Energy scenario:

1) Structure of Indian electric power scenario

● According to sources from CEA(central electrical authority) the total installed
capacity id 3,31,118 MW as on October 2017.
● State sector consumes 24.5% of the total
● Central sector consumes 31.1% of the total
● Private sector consumes 44.4% of the total
● Fuels or resources used are thermal(coal,gas etc..),hydro, nuclear,RES*(MNRE)
● PFL(plant load factor) is a measure used to compare output of a power plant to
maximum output it could produce.
● Renewable resources comprise 14% of india’s total power capacity installed.
● Of that 14%, 2.5% is of solar energy which is almost 17%of total installed capacity.
● Voltage levels of india are of three types
o Transmission level
o Subtransmission level
o Primary/secondary transmission level
● This is to minimize the transmission cost for each power level

●
●

2) Types of audit and ten steps of audit with example

● Energy Audit is inspection, survey and Analysis of Energy flows in a building,
process or system
● Types of audit:
o Priliminary
o Targeted
o Detailed
● The type of energy audit to be performed depends on the type of industry, the
depth to which final audit is needed, the magnitude and potential of cost
reduction required.
●
3. Instruments used in audit
a) Combustion analyzers are multifunction instruments designed to calculate
the efficiency of all types of boilers, heaters and furnaces by measuring a
range of parameters such as stack temperature, flue pressure and levels of
gases. ...
Has inbuilt chemical cells which measure various gases such as
O2,CO,NOX,SOX etc..
 b) Fuel efficiency monitors - this monitor is used for
measuring the consumption of generator fuel,i.e consumption of oxygen and
fuel gas.
c) Fyrite- A fyrite is a volumetric gas analysis device.  The device is used to
measure the concentration of a selected gas in a sample of gas.  
d) Contact thermometer - A contact thermometer is a temperature
measurement device that operates via direct contact between the magnetic
end of the thermometer and the steel material surface of an unknown
temperature to be determined.
e) Infrared thermometer - An infrared thermometer is a thermometer which
infers temperature from a portion of the thermal radiation sometimes called
black-body radiation emitted by the object being measured
f) Pitot tube and manometers- Air velocity in ducts can be measured using a
pitot tube and inclined manometer for further calculation of flows.
g) Waterflow meter- A water flow meter is a non-contact instrument capable of
measuring the amount of water passing through a pipe.
h) A tachometer is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or
disk, as in a motor or other machine.
i) A stroboscope also known as a strobe, is an instrument used to make a
cyclically moving object appear to be slow-moving, or stationary. 
j) The Leak Detector is used to locate leaks on compressed air lines.
Furthermore, the Leak Detector can also be used on coolant lines or gas lines
for leak detection. 
k) A light meter is a device used to measure the amount of light. 
4. Electricity billing
● In all states the tariff structures for residential consumers are designed in such a way
that per unit charge is less if your consumption is less and more if your consumption
is more.
● In fact it increases significantly as you increase your electricity consumption.
● For e.g. in Mumbai Reliance energy has following tariff:
● First 100 units: Rs 2.96/unit
● Next 200 units (from 101 to 300): Rs 5.56/unit
● Next 200 units (from 301 to 500): Rs 9.16/unit
● Any units after that (above 500): Rs 10.61/unit
● So if you see you pay higher amounts per unit as your consumption increases. The
motive behind such structure is to motivate people to consume less electricity.
● There are times when the person who comes for meter reading does not find you at
home and you get a bill with average amount.
● The actual consumption is adjusted on number of units in the bills in following
months. There can be 2 possibilities on this assumption:
o The estimated consumption is more than your actual consumption
o The estimated consumption is less than your actual consumption
● Thus it is very important that the person coming for meter reading is able to do his
job every time.
● The tariff structure generally includes the following components:
1. a) Maximum demand Charges
 a. b) Energy Charges
2. c) Power factor penalty or bonus rates, as levied by most utilities, are to
contain reactive power drawn from grid.
3. d) Fuel cost adjustment charges as levied by some utilities are to adjust the
increasing fuel expenses over a base reference value.
4. e) Electricity duty charges levied w.r.t units consumed.
5. f) Meter rentals
6. g) Lighting and fan power consumption is often at higher rates, levied
