Chapter 10

Lateral Earth Pressure
10
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Pressure at a point within a liquid is the same in all directions (e.g., pore water pressure). Due to
friction between the grains, this is not the case in soils where normal stress varies with direction.
The lateral earth pressure can be quite different from the vertical normal stress that we have been
calculating in the previous chapters.
Very often in geotechnical engineering, we encounter problems that require the computation
of the lateral loadings on structures such as retaining walls, braced excavations, sheet piles,
basement walls, etc. Now that we know how to compute the vertical stresses at a point within the
soil mass- including the vertical stress increases caused by various loadings-it is time to look at
the horizontal loadings. Figure 10.1 shows examples of a few typical geotechnical applications
where it is required to know the horizontal loading. Figure 10.1a shows a concrete cantilevered
retaining wall that prevents the soil on the right from entering the highway; to assess the retaining
wall's stability, it is necessary to know the horizontal loadings on both sides. Figure 10.1b shows a
cantilevered sheet pile that supports the walls of the excavation. Sheet piles are sheets of concrete,
timber, or steel that interlock and arc driven into the ground to form a continuous wall. To ensure
the excavation's stability, it is required to know the horizontal earth pressures on both sides of the
sheet pile. When excavating narrow trenches for the purposes of laying pipelines etc., the
excavation walls are supported with timber or steel sheets and horizontal struts as shown in Figure
10.1c. A good understanding of the horizontal earth pressures is necessary for computing the
loadings on the struts and for designing the bracing system.
The focus of this chapter is to determine the horizontal normal stresses and their variations
with depth under special circumstances. The total and effective horizontal stresses are denoted by
σ hand σ h' respectively. The three special circumstances are at-rest state, active state, and passive
state. The state of at-rest is very stable. Where as the active and passive states occur when the soil
fails. We generally force most of our geotechnical problems into one of these three situations,
which are typically easier to solve. There are no simple analytical solutions to the problem when
it lies outside these three states.
225
226 Geotechnical Engineering
Figure 10.1 Geotechnical applications: (a) cantilevered retaining wall (b) cantilevered sheet
pile (c) braced excavation
10.2 AT-REST STATE

Figure 10.2a shows a homogeneous soil mass where A, B, and C are three points that show the
vertical and horizontal effective stresses. It is interesting to note that the ratio of σ ' h to σ ' v is the
same at all three points. This ratio, known as the coefficient of earth pressure at rest K 0 ,is a
unique constant for the homogeneous soil mass. When the soil is at-rest, there are no horizontal
strains or deformations, the main criterion defining an at-rest situation. An at-rest state is also
known as a K 0-state or K 0-condition. The Mohr circles representing the states of stresses at the
three points are shown in Figure IO.2b where the circles lie 'well below the failure envelope. In
saturated soils, in the presence of pore water pressure where the total and effective stresses are
different σ h /σ v is not a constant. Figure 1O.2c shows a soil profile that consists of three different
soils with their specific values of K 0. One-dimensional consolidation in an oedometer takes place
under K 0 condition-any strain is only vertical.
K o is a very useful parameter in geotechnical engineering computations. It can be measured in a

special triaxial apparatus where σ ' hand σ ' vare increased such that there is no lateral strain on the
sample during consolidation. Such consolidation, different than the isotropic consolidation
discussed in Chapter 9, is known as K 0-consolidation. K 0-consolidation is more realistic than the
isotropic consolidation in representing the in situ state of stress. In the field, K 0 can be measured
by a pressure meter, dilatometer, or K 0 stepped blade test, which will be discussed in Chapter 11.
Nevertheless, these tests are often costly for the client, and are not always justified. Generally, K 0
is estimated usi ng empirical correlations, which a.re discussed below; these estimates literally
cost nothing. If we assume that soil is a perfectly elastic isotropic continuum, it can be shown
that:
v
K 0=
1−v
(10.1)
Lateral Earth Pressures 227
Figure 10.2 At-rest state: (a) stresses at different points (b) Mohr circles (e) K 0
for different soils
where v is the Poisson's ratio of the soil. There are few empirical correlations for estimating K 0 .
The most popular of these is the one proposed by Jaky (1948) for normally consolidated clays and
sands, shown as:
K 0=1−sinϕ ' (10.2)
where ϕ ' is the effective friction angle. For normally consolidated clays, Massarsch (1979)
showed that:
K 0=0.44+0.0042 PI (10.3)
For normally consolidated clays, Alpan (1967) suggested that:

K 0=0.19+0.233 log PI (10.4)
The above equations show that typical values of K 0 for normally consolidated soils are in the
range of (OA to 0.6. For overconsolidated soils, it can exceed I (i.e., σ ' h> σ ' v ¿, and can be as high
as 3 for heavily over consolidated clays. For over consolidated soils:
( K ¿¿ 0)OC =¿ ¿ (10.5)
Mayne and Kulhawy (1982) suggested that m = sinϕ ' . Eurocode 7 (ECS 1997) suggests that m =
0.5 if the OCR is not very large.
Example 10.1: In a normally consolidated sandy clay deposit, the water table lies at a depth of 4 m.
The bulk and saturated unit weights or the soil are 17.0 kN/m 3 and 18.5 kN/m 3 respectively. The
effective friction angle of the soil is known as 25° from a consolidated, drained triaxial test. Find the
total horizontal stress a.t 10 m depth.
Solution:
ϕ ' =25° → K 0=1−sin25=0.58

