengths and weaknesses are internal factors and
opportunities and threats are external factors. A SWOT diagram
analyzes a project or business venture by focusing on each of these
factors. It typically consists of four boxes, one for each area, but the
exact shape may vary depending on the design.
-SWOT diagrams can be especially useful when trying to decide
whether or not to embark on a certain venture or strategy by
visualizing the pros and cons. By clearly outlining all positives and
negatives of a project, SWOT analysis makes it easier to decide
whether or not to move forward
Strengths
 Close to universities and public transport
 Cheaper products offered other than popular brands
 Ambiance is good for study and leisure.
 Growing demand by different markets for coffee shops
Weakness
 No experience in operating a business
 Lack of funds for the start-up of the business
 Less popularity compared to well-known brands
 Staffs to be trained for operations
Opportunities
WRITING BUSINESS AND TECHNICAL REPORT
A report is a comprehensive document that covers all aspects of the
subject matter of the study.
It presents information not an argument, meant to be
scanned quickly by the reader, uses numbers headings and
Report categories
1. The informal report
 It functions to inform, analyze, and recommend.
 It may be in the form of memo, financial report, monthly
activities report, development report, research, etc.
 It is written according to an institution’s style and rules.
Introductory and prefatory parts are not required.
 It is used for conveying routine messages.
Types of informal report
a. Progress report – written to provide information about the
way a project is developing.
b. Sales activity report – helps a firm to understand about the
progress of the sales people and also identify the
shortcomings.
c. Personal evaluation - used by an organization to assess an
employee’s performance
d. Financial report – a presents formal record of the financial
activities of a business, person, or other entries
e. Feasibility report – assesses the viability of a new project;
persuade or help the decision makers to choose between the
options
f. Literature review – conveys to the readers the work
already done and the knowledge and ideas that have been
already established on particular topic of research.
g. Credit report – details report of an individual’s credit
history prepared by a credit bureau.
2. The formal report
Parts of the report
I. Title Page
II. Table of contents
III. Executive summary
IV. Introduction
V. Methods
COMMUNICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT: THE RESUME
What is a resume? A resume is a one-to- two pages document that
sums up a job seeker’s qualifications for the jobs they’re interested
in. A marketing tool that job seekers use to communicate their value
to employers.
What goes into a resume?
-SWOT Analysis is a useful technique for understanding your
Strengths and Weaknesses, and for identifying both the
Opportunities open to you and the Threats you face.
Definition and Relevance
SWOT ANALYSIS or SWOT MATRIX is a diagram that
shows the STRENGTH, WEAKNESSES, OPPURTUNITIES AND
THREATS that the business or person will use in business. Using
this method any business or organization can innovate or adapt to
make their business better.
Internal factors and External Factors
Internal factors- factors that we can control.
External factors- factors we cannot control
SWOT Analysis of a coffee shop
 New products and services are offered to expansion of
market
 Brand franchising is also an opportunity to expand
business.
 Co- branding or strategic alliance with other firms.
 Diverse target market
Threats
 There are lots of popular coffee shops.
 There are also competition with other coffee shops also
starting-up
 Market tastes are changing
 Prince for coffee beans and other supplies may increase
Characteristic of a report
sub headings, composed of short and concise paragraphs,
uses graphic illustration.
 It is an official report that contains a collection of detailed
information, research, and data necessary to make
decisions.
 It is formal, complex and used at an official level.
 It is often a written account of a major project.
 It may be in the form of launching a new technology or a
new project line, results of a study or an experiment, a
review of developments in the field, etc.
Types of Formal Report
A. Informational report
 Provides data, facts, feedback, and other types of
information without analysis or recommendations
 Presents an update of an operation or status of a current
research so readers can understand a particular problem or
situation
B. Analytical Report
 It goes beyond just presenting results.
 Analytical reports present results, analyze those results, and
draw conclusions based on those results. It attempts to
describe why or how something happened and explains what
it means.
C. Recommendation Reports
 This types advocates a particular course of action. This
usually presents the results and conclusions that support the
recommendations.
D. Research Reports
 Most widely used report usually in university levels.
