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Wind Power Systems Wind Energy II N. Shenck

Wind System Components

There are three principle parts of a wind power system: the turbine, nacelle (including the
generator and yaw mechanism), and tower. The turbine captures the wind's energy by
spinning a generator in the nacelle. The nacelle houses the electric generator, mechanical
gearing, speed and wind sensor, control systems and portions of the yaw mechanism that
orients the turbine into the wind. The tower contains the electrical conduits and yaw
motor (usually), supports the nacelle, and provides access to the nacelle for maintenance.

The Turbine
The modern wind turbine, sometimes called the rotor, usually consists of two or three
blades made of high density wood, plexiglass or composite material. Designed like an
airplane wing, these blades develop an imbalance between the lift and drag forces to
capture the wind's energy. According to Bernoulli’s principle, a pocket of low pressure
forms on the leeward edge of the moving blade as it passes through the wind. This
pressure pulls the blade, causing the turbine to rotate against the counter-torque induced
by the drag force, the generator and by system losses. This modern airfoil design
captures the wind's energy much more efficiently than old farm windmills that rely on the
force of the wind pushing against the blades.

Figure 1: 1.5 MW Rotor during Maintenance1

Turbine aerodynamics (including shape and blade count), material composition and size
are fundamental issues in wind power system design. To one degree or another, these
parameters all dictate the ideal operating speed, transient limitations of the system and
design power output. Therefore, large commercial systems and smaller private
installations have very different design philosophies. For example, private wind systems
are designed to be rugged and have limited preventative maintenance requirements.
Their blades tend to be shorter and thicker relative to the tower height, sacrificing power
output for system robustness. Conversely, commercial turbines are optimized for
aerodynamic performance and power output – sometimes dynamically by adjusting blade
pitch in response to changing wind characteristics. Because they are more complex,
these commercial turbines require periodic maintenance. Regardless of system size,
turbine price ranges from 10-40% of the total system cost.
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Wind Power Systems Wind Energy II N. Shenck

Figure 2: Power Potential with Turbine Diameter2

A final characteristic of the turbine on which system power is most strongly dependent is
the rotor swept area. Available energy varies directly with the rotor swept area, so
doubling the radius of the turbine blades increases the power potential by a factor of four.

The Nacelle
The nacelle houses the gearbox, generator, control electronics and portions of the yaw
mechanism. The spinning rotor is coupled from a low-speed shaft to the generator via a
gearbox. Large turbines may only spin at 15-20 rpm during average winds, and a high
gear ratio is required to raise the shaft speed for the generator.

Figure 3: Wind Turbine and Nacelle Cut-Out3

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Wind Power Systems Wind Energy II N. Shenck

Generators may be either fixed or variable speed. Fixed speed generators, specifically
the synchronous machine, operate at a speed dictated by the electrical bus frequency and
the number of magnetic poles. They are therefore not well suited for wind systems
because wind speed is variable. Further, the interface between the slip rings and brushes
on the synchronous generator’s rotor creates a point of wear requiring periodic
maintenance and inspection. Variable speed generators include the DC generator
(mechanically commutated), the brushless DC generator and the induction generator.
The first variant has fallen out of favor because it also has brushes that wear over time
creating maintenance concerns.

The brushless DC generator and the induction generator are therefore the most well
suited generators for wind power applications because they can be used over varying
rotor speeds and have no brushes. Of the two, the induction generator is most widely
used in large commercial applications that supply power directly to the electric grid. One
disadvantage of the induction generator is that it does require an AC source to generate
the stator magnetic field required for power generation, so it is not appropriate for
private, stand-alone applications. The brushless DC machine on the other hand has
become increasingly popular in small private systems (like marine applications) because
it can be operated without any external power supply.

The nacelle also houses the control electronics that sense wind speed and direction, rotor
speed and generator load to adjust the generator’s physical and electrical operating
parameters for optimal performance. If the wind direction shifts, the control electronics
will command the yaw motor to slew the turbine into the wind. As wind speed changes,
the control electronics adjust rotor speed and blade pitch to maximize power capture. If
the wind gusts threaten to over-power the system, the control electronics adjust the same
physical parameters to depower the turbine and prevent damage to the rotor and
generator. Finally, in addition to making automatic, local changes to the turbine’s
operating conditions, the control electronics also provide information to the array
operator at a large wind farm for array-wide operational adjustments.

The Tower
The tower must not only support the weight of the turbine and nacelle, but it also must
withstand vibration and the cyclic stresses associated with wind transients and loaded
rotor yaw. Analysis must consider potential resonances at any rotor speed, blade pitch
and wind aspect to prevent fatigue failure or catastrophic damage to the system.

In small installations, the tower is usually a few rotor diameters high to minimize the
wind power lost due to shadowing and the surface effect. Commercial sites often have
large rotors mounted on a tower only slightly larger than the rotor diameter. These
towers generally range from 20-50 meters high.
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Wind Power Systems Wind Energy II N. Shenck

In addition to supporting the wind turbine systems, the tower also provides a protected
conduit for the electrical and signal lines and a ladder for access to the nacelle for
maintenance.

Figure 4: Commercial Turbine at the Lambrigg Wind Farm

in Cumbria, England
(From http://www.freefoto.com/preview.jsp?id=13-37-51)

Speed Control and Maximum Power

As the wind speed increases, the rotor speed corresponding to maximum power output
from the turbine also increases due to the aerodynamic properties of the airfoil.