At 10 m depth:
σ ' v =4 × 17.0+6 × ( 18.5−9.81 )=120.1 kPa ; u=6 × 9.81=58.9 kPa

∴ σ ' h=K 0 σ ' v =0.58× 120.1=69.7 kPa
σ h=σ ' h +u=69.7+58.9=128.6 kPa
Example 10.2: A rigid basement wall retains 6 m of backfill as shown below. The K 0 values or the
sand and clay are 0.45 and 0.56 respectively. Assuming the entire soil mass is in K 0-state, draw the
lateral pressure distribution with depth and determines the magnitude and location of the resultant
thrust on the wall.
Solution: Let’s compute the values ofσ ' h, u, and σ h at z = 0, 2m, 3m, and 6m depth where z is
measured from the ground level.
At z = 0, σ v =0 , u = 0,σ h=0, and σ ' h= 0
At z = 2m:
σ ' v =2 ×16.5=33.0 kPa
σ ' h= K 0 σ ' v =0.45 ×33.0=14.9 kPa
u=0 →σ h=σ ' h +u=14.9 kPa
Example 10.2: Continued
At z = 3m (in sand):
σ ' v =2 ×16.5+1 × ( 18−9.81 )=41.2kPa

σ ' h= K 0 σ ' v =0.45 × 41.2=18.5 kPa ,∧¿
u=1× 9.81=19.8 kPa
∴ σ h=σ ' h+ u=28.3 kPa
At z = 3m (in clay):
σ ' v =41.2 kPa
σ ' h= K 0 σ ' v =0.56 × 41.2=23.1 kPa ,∧¿
u=9.8 kPa
σ h=σ ' h +u=32.9 kPa
At z = 6m (in clay):
σ ' v =2 ×16.5+1 × ( 18−9.81 )+ 3× ( 18−9.81 )=67.3 kPa

σ ' h= K 0 σ ' v =0.56 ×67 .3 ¿ 37.7 kPa ,∧¿
Example 10.2: Continued
u=39.2 kPa→
σ u =σ ' h +u=76.9 kPa
These values are summarized:
σ ' u ( kPa ) u ( kPa ) σ h ( kPa )
Z=0 0 0 0
Z = 2m 14.9 0 14.9
Z =3m (sand) 18.5 9.8 28.3
Z = 3m (clay) 23.1 9.8 32.9
Z = 6m 37.7 39.2 76.9
The variations of σ ' h , u and σ h against depth are shown on the previous page.
The σ h=z is divided into the triangles and rectangles above. The horizontal load
contributions from each area (per m width), and the distances of these loads above the
bottom of the wall are summarized:
Zone Horizontal load (kN/m) Height (m) Moment (kN-m/m)
1 0.5 ×14.9 ×2=14.9 4.67 69.9
2 14.9 ×1=14.9 3.50 52.2
3 0.5 ×13.4 × 1=6.7 3.33 22.3
4 32.9 ×3=98.7 1.50 148.1
Total 201.2 424.2
∴The magnitude of the horizontal load (including the water thrust) is 201.2 kN-m/m
acting at a height of 2.11 m ( = 424.2/201.2 ) above the bottom of the wall.
10.3 RANKINE'S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY

The theories of Rankine (1857) and Coulomb (1176) are two earth pressure theories that we will
study in this chapter. These theories are often referred to as the classical earth pressure theories.
Rankine's theory is simpler and therefore more popular for computing earth pressures behind
retaining walls, basement walls, sheet piles, and braced excavations. This theory assumes that the
wall is smooth and vertical with no adhesion or friction along the soil-wall interface.
Consequently, there is no shear stress along the wall when the soil slides along the wall at failure.
In the absence of shear stresses along the wall, σ ' v and σ ' h are principal stresses (provided the
wall is vertical) as shown in Figure 10.3a. The smooth, vertical wall shown in Figure 10.3a
supports an excavation. As the excavation proceeds, the wall slowly deflects toward the left,
moving away from the soil on the right, and
toward the soil on the left, below the excavation level. The wall movement leads to a reduction in
σ ' hwithin the soil mass on the right, and an increase in σ ' h within the soil mass on the left. σ ' v
remains the same during the wall movement. When the horizontal movement of the wall becomes
large, failure takes place within the soil mass on both sides of the wall due to different
mechanisms. We will discuss them separately.
10.3.1 Active State
Figure 10.3b shows a smooth, vertical wall retaining a granular backfill of γ unit weight. There
are no lateral strains, and hence the soil is initially in at-rest state with σ ' v0 =γz andσ ' h 0=K 0 γz ,
represented by the dashed Mohr circle as shown. When the wall moves away from the soil σ ' v
remains the same ( ¿ γz )but σ ' hdecreases, and the Mohr circle becomes larger until it touches the
failure envelope where fa ilure takes place. We consider this the instant that the soil reaches active
state. The effective horizontal stress in th.is new active state is known as the active earth pressure
σ ' V −σ ' ha σ ' +σ ' ha
σ ' ha . From the Mohr circle, AP= and AO= v . Therefore:
2 2
AP σ ' V −σ ' ha
sin ϕ' = =
OP σ ' V + σ ' ha
(10.6)
( 1−sin ϕ' )
'
∴ σ ha=K A σ '
V Where K A= '
=tan 2 (45−¿ ϕ' /2), ¿ known as Rankine's coefficient
( 1+sin ϕ )
of active earth pressure. In the case of cohesive soils, because of the cohesion intercept on the
τ −axis , Equation 10.6 becomes:
σ ' ha=K A σ ' V −2 c ' √ K A (10.7)
The horizontal and vertical planes on the Mohr circle are shown along with the values of σ ' V and
σ ' ha in Figure 10.3b. The failure plane is represented by point P on the Mohr circle. It can be
deduced that the failure plane is inclined at 45 + ϕ ' /¿2 degrees to horizontal.
10.3.2 Passive State