sometimes on slab basis or on actual metering basis.
7. h) Time Of Day (TOD) rates like peak and non-peak hours are also prevalent in
tariff structure provisions of some utilities.
8. i) Penalty for exceeding contract demand
9. j) Surcharge if metering is at LT side in some of the utilities
5. the step by step procedure for maximum demand control
● Maximum Demand is the power consumed over a
predetermined period of time, which is usually between 8 – 30 minutes.
● The most common period of time, in the majority of countries, is 15 minutes.
● This power is calculated and billed by a kW demand meter, which records the
highest kW value in one 15 minute period, over a month’s time.
● Steps :
1. Load Curve Generation-Presenting the load demand of a consumer
against time of the day is known as a ‘load curve’.
2. Rescheduling of Loads-Rescheduling of large electric loads and equipment
operations, in different shifts can be planned and implemented to minimize the
simultaneous maximum demand.
3. Storage of Products/in process material/ process utilities like refrigeration--It is
possible to reduce the maximum demand by building up storage capacity of
products/ materials, water, chilled water / hot water, using electricity during off
peak periods.
4. Shedding of Non-Essential Loads-When the maximum demand tends to reach
preset limit, shedding some of non-essential loads temporarily can help to reduce it.
5. Operation of Captive Generation and Diesel Generation Sets-When diesel
generation sets are used to supplement the power supplied by the electric utilities,
it is advisable to connect the D.G. sets for durations when demand reaches the peak
value.
6. Reactive Power Compensation-The maximum demand can also be reduced at the
plant level by using capacitor banks and maintaining the optimum power factor.
6. the importance of energy conservation techniques in present day scenario
&
7. importance of Energy conservation opportunities in Daily life
● Energy conservation plays a significant role of lessening climate change. It helps the
replacement of non-renewable resources with renewable energy. 
● Energy is defined as the capacity of a physical system to perform work. In other
words, It can be explained as the ability to perform or complete any type of work
whether it is physical or mental activity.
● Energy conservation is the practice of reducing the quantity of energy used. It
may be attained through efficient energy use; in this case, energy use is
decreased at the same time getting a same outcome as a result, or by reduced
consumption of energy services.
● It is one of the easiest processes to help the globe by means of pollution in
addition to make use of natural energy.
● It may result in increase of financial capital, better environmental results, national
security, personal security and human comfort. Individuals and companies are
called as direct consumers of energy may need to conserve energy
● Energy conservation plays a very important role because utilization of non-
renewable resources also impacts our environment.
● Use Energy Star appliances: Energy Star models have high standards for energy use
and are more efficient than older ones
● Choose CFL or LED lighting system: LAST LONG REALLY LONG
● Choose solar hot water system: By using the sun’s free energy you can reduce
hot water energy consumption by 50% to 90%.
● Insulate the walls: Siding and roofing will protect the house from bulk rain, and
sealing stops the air flow, but a properly insulated house will keep its inhabitants
comfortable
● Orient the house for energy efficiency& Place windows appropriately.

Induction Motors:
1. Working principle and construction diagram of Induction motor
● Induction Motors are the most commonly used motors in many applications.
● There basically 2 types of induction motor  –
● (i) Single phase induction motor and (ii) Three phase induction motor.
● When symmetric Three Phase voltage is applied to the Three Phase winding of
stator a constant amplitude rotating field is produced.
● The speed of the rotating field is called synchronous speed and is given by

● Where f is the supply frequency and P is the number of poles of the motor
● This rotating field cuts the stationary rotor conductors and emf will be induced
in it.
● This emf sets of currents in the rotor windings.According to Lenz’s Law effect
opposes the cause and rotor starts rotating in the same direction of stator.
● Both Stator and Rotor mmf rotate at the synchronous speed (ns) in the same
direction.
 ● The combination of these two mmf’s give a resultant mmf rotating at
synchronous speed in the airgap.
● This resultant flux wave produces torque in the rotor of the 3- phase induction
motor and as a consequence , rotor begins to rotate.