E. Case Study Analysis Reports
 Includes real life examples
VI. Findings
VII. Conclusion
VIII. Recommendation
IX. Bibliography
• A resume summarizes the most important information an
employer needs to know when they consider a new hire. The
job seeker's relevant qualifications, training, and work history
are listed under easily understood resume headings such as
"Summary of Qualifications," "Professional Experience," or
"Education."
Resume includes the following:
 Contact information
 Objective or Summary of Qualifications
 Work History
 Education
Who needs a resume?
• A person needs to submit a resume if he/she is applying for
a job with an organization that doesn.t solely on standard,
handwritten application forms.
• Companies that requires resume will say so in their job
postings.
What is the purpose of a resume?
• The purpose of resume is to land you an interview,
represent professional information.
Types of Resumes
• Chronological: With work history listed in reverse
chronological order (most recent position first, oldest
position last), this traditional type of resume focuses on
titles and dates.
• Functional: This less-common format focuses on skills and
accomplishments, rather than dates and titles. It divides
your qualifications into functional categories, such as
Administrative, Marketing, or Project Management.
• Combination/Hybrid: Featuring a mix of elements from
both of the above resume types, this format is the most
versatile for individual scenarios. Many feel this format
gives hiring managers the best of both worlds.
• Targeted: A targeted resume is a custom document that
specifically highlights the experience and skills that are
relevant to the job.
• Scannable: A scannable resume is specifically formatted to
be read by scanner and converted to digital information
COMMUNICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT: THE
APPLICATION LETTER
What is application letter?
Application letter is generally the first thing your prospective
employers will see, and it should motivate them to read your resume.
It serve as a formal introduction of yourself to your prospective
employer. Considered optional components of applying for a job,
more and more frequently, employers are singling out those who
actually take the time to write an application letter as their top picks.
Features of an Application Letter
1. Qualifications- Need to make clear why you’re interested in
the position or in that organization.
2. Pleasing tone – need to go beyond simply stating your
accomplishments.
3. Format- need to arrange something in particular format.
Communication within a Company: The Memorandum
What is Memorandum? A memo or memorandum is a
communication note that records events or observations on a topic.
Memos are typically used within a business environment as an
interoffice communication tool and can serve many purposes.
Purpose of Memorandum
Memos can be used to quickly communicate with
a wide audience something brief but important, such as
procedural changes, price increases, policy additions,
meeting schedules, reminders for teams, or summaries
of agreement terms,
Example;
To: All employees
From: E.J. Smith, Production Lead
Date: November 1, 2018
Subject: Thanksgiving Print Schedule Change
Production would like to remind everyone that
the Thanksgiving holiday will affect our print deadlines this
month. Any hard-copy pages that would normally go out to
the printer via UPS on a Thursday or Friday during the
week will need to go out by 3 p.m. on Wednesday,
November 21.
Different Kinds of Memorandums:
 Informal memorandum. These are handwritten memos.
They are more commonly used to communicate message
related to day activities such as conveying telephone
messages, to remain people of something, responding to
inquiries, and soon.
 Formal memorandum. These are message and appear
more formal. These are used to respond to formal queries,
convey information pertaining to the business such as
sales report, suggestions for cost improvements, etc.
 Request memorandum Request memo is written with a
view to elicit a favorable response.
 Confirmation memo. A confirmation memo
i s a w r i t t e n confirmation of what has been agreed to
verbally.
 Peri od i c rep ort memo . A peri odi c report m em o i s
used t o depict information that needs to be submitted
at intervals. Examples of such memos are those that are
used to present quarterly sales reports, monthly expenditure
reports, etc.
 Ideas and suggestions memo. Ideas and suggestion
memos are used for providing ideas and suggestions when
they are a s k e d f o r . M a n y t i m e s , o r g a n i z a t i o n s
s o l i c i t i d e a s a n d suggestions from the employees to
tackle certain problems. These may be related to
improving inter-personal relations, cost reduction efforts,
improving the work environment, etc.