As in the previous case, for the situation shown in Figure 10.3c, the soil is initially under no
lateral strains, and hence is in at-rest state with σ ' v0 =γz andσ ' ha=K 0 γz, represented by the dashed
Mohr circle. When the wall moves toward the soil (i.e., due to active earth pressure on the right
side), σ ' vremains the same (=γz ), but σ ' h increases, and the Mohr circle becomes a point the
instant they become equal. From this point forward, σ ' h exceeds σ ' v,and the Mohr circle continues
to expand until the failure envelope is touched; the soil is now considered in a passive state. The
effective horizontal stress in the passive state is known as the passive earth pressure σ ' hp .From the
Mohr circle at the passive state (Figure lO.3c):
σ ' hp−σ ' v σ ' +σ ' v

AP= And AO= hp
2 2
Figure 10.3 (a) lateral movement of a

smooth wall (b) when the wall moves
away from the soil (c) when the wall
moves toward the soil
Therefore:
' AP σ ' hp−σ ' v

sin ϕ = =
OP σ ' hp +σ ' v
∴ σ ' hp=K p σ ' V (10.8)
1+sin ϕ'
where K p =
( 1−sin ϕ ' )
=tan 2(45+ϕ ' /2), known as Rankine's coefficient of passive earth
pressure. In cohesive soils, Equation 10.8 becomes:

' Kp
σ ' hp=K p σ 'V −2 c √
The horizontal and vertical planes are shown along with the values of σ ' v and σ ' hp on the Mohr
circle in Figure 10.3c. The failure plane is represented by point P on the Mohr circle. It can be
deduced that the failure plane is inclined at 45−ϕ ' /2, degrees to horizontal.
The passive state occurs when the soil is laterally compressed to failure. The active state
occurs when the soil is allowed to laterally expand to failure from the initial at-rest state. The
active state occurs at every point within the soil mass to the right of the wall, and the passive state
occurs at every point within the soil mass to the left of the wall, with the failure planes oriented at
45+ ϕ' /2, and 45−ϕ ' /2 degrees respectively to horizontal as shown in Figure l0.4a.When the
' '
wall moves away from the soil, σ ' h decreases from the initial value of σ h 0 ( ¿ K 0 σ V ) to
σ ' ha ( ¿ K A σ ' V )at the active state, as shown in Figure l0.4b. When the wall moves toward the soil,
' ' ' '
σ ' h increases from the initial value of σ h 0 ( ¿ K 0 σ V ) to σ hp ( ¿ K p σ V )at the passive state, as shown
in Figure 10.4c. The active and passive earth pressures are the lower- and upper-bound values for
the earth pressure at a point within the soil mass. This applies to any loading situation. The lateral
movement required to fully mobilize the active ( Δ active) or passive (Δ passive) state depends on
the soil condition. These values are typically 0.1-2.0% of the wall height. The values are
significantly less for the active state than the values for the passive state. In other words, the
active state must be fully mobilized before the passive state. The weaker the soil, the larger the
horizontal movement required to mobilize active and passive states. The lateral displacement can
take place due to translational movement of the wall or rotation around the top or bottom of the
wall. The passive earth pressure coefficient is an order of magnitude greater than the active earth
pressure coefficient. For example, whenϕ '= 30°, K A = 0.333, K 0 = 0.5. and K p = 3.
10.3.3 Lateral Pressure Distributions in Active and Passive States

The lateral earth pressure distributions on both sides of a smooth wall are shown in figure 10.5a
for a granular soil and Figure 10.5b for a cohesive soil. The heights of the retained soil are H on
the right and h on the left. The entire soil masses on the right and left are assumed active and
passive respectively. The unit weight of the soil isγ . In granular soil, σ ' ha=K A σ ' V =K A γz , where
z is the depth below the ground level. Therefore, the lateral pressure distribution is linear on both
sides of the wall as shown in Figure 10.5a, with values of K A γH and K p γh at the bottom.
Figure 10.4 (a) failure planes (b) σ ' h variation while wall moves away from the soil (e)
σ ' h variation while wall moves toward the soil
The resultant active P A and passive P p thrusts on the wall are the areas of the pressure diagrams,
given by:
1
P A = K A γH 2
2
(10.10)
and
1
P p= K p γH 2 (10.11)
2
which act at heights of H/3 and h/3 respectively from the bottom of the wall.
σ ' h in cohesive soils is given by Equations 10.7 and 10.9 in active and passive stales respectively.
The variations of σ ' h with depth are shown in Figure l0.5b. For cohesive soils in the active state,
the soil is in tension up to a depth of z 0. At the ground level (z = 0), the values of σ ' hin the active
and passive states are −2 c ' √ K Aand −2 c ' √ K prespectively. In granular soils, they were zero. In
the viewpoint of a designer, active thrust is a load and passive thrust is a resistance.
Figure 10.5 lateral earth pressure distributions: (a) in granular soils (b) in cohesive soils
Theoretically, the tensile stresses near the ground on the right work in favor of the designer, thus
reducing the resultant thrust and improving the stability. In reality, tensile cracks are likely to
develop up to a depth of z 0with little contact between the wall and the soil in this zone. Therefore,
it is unwise to rely on these tensile stresses. It is a good practice to neglect the tensile zone and to
conservatively estimate the resultant active thrust as 0.5 K A γ ( H−z 0 )2, TIle depth z 0can be
calculated as 2 c ' /(γ √ K A ) For clays in undrained situations, c u and ϕ u = 0 should be used in
Equations 10.7 and 10.9, with K A = K p = 1. The depth z 0 becomes 2 c u /γ .
10.3.4 Inclined Granular Backfills