2. the constructional difference between energy efficient motor and general motor
● Energy efficient motors use less electricity, run cooler, and often last longer .
● Efficiency = (Mechanical Power Output / Electrical Power Input) x 100%
● Factors that influence motor efficiency include:
● Age.- New motors are more efficient
● Capacity.- As with most equipment, motor efficiency increases with the rated
capacity
● Speed.- Higher speed motors are usually more efficient
● Type.- For example, squirrel cage motors are normally more efficient than slip-
ring motors
● Temperature. -Totally-enclosed fan-cooled (TEFC) motors are more efficient than
screen-protected drip-proof (SPDP) motors
● Rewinding -of motors can result in reduced efficiency
● Load,
● Why energy efficient motors
o Save Energy- this is a national Priority.
o Reduce Operating Cost.
o Short Pay back periods.
o Reduce harmful greenhouse gas emissions.

3. concept of slip in Induction machines and its role in performance enhancement

● Slip in Induction Motor plays an important role in the operation of the induction
motor. 
● The torque produced by the induction motor is directly proportional to induction
motor slip.
● At no-load induction motor requires small torque to meet with the frictional, iron
and other losses, therefore slip is small.
● A slip ring induction motor is also called as wound rotor induction motor.
 ● The rotor is wound and connected in star with three leads brought out of machine
via slip rings placed on the shaft.
● The rotor is externally shorted by external resistance. It has high starting torque.
● In order for an induction motor to make torque, there must be at least some
difference between the stator field (synchronous) speed and the rotor speed. That
difference is called “slip.”
● Hence slip is an essential feature for proper working of the induction motor. Without
slip, the motor cannot run.
● The slip is generally measured in percentage and is 5–6℅ in large motors and 8–9℅
in small motors.
● The value of slip will be equal to one when the rotor is at rest and will never be equal
to zero.
● Slip is what makes the rotor experience a rate of change of magnetic flux due to the
surface of the rotor running slower than the rotating field of the stator, 
● If there is no slip there is no magnetic field set up in the rotor to react with the
rotating magnetic field of the stator.
● If there is no slip there is no magnetic field set up in the rotor to react with the
rotating magnetic field of the stator.

4. Various losses in Power flow diagram in Induction motor

● 1. Fixed loss (iron)-- Use of thinner gauge, lower loss core steel reduces eddy current
losses. Longer core adds more steel to the design, which reduces losses due to lower
operating flux densities.
● Stator I2R-- Use of more copper & larger conductors increases cross sectional area of
stator windings. This lower resistance (R) of the windings & reduces losses due to
current flow (I)
● Rotor I2R-- Use of larger rotor conductor bars increases size of cross section, lowering
conductor resistance (R) & losses due to current flow (I)
● Friction & Winding-- Use of low loss fan design reduces losses due to air movement
● Stray Load Loss-- Use of optimized design & strict quality control procedures
minimizes stray load losses
5. the ways to improve the efficiency of Induction motor
● Energy Efficiency Opportunities
o Use energy efficient motors
o Size to Varying Loads.
▪ Motor selection based on
● Slightly lower than highest load: occasional overloading for
short periods
▪ But avoid risk of overheating due to
● Extreme load changes
● Frequent / long periods of overloading
● Inability of motor to cool down
o One Large motor in place of 2 small.
o Improve power quality
▪ Keep voltage unbalance within 1%
▪ Balance single phase loads equally among three phases
 ▪ Segregate single phase loads and feed them into separate
line/transformer
o Rewinding
▪ Using qualified/certified firm
▪ Maintain original motor design
o Power factor correction by capacitors
▪ Benefits of improved PF
● Reduced kVA
● Reduced losses
● Improved voltage regulation
● Increased efficiency of plant electrical system
o Improve maintenance
o Slip Power recovery
o Reduce under-loading (and avoid over-sized motors) ex. Don’t buy 75 h.p.
motor for 50 h.p. application
6. Torque Speed characteristics
● Torque Speed Characteristic is the curve plotted between the torque and
the speed of the induction motor.