COMMUNICATION WITHIN A COMPANY: The Minute of
Meeting
 Minute an official written statement of the motions and
resolutions taken in a meeting. A brief but a complete record of
the proceeding of a meeting that should be needed to approved
by the participating members of the meeting Official written
records of a meeting's proceeding are called minutes. All
motions and resolutions should be recorded word for word a
presented. Individuals presenting motions and resolutions
should be identified by name of the minutes. It is important to
indicate that a motion was seconded, but the name of the
individual who seconds a motion need not be recorded.
PARTS OF MINUTE
Robert's Rule of Order (2005) recommends that minutes
contain the following items.
1. Committee or Organizational name
2. Kind of meeting (regular board meeting, an annual meeting, a
meeting of the housing committee or a special meeting).
3. Date, location and time of beginning and adjourment.
4. Names of the chairperson and secretary of their substitutes.
5. Names of all presents members.
6. Name of guest and their role in the meeting.
7. Reference to approval of last meeting's minutes.
8. Motions raised, Motion must be written as stated, including for
approval.
7. ADJOURMENT
The meeting was adjourned at 5:00 pm
Prepared by:
Ana Tangle, Secretary
TYPES OF MINUTES
Generally, the minutes of a minutes can be divided
into two groups. They are the following:
1. Minutes of narration: These minutes will be a
concise summary of all discussions which took place,
reports, received, actions to be taken and decisions made. It
includes;
 Names of the participating members.
 Name of the proposer and supporter.
 Discussion summary. Resolutions.
2. Voting pattern etc. Minutes of resolution; Minutes of
resolution means the written statements of the decisions that have
been taken and approved by the participating members of the
meeting. Only the main conclusions which are reached at the
meeting are recorded in minutes of resolution. These are usually
used for minutes of AGMs and other statutory meetings.
Example: Purchase of photocopier - the company secretary
submitted a report from the administrative manager containing full
details of the trial of the AEZ photocopier. It was resolved that the
AEZ photocopier be purchased at a cost of $250.
Difference between agenda and minute
Both agenda and minute are the important documents of a meeting.
But they different from each other in respect of the following points:
AGENDA
1. Agenda means the topics to be discussed in a meeting.
2. It is a read out before holding the meeting.
3. It is read out at the beginning of a meeting.
4. It does not require to be approved by the members concern
5. Generally it is included in the notice book
6. It includes on the points to be discussed.
7. It is served by the higher or authority of the organizations.
8. It is signed by the secretary or convener of the meeting with date.
MINUTES
1. Minutes are the brief but complete statements of motion and
resolutions of a meeting.
2. It is prepared at the time of meeting or after the meeting.
3. It is read out in the next meeting.
4. It is must approved by the participating members of the
meeting.
5. It is written in the resolution book.
6. It includes complete motion and resolutions of the meeting.
7. It is passed by the members of the meeting
It is duty signed by the chairperson of the meeting.
PRINCIPLE OF DRAFTING MINUTES OF CONSIDERING
FACTORS IN DRAFTING MINUTES
 Minutes are the written and formal documents of discussion
in the meeting.
COMMUNICATION FOR CRIMINOLOGY
Criminology is a branch of sociology that focuses on the causes,
effects and social impact of crimes.the ability to shift between
conveying information with authority and listening carefully with
compassion lies at the heart of communication in criminal justice
The criminal justice system includes professionals that include
attorneys, law enforcement officials, psychologists, judges and
other experts.
Types of Communication in Criminology
• Narratives and Reports
Narrative writing is a daily job duty for many police officers,
who must write clear reports detailing their interactions with
and arrest of suspects. These reports are frequently used to
establish a time line and maintain information about how and
why an officer arrested someone.
• Legal Pleadings and Citations
Legal pleadings are formal pieces of writing submitted to the
court, such as motions for summary judgment and complaints
for damages. The court may also evaluate formal legal citations,
such as tickets written by police officers
• Judicial Orders
A judicial order is a document written by a judge that renders a
decision about a case.
• Studies and Research
The criminal justice system is a massive institution that includes
courts, jails and even mental health facilities. Consequently,
many criminal justice workers are interested in studying the
system to obtain various information.
• Informal Communications
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may gumawa. Attitude is meh HAHAHAHHA
GOODLUCK!