Until now, we were looking at smooth, vertical walls retaining granular and cohesive backfills
where the ground level was horizontal. Let's have a brief look at smooth, vertical walls retaining
granular backfills where the ground is inclined at β to horizontal as shown in Figure 10.6.
The pressure on the wall at depth z from the top, acting parallel to the slope (i.e., inclined at β to
horizontal), is K A γz in the active state (to the right of the wall in Figure 10.6) and K p γz in the
passive state. However, the coefficients K A and K p are now different. From Mohr circles, they
are given by:
cos β−√ cos2 β−cos2 ϕ'

K A =cos β (10.12)
cos β+ √cos 2 β −cos2 ϕ'
Figure 10.6 Inclined granular backfills
cos β−√ cos2 β−cos2 ϕ '

K A =cos β
cos β+ √ cos 2 β −cos2 ϕ '
The resultant active and passive thrusts are given by 0.5 K A γH 2and 0.5 K A γh2. When β = 0.
Equations l0.12 and 10.13 are the same as the Rankine's coefficients of earth pressure with
horizontal backfills. When c ' ≠ 0 (i.e., cohesive soils), the above equations cannot be applied. For
a specific friction angle, K A increases with β , and K p decreases with β .
10.3.5 Effect of Uniform Surcharge

When the lateral earth pressure distributions are computed on the active and passive sides,
sometimes it may be required to assess the effects of having some surcharge at the ground level.
A close look at Equations 10.7 and 10.9 shows that the surcharge q at the ground level, spread
over a large lateral extent, would increase σ ' vat any depth by q, and hence increase σ ' h at any
depth by K U , where K can be K A , K 0 ,or K p , depending on the situation.
Example 10.3: A 6 m-high smooth, vertical wall retains 4 m of sandy backfill underlain by 2
m of clayey gravel. The entire soil mass is in the active slate. ϕ ' sand = 34° ; ϕ ' clayey gravel = 31° ;
and c’ = 5 kPa. If a uniform surcharge of 25 kPa is placed at the ground level on top of the
retained soil mass, what would be the magnitude, direction, and location of the additional
horizontal thrust due to this surcharge?
34 31
2
Solution: K A ,sand =tan 45− ( 2 ) (
=0.283 ; K A , clayey gravel =tan 2 45−
2 )
=0.320
The distribution of additional σ ' h , caused by the surcharge, is shown:
The resultant thrust, P A =4 × 7.08+2 ×8.00=44.32per m width, acting at a height of

y, given by:
( 4 ×7.08 × 4 ) + ( 2 ×8.00 ×1 )
y= =2.917 m
44.32
10.4 COULOMB'S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY

Coulomb's (1776) limit equilibrium theory was proposed about 80 years before Rankine's, and is a
little more complex. The assumptions are closer to reality, however. For example, Coulomb's
theory does not assume a smooth wall and allows for friction and adhesion along the wall. It does
not require that the wall be vertical. It assumes that the wall moves laterally to allow failure to
take place along a plane passing through the toe of the wall (see Figure 10.7). Here, the soil
wedge trapped between the retaining wall and the failure plane slides downward along the failure
plane in the active state and upward along the failure plane in the passive state. A graphical
procedure (discussed on page 238) is required for computing the active and passive earth
pressures when the ground surface is irregular.
238Geotechnical Engineering
Figure 10.7 Coulomb's failure theory in granular soils
Figure 10.7 shows a gravity retaining wall with granular soils on both sides-right in the active
state and left in the passive state. In active state, failure takes place when the soil wedge ABC
slides along the failure plane AC inclined at θ A horizontal. The exact inclination of the failure
plane is not known. We will assume a series of values for θ A , and will carry out a trial-and error
process. For any assumed value of θ A , the soil wedge is in equilibrium under three forces: self-
weight of the wedgeW A , known in magnitude and direction; active thrust P A known in direction
but not the magnitude; and reaction on the failure plane R A , known in direction, but not the
magnitude. We can deduce from Chapter 9 that the reaction R A would be inclined at an angle of
ϕ 'to the normal to the failure plane. This is true on a soil-soil interface such as AC. When a soil
mass slides along another material surface such as AB. This angle would be less, and is known as
the angle of wall friction, denoted by δ . This angle of wall friction depends on the friction angle
of the soil and the surface characteristics of the material. It can be determined from a direct shear
2 '
test. For a soil-concrete interface, δ can be taken as 0.5-0.8 ϕ ' , with ϕ cp' being a popular
3
choice. δ /ϕ ' is generally higher for concrete than it is for steel. The lower end of the range applies
when soil is in contact with timber, steel, and precast concrete, and the upper end applies to cast-
in-place concrete where the interface is relatively rough. Theoretically, 0 ≤ δ ≤ ϕ ' , with δ = 0 for
very smooth walls and δ =¿ ϕ ' for very rough walls.
The active thrust P A for the assumed value of θ A can be determined by drawing a force
triangle as shown in Figure 10.7. This can be repeated for several values of θ A , against which the
computed values of P A can be plotted. The highest value of P A is taken as the resultant active
thrust on the wall.
The graphical procedure discussed above is quite similar for the passive side as well. When
the computed values of P Pare plotted against the assumed values of θ p the lowest value of P Pis
taken as the resultant passive thrust on the wall. Remember, active thrust is a load and passive
thrust is a resistance. Therefore, taking the maximum value for P A and the minimum value for P P
makes sense.
When the ground surface is inclined at β to horizontal on the active side, the resultant active
thrust P A can be shown to be 0.5 K A γH 2, where K A is given by:
2
sin ( α A +ϕ ' ) ¿ sinα A
K A=
( √ sin ( α A−δ ) + √ sin ( ϕ' +δ ) sin ( ϕ' −β )