●
● The torque-speed curve shows that shunt motors can be used to drive fairly constant
speed from no load to full torque
● Therefore, ideal for use with machine tools, pumps, compressors etc.
● The maximum torque is independent of the rotor resistance. But the exact location
of the maximum torque Ʈmax is dependent on it.
● As the rotor resistance increases, the pullout speed of the motor decreases. In this
condition, the maximum torque remains constant.
7. impact of the following parameters on the performance of the Induction motors i)
Power quality ii) Rewinding iii) Size to varying loads
● i) Power quality
o Keep voltage unbalance within 1%
o Balance single phase loads equally among three phases
o Segregate single phase loads and feed them into separate line/transformer
● ii) Rewinding
o Rewinding: sometimes 50% of motors
o Can reduce motor efficiency
o Maintain efficiency after rewinding by
▪ Using qualified/certified firm
 ▪ Maintain original motor design
▪ Replace 40HP, >15 year old motors instead of rewinding
▪ Buy new motor if costs are less than 50-65% of rewinding costs
● iii) Size to varying loads
o Motor selection should
▪ Not ne based on Highest anticipated load: expensive and risk of
under-loading
▪ Should be based on Slightly lower than highest load: occasional
overloading for short periods
o But avoid risk of overheating due to
▪ Extreme load changes
▪ Frequent / long periods of overloading
▪ Inability of motor to cool down
8. Energy efficient opportunities in a Transformer
o The efficiency of the transformers not only depends on the design, but also, on the
effective operating load.
o Transformer losses consist of two parts: No-load loss and Load loss
o No-load loss (also called core loss) is the power consumed to sustain the magnetic
field in the transformer's steel core.
o Load loss (also called copper loss) is associated with full-load current flow in the
transformer windings.

9.what will happen if motor runs in an unbalanced voltage

o The voltage unbalance is defined as the maximum deviation from the average of
three phase voltage or current, divided by the average of the three phase voltage or
current.
o The voltage unbalance is expressed in percent.

o The unbalance supply cause unbalance current in the stator of the induction motor.

o The unbalance current can be resolved into positive, negative and zero sequence
components.

o The positive sequence current produces positive torque and the negative sequence
current produce the negative torque in the opposite direction of positive sequence
torque

o The zero sequence component produces pulsating torque in the motor.

o The net torque in the motor gets reduced because of unbalancing of the stator
current. The net torque is;

o T= Tp-Tn

o The negative sequence current produce heating in the motor. The motor gets
derated with unbalance current.
CO-3

Transformer:
Ques1. Working principle and construction diagram of transformer?

Def: A static piece of apparatus with two or more windings which, by electromagnetic
induction, transforms a system of alternating voltage and current into another system of
voltage and current usually of different values and at the same frequency for the
purpose of transmitting electrical power.

Working Principle:

If a time-varying voltage is applied to the primary winding of turns, a current will flow in
it producing a magnetomotive force (MMF). Just as an electromotive force (EMF) drives
current around an electric circuit, so MMF tries to drive magnetic flux through a
magnetic circuit. The primary MMF produces a varying magnetic flux in the core, and,
with an open circuit secondary winding, induces a back electromotive force (EMF). In
accordance with Faraday's law of induction, the voltage induced across the primary
winding is proportional to the rate of change of flux: 

Vp/Vs = Np/Ns

Ip/Is = Ns/Np

where

• Vp and Vs are the voltages across the primary winding and secondary
winding,

• Np and Ns are the numbers of turns in the primary winding and secondary
winding,

• dΦP / dt and dΦS / dt are the derivatives of the flux with respect to time of
the primary and secondary windings.