P (W)
V2 > V1
P2 max

P1 max

ω (rad/s)

Figure 5: Typical Turbine Power-Speed Curves over two

Wind Speeds (V2 > V1)

Therefore, since wind speeds may vary widely at a site, it is advantageous to design a
system that varies the operating speed of the turbine with the wind speed so that the
turbine is always extracting the maximum available power from the wind. This speed
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Wind Power Systems Wind Energy II N. Shenck

matching is accomplished in practice by dynamically adjusting electrical load (thus the

generator’s counter-torque). Two methods are used most commonly – the constant Tip-
Speed Ratio (TSR) and the Peak Power Tracking schemes4. Additionally, during gusty
conditions a system must be in place to protect the turbine and nacelle systems from a
dangerous over-power condition (physical or electrical) that might result in damage to the
system. Four methods of over-speed protection are discussed at the end of this section.
Constant Tip-Speed Ratio

Conveniently, most turbines operate most efficiently at a relatively constant tip speed
ratio (TSR), or the ratio between linear turbine blade tip speed to the wind speed, where
TSR is calculated as

ω ⋅R R ≡ radius of the turbine

TSR = where
V V ≡ wind velocity

The optimal TSR is a physical characteristic of the wind turbine and is provided by the
manufacturer based on preproduction testing. Though it stays relatively constant
throughout turbine life, the TSR will change slightly as the blade bows, erodes and picks
up dirt and debris. These interplay of these effects are not fully understood, so adjusting
the reference TSR over turbine life requires testing and analysis that is often expensive.
The graphic below shows the TSRs corresponding to the most efficient operating points
for numerous types of wind machines. The upper left-hand curve depicts the theoretical
limit predicted by Betz’s Law.

Figure 6: Power Coefficients verses Tip-Speed Ratio for Various Turbines5

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The system diagram for a Constant TSR operating scheme is shown in Figure 7 below.
By measuring wind speed locally, the optimal rotor speed is computed using the
reference TSR. This optimal speed is compared to the actual rotor speed, and electrical
loading is adjusted to correct the difference.

Generator

Gearing

Load
Speed Controller To
Sensing Electrical
Anemometer (ωa) Load
Rωa
R +
Σ
V
-

TSR
(Rω)optimal

Figure 7: Constant Tip-Speed Ratio Control Scheme

Peak Power Tracking

The power verses rotor speed curve given in Figure 5 has well-defined peaks, and the
following expression provides the conditions of the maximum power point.

dP
=0
dω
Therefore, by incrementally varying rotor speed by small amounts and evaluating ∆P/∆ω,
the peak power tracking scheme continuously tracks the optimal operating point and
adjusts rotor speed accordingly.

Generator

Load
Gearing
Controller Pelec
To
Speed e Electrical
Sensing Load
(ω a)
Σ
P
+ -
ω

Figure 8: Peak Power Tracking Scheme

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Over-Speed Protection
To prevent mechanical failure of an operating wind turbine, the system must have safety
features that prevent an overpower condition from developing that might jeopardize the
rotor or the electromechanical system. Such a system de-powers the turbine if the wind
speed is too high or the electrical loading is low. Four principle methods are used to
control and minimize rotor speed6:

1. Stall Control: During periods of high winds, the turbine blades are pitched to
stall the airfoil and completely de-power and stall the rotor.
2. Pitch Control: This scheme is similar to stall control in that the pitch of the
turbine blades is adjusted to reduce turbine power, but the control is fine
enough to slow the rotor speed without stalling.
3. Yaw or Tilt Control: The rotor axis is either actively or passively shifted out of
the wind. In Yaw Control, the nacelle is rotated to place the turbine’s profile
to the wind. In Tilt Control, the nacelle cants back until the axis of rotation is
perpendicular to the ground.
4. No Control: The mechanical and electrical designs are robust enough to
withstand all wind conditions.

System Power Curve

By combining the optimal operating point characteristics of the power tracking scheme
and the over-speed protection scheme, the wind system power curve results. This curve is
specific to the turbine-generator combination and has four distinct regions. When winds
are too weak to yield appreciable power, the turbine does not turn and no power is
produced. Once the wind speed reaches the cut-in wind speed the turbine is allowed to
spin, and the system efficiency stays relatively constant over a range of wind speeds
above the cut-in speed and below the turbines rated speed. Over this range, the turbine
speed is adjusted to maximize efficiency using one of the schemes outlined above.

Figure 9: Typical Wind Turbine System Power Curve7

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Once the wind reaches its rated value, the turbine is maintained at a constant speed
despite further increases in wind speed. In this region, the turbine is de-powered by
changing blade pitch or switching in a parasitic electrical load thereby raising generator
loading. Turbine speed is held constant to prevent exceeding system mechanical or
electrical design limits while allowing continued power generation. If the wind speed
climbs higher still, the cut-out speed is reached, and the generator is shuts down to
protect the rotor blades, generator and other components from failure. No power is
generated above the cut-out speed.

1
http://www.newenergy.org.cn/english/guide/size.htm, Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, 2004.
2
Ibid.
3
http://www.energy.iastate.edu/renewable/wind/wem/wem-01_print.html, Iowa Energy Center, 2000.
4
Patel, M. R., Wind and Solar Power Systems, CRC Press, LLC, 1999.
5
Eldridge,F.R., Wind Machines, Nostrand Reinhold, NY, 2nd ed..
6
Patel, M. R., Wind and Solar Power Systems, CRC Press, LLC, 1999.
7
http://www.jxj.com/magsandj/rew/2003_01/inside_wind.html, Renewable Energy World, James and
James (Science Publishers) Ltd, Jan-Feb 2003.