sin ( α A + β ) )
For a α A = 90°,δ = 0, β = 0, K A reduces to what is given by Rankine's theory for vertical walls
with horizontal backfills. Coulomb's theory does not give the location of the active thrust P A . We
can assume it is acting at a height of H/3 from The bottom of the wall, inclined at δ to the normal
to the wall-soil interface as shown in the figure.
The passive thrust PI' can be written as 0.5 K p γH 2, where h is the height of point E from the
bottom, and K p is given by:
2
sin ( α p −ϕ' ) /sinα p
K p=
( √ sin ( α p + δ ) + √ sin ( ϕ' +δ ) sin ( ϕ' −β )

sin ( α p + β ) )
β is the inclination of the ground level on the passive side. For α p = 90°,δ = 0, β = 0, K A
reduces to what is given by Rankine's theory for vertical walls with horizontal backfills.
Allowing friction along the soil-wall interface leads to a reduction in P A and an increase in
P p . from what is expected when the wall is smooth. In reality, the failure planes (or more
appropriately, surfaces) are curved near the bottom of the wall, which leads to a slight
underestimation of the active thrust. The error is more significant on the passive side, especially
when ϕ '/3, grossly overestimating the passive thrust. More realistic estimates of P pcan be
obtained by neglecting the wall friction (I.e., δ = 0) or by using Rankine's theory.
In granular soils, the soil wedges in both active and passive states are in equilibrium under
three forces. In cohesive soils, it is necessary to include the cohesive resistance along the failure
plane within the soil (AC or DF) and the adhesive resistance along the wall-soil interface (AB or
DE). For both forces, the magnitudes and directions are known, and hence the force polygon can
be drawn. The cohesive resistance is the product of the length of the failure plane (AC or DF) and
cohesion. The adhesive resistance is the product of the length of the wall-soil contact plane (AB
and DE) and adhesion. We defined the angle of wall friction δ as a fraction of ϕ '. A similar
definition is applicable for adhesion. It can be defined as a fraction of cohesion typically 0.5- 0.7,
where the fraction depends on the contact surface and whether the soil is in the active or passive
state.
 K 0 is defined in terms of effective stresses; σ h /σ v is not a constant.

 K 0=1−sin ϕ' in normally consolidated clays and sands; it increases
with the OCR.
 Rankine's theory assumes that the wall is vertical and smooth.
Coulomb's theory allows the wall to be inclined and friction and/or
adhesion along the soil-wall interface.
 Rankine: For smooth, vertical wall against a horizontal backfill,
σ ' ha=K A σ ' v −2 c ' √ K A and σ ' hp=K p σ ' v +2 c ' √ K p failure
planes are inclined at 45+ ϕ' /2 to horizontal in the active state and
45−ϕ ' /2 to horizontal in the passive state.
1+sin ϕ'
K A= ( 1−sin ϕ ')=tan 2 ( 45−ϕ' /2 ) and
1+sin ϕ'
K p= (1−sin ϕ ' )
=tan 2 ( 45−ϕ ' /2 ). Use Equations 10.12 and 10.13
for K A and K p of inclined granular backfills.

 Coulomb's theory overestimates passive resistance significantly
when δ >ϕ' /3. Rankine's theory is better for passive resistance, or
WORKED EXAMPLES
I. The soil profile shown in the figure on page 241 consists of a 6 m-thick sand layer underlain by
saturated clay where the water table lies 2 m below the ground level. The entire soil mass is
retained by a concrete retaining wall and is in the active slate. Find the total horizontal earth
pressures at A, B, and C.
Solution:
( 342 )=0.283
2
For sand, K A =tan 45−
25
For clay, K =tan ( 45− )=0.406
2
A
2
At A:
σ ' V =1 ×17=17 kPa
σ ' h=K A σ ' V =0.283 ×17=4.81kPa ,∧u=0
∴ σ h=σ ' h +u=4.81=4.8 kPa

At B:
σ ' V =2 ×17+3 × ( 20−9.81 )=64.6 kPa
σ ' h= K A σ ' V =0.283× 64.6=18.3 kPa

u=3× 9.81=29.4=47.7 kPa
∴ σ h=σ ' h +u=18.3+ 29.4=47.7 kPa
At C:
σ ' V =2 ×17+3 × ( 20−9.81 )=93.1 kPa
σ ' h= K A σ ' V −2c ' √ K A =0.406 × 93.1−2 ×20 × √ 0.406=12.3 kPa

u=6 ×9.81=58.9 kPa→ σ h =12.3+ 58.9=71.9 kPa
2. A smooth retaining wall with 2 m of embedment in the clayey sand retains a 6 m-high sandy
backfill as shown in part (a) of the figure on page 242. Assuming that the entire soil mass on the
right side of the wall is in the active state and the soil on the left is in the passive state, compute
the active and passive thrusts on the wall.
Solution:
33
K A ,sand =tan 2 45− ( 2)=0.295
( 252 )=0.406
K A ,clayey sand =tan 2 45−
25
=tan ( 45− )=2.46
2
K A ,c layey sand
2
Let's calculateσ ' hvalues on the right (active) side.