Construction:

For the simple construction of a transformer, you must need two coils having mutual
inductance and a laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each other and
from the steel core. The device will also need some suitable container for the assembled
core and windings, a medium with which the core and its windings from its container
can be insulated.
A transformer consists of two or more electrical windings that are linked together by a
magnetic field. Except for special-purpose transformers, the coupling is enhanced with a
ferromagnetic core. Transformers are often drawn as shown in Fig, with the primary coil
on one leg and the secondary coil on the other leg, although they are not actually built
that way. When AC voltage is applied to the primary winding, magnetic flux is
established, which links the secondary winding. If the flux is sinusoidal, a sinusoidal
voltage will be induced in the secondary.

 Current conductors (Primary & Secondary Windings)

 Magnetic Flux conductor(Laminated Steel Core)

 Insulation

 Cooling

 Protection

 Supporting Accessories
 In all types of transformers, the core is constructed of sheet steel lamination to
provide continuous magnetic path with a minimum of air gap. The steel used should
have high permeability and a low hysteresis loss at the usual operating flux densities.
The eddy currents loss is minimized by laminating the core with the laminations
being insulating from each other by a high coat of core plate varnish or by an oxide
layer on the surface. The thickness of laminations vary from 0.30 mm to 0.5mm

Core Components:

-The “conductor” for the flux

-The skeleton for mechanical rigidity of the active part
-The core, an unbroken path for magnetic flux

CRGO or Cold Rolled Grain Oriented Steel is available in various grades (generally
called M3, M4, M5 & M6).

 The transformers are of two general types distinguished from each other by the
manner in which the primary and secondary coils are placed around the laminated
steel core. They are

1.Core type

2. Shell Type
 Ques2.Accessories of a transformer?

Accessories:

   Tap Changer(s)-(On load/Off load)

 Tank

 Radiators

 cooling fans, oil pumps, oil to water heat exchangers (Cooling ONAN / ONAF/ OFAF/
OFWF external coolers)

 Bushings

 Buchholz Relay/Oil Surge Relay

 Temperature Indicators

 Oil Level Indicators

 Pressure Relief Device

 Marshalling Box/Control cubicle

 Oil Preservation Systems: Conservators (gas sealed, Bellows/membrane sealed)

Breathers
Thermo siphon Filters

Radiators:

Buchholz Relay
 Conservator :

Breather:
 Ques3. Energy efficient opportunities in a transformer?

Design Stage:

 Using better core material(CRGO& Amorphous metal)

 Using of more Material

 New Material

 Improved distribution of materials

 Improvements in cooling medium and methods(Choice of liquid filled)

Application Stage:

 Selection of ratings & number of transformers

 Energy saved by under utilization of transformers

 Improvements of power factor

 Segregation of non-linear loads

 Effect of operating temperature

Ques4. Different performance analysis parameters of transformers?

• Efficiency: Transformer efficiency is defined as (applies to motors, generators and

transformers):
Pout
P   100%
  out  100% Pout  Ploss
Pin

Types of losses incurred in a transformer:

Copper I2R losses
Hysteresis losses
Eddy current losses
Therefore, for a transformer, efficiency may be calculated using the following:

VS I S cos 
 x100%
PCu  Pcore  VS I S cos 

• Transformer Voltage Regulation :

 Loading changes the output voltage of a transformer.

 Transformer regulation is the measure of such a deviation.