Top of sand: σ ' h=0
Just above the water table: σ ' h=0.295× 6 ×17.0=30.1 kPa
Just below the water table:
σ ' h= K A σ ' V −2c ' √ K A
¿ 0.406 ×6 × 17−2 ×15 × √0.406=22.3 kPa

At 2 m into the clayey sand:
σ ' h= K A σ ' V −2c ' √ K A
¿ 0.406 × [ 6 × 17+2 × ( 20−9.81 ) ]−2 ×15 ×√ 0.406

¿ 30.6 kPa
Now let calculate σ ' h values on the left (passive) side.
Top of clayey sand:
σ ' h= K p σ 'V −2 c ' √ K p=2 ×15 × √ 0.406=19.1 kpa

At 2 m into clayey sand:
σ ' h= K p σ 'V −2 c ' √ K p
¿ 2.46 ×2 × ( 20−9.81 ) +2 ×15 × √ 0.406=69.2 kPa
These values of σ ' h are plotted with depth as shown in part (b) in the figure on page 242.
Horizontal
Zone load (kN/m) Height (m) Moment (kN-m/m)
1 0.5 ×30.1 ×6=90.3 4.0 361.2
2 22.3 ×2=44.6 1.0 44.6
3 0.5 ×8.3 × 2=8.3 0.667 5.5
4 19.1 ×2=38.2 1.0 38.2
5 0.5 ×50.1 ×2=50.1 0.667 33.4
P A =90.3+ 44.6+8.3=143.2kN
P A =38.2+50.1=88.3 kN
( 361.2+ 44.6+5.5 )
P A acts at a height of = 2.87 m above the bottom of the wall.
143.2
( 38.2+ 33.4 )
P A acts at a height of = 0.81 m above the bottom of the wall.
88.3
In addition to P A and P p ,there is also the water thrust on the wall due to the pore water pressure,
which is the same on both sides.
3. A vertical wall retains a granular backfill where the inclination of the ground level to
horizontal is expected to be within 20°. Carry out a quantitative assessment of the possible earth
pressures, assuming the backfill is in the active state, using Rankine's and Coulomb's lateral earth
pressure theories.
Solution: In both Coulomb's and Rankines earth pressure theories, the magnitude of the
resultant active thrust P A is given by 0.5 K A γH 2. II acts at H/3 from the bottom of the
wall with inclination of β to horizontal according to Rankine's theory and b to horizontal
according to Coulomb's theory. Let's investigate the K A value
The problem below shows the plot of K A versus ϕ ' for different values of β based on Rankine's
theory (Equation 10.12) and Coulomb's theory (Equation 10.14). In Equation 10.14, substituting
α A= 90°;
cos ϕ'
K A=
sin ( ϕ' +δ ) sin ( ϕ' −β )
√cos δ +
√ cos β
The above expression was used to develop the plot for Coulomb's K A
The problem below shows the plot of K A versus ϕ ' for different values of β based on Rankine's
theory (Equation 10.12) and Coulomb's theory (Equation 10.14). In Equation 10.14, substituting
α A= 90°;
cos ϕ'
K A=
sin ( ϕ' +δ ) sin ( ϕ' −β )
√cos δ +
√ cos β
The above expression was used to develop the plot for Coulomb's K A
In the case of Coulomb's theory, as expected, the greater the wall friction, the lower the lateral
earth pressure. Nevertheless, there is very little difference between δ = 0.5 ϕ ' and δ = 0.8 ϕ ' ,the
difference being less than 2% in K A .For β = 10 - 20°, Rankine's and Coulomb's theories give
very similar values. For small values of β , Rankine's theory gives larger earth pressures, and
hence is more conservative than Coulomb's theory. K A increases with β .
4. A vertical wall retains a granular backfill where the ground level is horizontal. It is proposed to
use Coulomb's earth pressure theory for computing the lateral earth pressure, assuming the
backfill is in the active state. Assess the effect of δ /ϕ 'on K A .
Solution: For β=0 and ∝ A=90 °, K A given by Equation 10.14 becomes:
cos ϕ'
∝ A=
√ cos δ +√ sin ( ϕ' +δ ) sin ϕ'
The above expression for K A was used to develop the illustration on this page for δ /ϕ' values of
0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0. For δ /ϕ' =0 (smooth wall), the K A values are the same as those from
Rankin e's theory. It is expected that the larger the wall friction δ /ϕ' , the lower the K A . At high
friction angles, there is some inconsistency when δ /ϕ' is greater than 0.25. There is about a 10%
reduction in K A when δ /ϕ' increases from 0 to 0.5, and there is little change from 0.5 to 1.0.
5. A smooth, vertical wall retains an inclined granular backfill. Discuss the difference between the
K A values obtained from using Rankine's (Equation 10.12) and Coulomb's (Equation 10.14)
theories.
Solution: Substituting δ =0 in Coulomb's equation does not give Rankine's K A ; they are
slightly different. They are the same only when {J = 0. Coulomb's K A from Equation
10.14 becomes:
cos ϕ'
K A=
sin ϕ' sin ( ϕ' −β )
1+
√ cos β
The K A values generated for β =0, 5°, 10°, '15°, and 20° are shown. Both Rankine's and
Coulomb's theories suggest that the larger the β , the larger the K A , which can be seen intuitively.
When the wall friction is neglected, Coulomb's K A values are slightly larger than Rankine's K A
values at all friction angles; they are the same only for β = 0.
REVIEW EXERCISES
I. State whether the following are true or false.
a. In the active state, the lateral thrust on a smooth, vertical wall retaining a horizontal backfill is
greater in loose sands than it is in dense sands.
b. In the passive state, the lateral thrust on a smooth vertical wall retaining a horizontal backfill is
greater in loose sands than it is in dense sands.
c. A smooth, vertical wall retains a granular soil, which is at-rest ( K 0 state). The lateral thrust is
greater if the soil is over consolidated than if it is normally consolidated.
d. A smooth wall retains an inclined granular backfill. The larger the inclination of the backfill,
the larger the lateral thrust.
e. Generally, Coulomb's K A is greater than Rankine's.
Answer: True, False, True, True, False.
2. A 5 m-high smooth, vertical wall retains a granular backfill with unit weight of 18 kN/m3 and a friction
angle of 35°. Find the magnitude and location of the resultant active thrust. If a 10 kPa uniform surcharge
acts at the top of the backfill, find the magnitude and location of the active thrust.
Answer: 61.0 kN/m @1.67 m above tile bottom; 74.5 kN @1.82 m
3. An 8 m-high smooth, vertical wall retains a backfill where the ground level is horizontal. The top 3 m
of the backfill consists of clay c ' =10 kPa, γ = 19 kN/m 3, and ϕ ' = 23°. The bottom 5 m is sand where
γ =19 kN /m3 cracks would be present.
Neglecting the tensile zone, the magnitude and location of the active thrust that you would
recommend.
Answer: 1.59 m; 162.3 kN/m @2.29 m above the bottom
4. A 10 m-high gravity retaining wall retains a granular backfill where the ground is inclined to the
horizontal at 15°. The friction angle and bulk unit weight of the backfill are 34 ° and 18 kN/m 3 .The wall
is inclined at 80° to horizontal. Using Coulomb's theory and assuming a wall friction angle of 20°,
estimate the magnitude of the active thrust on the wall.
Answer: 371 kN/m
5. A smooth, vertical wall retains a 7 m-high granular backfill with the ground level being horizontal. The
water table lies at a depth of 3 m from the top. The friction angle of the backfill is 32°". The bulk and
saturated unit weight of the soil are 16.5 kN/ m 3 and 18.0 kN/m 3 respectively. Assuming the soil is in the
active state, determine the magnitude and location of the horizontal thrust on the wall.
Answer: 225 kN @2.30 m above the bottom
6. A 6 m-high vertical wall retains a granular backfill where the ground level is inclined at 10° to the
horizontal. The bulk unit weight of the fill is 18.0 kN/ m 3, and the friction angle is 33°. Assuming the
backfill is in the active state, determine the magnitude of the resultant thrust on the wall assuming the
following:
a. Rankine: Smooth wall
b. Coulomb: Smooth wall
c. Coulomb, δ /ϕ' = 0.5
d. Coulomb, δ /ϕ' = 0.67
Answer: 99.6 kN/m, 106.2 kN, 97.6 kN, 97.0 kN