 Definition of % Regulation

| Vnoload |  | Vload |
 *100
| Vload |
V no-load =RMS voltage across the load terminals without load
V load = RMS voltage across the load terminals with a specified load

Condition for Maximum Efficiency

Cables:
Ques1.Types of cables?
There are several ways of classifying cables. These includes classification of cables on the
basis of :

1. No. of Conductors in Cable

a. Single core cables
b. 3 core cables, 3 ½ core cables
2. Voltage Rating of Cable
a. Low-tension (L.T.) cables — upto 1000 V
b. High-tension (H.T. ) cables — upto 11,000 V
c. Super-tension (S.T.) cables — from 22 kV to 33 kV
d. Extra high-tension (E.H.T.) cables — from 33 kV to 66 kV
e. Extra super voltage cables — beyond 132 kV
3. Insulation Used in Cable ; a. PIC b. PVC c. PE d. PTFE e. XLPE
4. Power To Be handled in Cable
a. Power cables
b. Control cables
Necessary requirement to be fulfilled by cables:
 The conductor used in cables should be tinned stranded copper or aluminium of high
conductivity. Stranding is done so that conductor may become flexible and carry
more current.
 The conductor size should be such that the cable carries the desired load current
without overheating and causes voltage drop within permissible limits.
 The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in order to give high degree of
safety and reliability at the voltage for which it is designed.
 The cable must be provided with suitable mechanical protection so that it may
withstand the rough use in laying it.
 The materials used in the manufacture of cables should be such that there is
complete chemical and physical stability throughout.
Ques2.Different layers in cables(armour, bedding etc)
Cores or Conductors: A cable may have one or more than one core (conductor) depending
upon the type of service for which it is intended. For instance, the 3-conductor cable shown
in the figure is used for 3-phase service. The conductors are made of tinned copper or
aluminium and are usually stranded in order to provide flexibility to the cable.

Insulation: Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulation,

the thickness of layer depending upon the voltage to be withstood by the cable. The
commonly used materials for insulation are impregnated paper, varnished cambric
or rubber mineral compound.
Metallic sheath: In order to protect the cable from moisture, gases or other
damaging liquids (acids or alkalies) in the soil and atmosphere, a metallic sheath of
lead or aluminium is provided over the insulation as shown in Figure.
Bedding: Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding which consists of a
fibrous material like jute or hessian tape. The purpose of bedding is to protect the
metallic sheath against corrosion and from mechanical injury due to armouring.
Armouring: Over the bedding, armouring is provided which consists of one or two
layers of galvanised steel wire or steel tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable from
 mechanical injury while laying it and during the course of handling. Armouring may
not be done in the case of some cables.
Serving: In order to protect armouring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of
fibrous material (like jute) similar to bedding is provided over the armouring. This is
known as serving.
Ques3. Insulation resistance derivation and properties of Insulating materials?
 High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current.
 High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable.
 High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of cables.
 Non-hygroscopic i.e., it should not absorb moisture from air or soil. The moisture
tends to decrease the insulation resistance and hastens the breakdown of the cable.
In case the insulating material is hygroscopic, it must be enclosed in a waterproof
covering like lead sheath.
 Non-inflammable.
 Low cost so as to make the underground system a viable proposition.
 Unaffected by acids and alkalies to avoid any chemical action.

4. Energy efficient opportunities in a cable

  At present one-tenth of generated electricity is lost in the grid because of the cables we
use.
 Better cables require better materials, and mixing copper (Cu) with carbon nanotubes
(CNTs) can help to solve the problem.
 Large research investments are made world-wide to develop Cu-CNTs ultra- conductive
wires able to transport electricity with improved energy efficiency.

 By upsizing wire in a new installation, the engineer or contractor can demonstrate the
real savings to the customer as well as the advantages of lower generated heat and
increased flexibility of the installation.

 when less heat is generated the result is reduced energy requirements for fans and
air conditioning systems.

 the increased size of the wire can pay for itself in less than two years. 

 At the same time, increased wire size is insurance against changing future needs
and assures lower voltage drops.