7. A 3 m-high vertical wall is pushed against a granular soil where the ground level is horizontal. The
bulk unit weight and friction angle of the soil are 18.0 kN/m 3 and 34° respectively. If the soil is in the
passive state, determine the horizontal thrust assuming the following:
a. Rankine: Smooth wall
b. Coulomb: Smooth wall
c. Coulomb:δ /ϕ' =¿ 0.5
d. Coulomb: δ /ϕ' =¿ 0.67
Answer: 286.5 kN/m, 286.5 kN/m, 548.1 kN/m, 726.3 kN/m

9. A smooth gravity wall retains a 12 m-high backfill as shown in the figure below. The top 8 m is sand,
which is underlain by some clay: The soil properties are as follows:
Sand:γ m=18.9 kN /m 3 , γ sat =19.89 kN /m 3 ; ϕ ' =20 ° .

Sand:γ sat =20.1kN /m 3 , ϕ ' =18° ; c ' =20 kPa .
Assuming that the entire soil is in the active state, find the location and magnitude of the total thrust on
the wall.
Answer: 603.6 kN/m at 3.46 m above the bottom of the wall

9. The gravity wall shown in the figure on the next page retains medium-dense sandy soil with a friction
angle of 35° and a saturated unit weight of 20.0 kN /m3. The specific gravity of the sand is 2.65 and
permeability is 4.5 × 10−3 cm/s .
a. Compute the flow rate beneath the wall in m 3/day per m width
b. Find the safety factor with respect to piping
c. Compute the pore water pressure and effective vertical stress at A, B, C, D, and E
d. Estimate the total thrust on the right side of the wall, assuming that the entire soil is in the active state
Answer:3.9 m 3 /day per m; 2.3 ; 0 kPa , 23 kPa ,37 kPa ,25 kPa , 0 kPa , 0 kPa ,63 kPa,
5 kPa , 0 kPa ; 139 kN per m at 1.8 mabaove thebottom wall
10. A rigid basement wall shown in the figure on the following page retains a granular backfill. A strip
footing of width b at the ground level applies a uniform pressure of q to the underlying soil. For q
¿ 50 kPa ,a = 1.5 m, b = 2.0 m, and h = 7.0 m. Assuming the soil to be elastic (E = 10 MPa, v = 0.25), use
SIGMA/ W to assess the horizontal loadings on the basement wall due to the strip load.
Assuming that the wall does not yield, the literature reports that the horizontal stress at a point A is given
by:
q
σ ' h= ( β−sin β cos 2 α )
π
Determine if your estimates from SIGMA/W match the predictions from the above equation.
Note that in reality the wall is expected to yield making the horizontal stress significantly
greater the value of which is given by:
2q
σ ' h= ( β−sin β cos 2 α )
π

Chapter 10

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Lateral Earth Pressure

10.2 AT-REST STATE

K o is a very useful parameter in geotechnical engineering computations. It can be measured in a

For normally consolidated clays, Alpan (1967) suggested that:

ϕ ' =25° → K 0=1−sin25=0.58

σ ' v =4 × 17.0+6 × ( 18.5−9.81 )=120.1 kPa ; u=6 × 9.81=58.9 kPa

At z = 0, σ v =0 , u = 0,σ h=0, and σ ' h= 0

Example 10.2: Continued

σ ' v =2 ×16.5+1 × ( 18−9.81 )=41.2kPa

σ ' v =2 ×16.5+1 × ( 18−9.81 )+ 3× ( 18−9.81 )=67.3 kPa

Example 10.2: Continued

These values are summarized:

σ ' u ( kPa ) u ( kPa ) σ h ( kPa )

10.3 RANKINE'S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY

σ ' ha=K A σ ' V −2 c ' √ K A (10.7)

10.3.2 Passive State

σ ' hp−σ ' v σ ' +σ ' v

Figure 10.3 (a) lateral movement of a

' AP σ ' hp−σ ' v

∴ σ ' hp=K p σ ' V (10.8)

pressure. In cohesive soils, Equation 10.8 becomes:

10.3.3 Lateral Pressure Distributions in Active and Passive States

10.3.4 Inclined Granular Backfills

cos β−√ cos2 β−cos2 ϕ'

Figure 10.6 Inclined granular backfills

cos β−√ cos2 β−cos2 ϕ '

10.3.5 Effect of Uniform Surcharge

The distribution of additional σ ' h , caused by the surcharge, is shown:

The resultant thrust, P A =4 × 7.08+2 ×8.00=44.32per m width, acting at a height of

10.4 COULOMB'S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY

Figure 10.7 Coulomb's failure theory in granular soils

( √ sin ( α A−δ ) + √ sin ( ϕ' +δ ) sin ( ϕ' −β )

( √ sin ( α p + δ ) + √ sin ( ϕ' +δ ) sin ( ϕ' −β )

 K 0 is defined in terms of effective stresses; σ h /σ v is not a constant.

for K A and K p of inclined granular backfills.

σ ' h=K A σ ' V =0.283 ×17=4.81kPa ,∧u=0

∴ σ h=σ ' h +u=4.81=4.8 kPa

σ ' V =2 ×17+3 × ( 20−9.81 )=64.6 kPa

σ ' h= K A σ ' V =0.283× 64.6=18.3 kPa

σ ' V =2 ×17+3 × ( 20−9.81 )=93.1 kPa

σ ' h= K A σ ' V −2c ' √ K A =0.406 × 93.1−2 ×20 × √ 0.406=12.3 kPa

Let's calculateσ ' hvalues on the right (active) side.

Top of sand: σ ' h=0

Just above the water table: σ ' h=0.295× 6 ×17.0=30.1 kPa

Just below the water table:

σ ' h= K A σ ' V −2c ' √ K A

¿ 0.406 ×6 × 17−2 ×15 × √0.406=22.3 kPa

σ ' h= K A σ ' V −2c ' √ K A

¿ 0.406 × [ 6 × 17+2 × ( 20−9.81 ) ]−2 ×15 ×√ 0.406

Now let calculate σ ' h values on the left (passive) side.

Top of clayey sand:

σ ' h= K p σ 'V −2 c ' √ K p=2 ×15 × √ 0.406=19.1 kpa

σ ' h= K p σ 'V −2 c ' √ K p

¿ 2.46 ×2 × ( 20−9.81 ) +2 ×15 × √ 0.406=69.2 kPa

2 22.3 ×2=44.6 1.0 44.6

3 0.5 ×8.3 × 2=8.3 0.667 5.5

4 19.1 ×2=38.2 1.0 38.2

5 0.5 ×50.1 ×2=50.1 0.667 33.4

Solution: For β=0 and ∝ A=90 °, K A given by Equation 10.14 becomes:

Answer: 99.6 kN/m, 106.2 kN, 97.6 kN, 97.0 kN

Answer: 286.5 kN/m, 286.5 kN/m, 548.1 kN/m, 726.3 kN/m

Sand:γ m=18.9 kN /m 3 , γ sat =19.89 kN /m 3 ; ϕ ' =20 ° .