Co-4
Pumping systems
Ques1.Purpose of pumps and Static head and friction head?
The main purpose of using pumps in industrial facilities:
1. Transfer of liquid from one place to another.
2. Circulate liquid around the system.
main components of pumping systems:
• Pumps
• Prime movers
• Piping
• Valves
• Other fittings, controls and instrumentation.
Pumping system characteristics:
Resistance of the system: head
Pressure is needed to pump the liquid through the system at a certain rate. This
pressure has to be high enough to overcome the resistance of the system, which is
also called “head”.
Total head = Static head + Friction head
Static head:
It is the difference in height between the source and destination of the pumped
liquid.
The static head is independent of flow
Static head consists of :
1. Static suction head (hs)
2. Static discharge head (hd)

Friction head (hf):

This is the loss needed to overcome that is caused by the resistance to flow in the
pipe and fittings. It is dependent on size, condition and type of pipe, number and
type of pipe fittings, flow rate, and nature of the liquid. The friction head is
proportional to the square of the flow rate.
Ques 2: Different types of pumps and various pumps used in domestic and industry?

Ques3:Centrifugal pump the operation of Reciprocating Pump with a neat sketch?

 Liquid is forced into an impeller either by atmospheric pressure, or in case of a jet
pump by artificial pressure.
 The vanes of impeller pass kinetic energy to the liquid, thereby causing the liquid to
rotate. The liquid leaves the impeller at high velocity.
 The impeller is surrounded by a volute casing or in case of a turbine pump a
stationary diffuser ring. The volute or stationary diffuser ring converts the kinetic
energy into pressure energy.

Ques4:Energy efficient opportunities in a pumping system?

The main areas for energy conservation include:
• Selecting the right pump
• Controlling the flow rate by speed variation
• Pumps in parallel to meet varying demand
• Eliminating flow control valve
 • Eliminating by-pass control
• Start/Stop control of pumps
• Impeller trimming
Affinity laws:
• Flow rate(Q) is proportional to the rotating speed(N)
• Head (H) is proportional to the square of the rotating speed(N).
• Power (P) is proportional to the cube of the rotating speed (N).

Affinities laws applies to impeller diameter also.

Lightning system
Ques1.Incandescent and fluorescent lamp working principle?
Incandescent Lamp

 The filament of incandescent lamp is made of tungsten (having a melting point of

3655 Degree Kelvin).
 The superiority of tungsten lies mainly in its ability to withstand a high operating
temperature without undue vaporization of the filament.
 The necessity of high working temperature is due to fact that the amount of visible
radiation increases with temperature and so does the radiant efficiency of the
luminous source .
 The incandescent bulb is filled with chemically inert gas like nitrogen and argon. In
practice, the admixture of 85% argon and 15 % nitrogen gave best results.
 The filament of modern incandescent lamps are coiled coil to obtain greater
efficiency.
 Fluorescent Tube

Fluorescent Lamp Control Circuit

The principle of operation is as follows:

(a)When the mains voltage is applied, a glow discharge is created across the bimetal

contacts inside the glow starter (enclosed in a small plastic canister). The contacts

warm up and close, completing the starting circuit and allowing a current to flow

from the `L' terminal, through the current limiting inductor through the two tube

cathode filaments and back to the `N' mains terminal.

(b) Within a second or two, the cathode filaments are warm enough to emit electrons; a glow is
seen from each end of the tube. At this stage, the starter-switch bi-metal contacts open
(because the glow discharge, which caused them to heat and close, ceases when they touch, and
they cool and open), and interrupt the preheat current flow. If an inductor (choke) ballast (coils
of copper wire around a laminated iron core) is used the magnetic energy stored in the core
collapses to produce a high-voltage pulse (600±1000 V) across the fluorescent tube sufficient to
strike the arc and set up the electric discharge through the tube.

(c) Once the tube arc has been struck, the current through the tube gradually builds up. This
means that the current through the inductor also increases. As this happens, the voltage across
the inductor increases and the tube voltage falls. The inductor is so designed that when the tube
and inductor current rise to a value determined by the inductor design setting, the circuit
stabilises.

Ques2.Color Rendering Index(CRI)?

Color Rendering Index

  Another property of lamps that is related to how we see different colors under its light.

 The CRI is a number between 0 and 100.

 The reference standard is a very special incandescent lamp at a lighting laboratory.

 CRI and the color temperature of a particular lamp determine how we see colors under that
lamp.

Good light quality: LED lamps CRI 80 or above

Bad light quality: Fluorescent lamps CRI 70 or below

Ques3. The working of conventional ballast with a neat diagram?

What is ballast:

An electronic ballast (or electrical ballast) is a device which controls the starting voltage and
the operating currents of lighting devices.
It does this through the principle of electrical gas discharge. An electronic ballast will
convert power frequency to a very high frequency to initialize the gas discharge process in
Fluorescent Lamps – by controlling voltage across the lamp and current through the lamp.
Working Principle of an Electronic Ballast

Electronic ballast takes supply at 50 – 60 Hz. It first converts AC voltage into DC voltage.
After that, filtration of this DC voltage is done by using capacitor configuration. Now filtered
DC voltage is fed to the high-frequency oscillation stage where oscillation is typically square
wave and frequency range are from 20 kHz to 80 kHz.

Hence output current is with very high frequency. A small amount of inductance is provided
to be associated with a high rate of change of current on high frequency to generate high
valued . Generally, more than 400 V is required to strike the gas discharge process in
fluorescent tube light. When the switch is ON, the initial voltage across the lamp becomes
1000 V around due to high valued, hence gas discharge takes place instantaneously.
Once the discharge process is started, the voltage across the lamp is decreased below 230V
up to 125V and then this electronic ballast allows limited current to flow through this lamp.
This control of voltage and current is done by the control unit of the electronic ballast. In
running condition of fluorescent lamp, electronic ballast acts as a dimmer to limit current
and voltage.

Basic Circuitry of an Electronic Ballast

Why we require:

 Conditions the lamp to start (usually meaning warming up the

filaments).

 Provides a big spike of high voltage to start the gas discharge

process.

 Quickly inserts a current limiter into the circuit to reduce the

lamp current down to a safe and sustainable value.

Ques4. Energy efficient opportunities in a lightning system?

 Lighting controls.

 Replace T12 tubes by T8 tubes.

 Replace mercury lights with metal halide or high pressure sodium

lights.

 Replace metal halide (HID) with high intensity fluorescent lights.

 Replace magnetic ballasts with electronic ballasts.

 Optimization of plant lighting (Lux optimization) in production

and nonproduction departments.

 Optimum use of natural sunlight.

Lighting controls:

Lights can be shut off during non-working hours by automatic controls, such as
occupancy sensors which turn off lights when a space becomes unoccupied.
Manual controls can also be used in addition to automatic controls to save
additional energy in smaller areas.The payback period for lighting control systems
is generally less than 2 years.

Replace T12 tubes by T8 tubes:

In industry, typically T-12 tubes have been used. T-12 refers to the diameter in 1/8
inch increments (T-12 means 12/8 inch or 3.8 cm diameter tubes). The initial
output for these lights is high, but energy consumption is also high .

Replace mercury lights with Metal halide or High pressure sodium lights

Where color rendition is critical, metal halide lamps can replace mercury or fluorescent
lamps with an energy savings of 50%. Where color rendition is not critical, high pressure
sodium lamps offer energy savings of 50 to 60% compared to mercury lamps.

Replace metal halide (HID) with High-intensity fluorescent lights

Traditional HID lighting can be replaced with high-intensity fluorescent (HIF) lighting.

These new systems incorporate high-efficiency fluorescent lamps, electronic ballasts and
high-efficacy fixtures that maximize output to the work place.
Replace magnetic ballasts with electronic ballasts

A ballast is a mechanism that regulates the amount of electricity required to start a

lighting fixture and maintain a steady output of light.

Electronic ballasts save  12 – 25% of electricity use  compared to magnetic ballast.

Optimization of plant lighting (Lux optimization)

In production and non-production departments

In many plants the lighting system is not specifically designed for the process. There are
lux standards for each type of textile process.

Optimum use of natural sunlight

Many plants do not use natural sunlight to an optimum level. In addition to optimizing

the size of the windows, transparent sheets can be installed at the roof in order to allow
more sunlight to penetrate into the production area.