Theories of drug craving, ancient and

modern
D. Colin Drummond
First published:03 May 2002
 
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.961333.x
Citations: 193
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.961333.x

This paper reviews the principal theoretical models of drug craving and provides some
directions for future research. The main models are classified broadly into three categories: (1)
phenomenological models; based on clinical observation and description; these have been
influential in classification systems of addictive disorders and in the development of
pharmacological therapies; (2) conditioning models: based on conditioning theory; these have
been influential in the development of cue exposure treatments; (3) cognitive theories; based on
cognitive social learning theory: these have been influential in the development of cognitive
therapies of addiction. It is concluded that no one specific theory provides a complete
explanation of the phenomenon of craving. However, theories of craving grounded in general
theories of human behaviour offer greatest promise, and generate more specific and testable
research hypotheses. Theories that do not require craving to be present for relapse to occur
have more empirical support than those that provide simplistic causal explanations. The cue‐
reactivity model shows promise in the exploration of the relationship between craving and
relapse. However, further attention to the phenomenology of craving could help to advise the
future measurement and study of drug craving, particularly in the context of research in which
drugs are available to human subjects, with adequate ethical safeguards. There is a need for
further study of the temporal dynamics of craving and consensus in the field on the most
appropriate methods of measurement. Finally, new psychotherapies such as cue exposure and
pharmacotherapies that aim to attenuate drinking behaviour, such as naltrexone and
acamprosate, provide opportunities to improve understanding of the nature and significance of
craving. However, the relatively uncritical assumption that craving is the underlying basis of
addiction and represents the most appropriate target for treatment is challenged.
 Classical Conditioning, Drug Tolerance,
and Drug Dependence
 Shepard Siegel

o 1
1. 1.Department of PsychologyMcMaster UniversityHamiltonCanada
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4613-3626-6_6
Cite this chapter as:
Siegel S. (1983) Classical Conditioning, Drug Tolerance, and Drug Dependence. In: Research
Advances in Alcohol and Drug Problems. Research Advances in Alcohol and Drug Problems, vol
7. Springer, Boston, MA

Most theories of drug tolerance and dependence stress the physiological

consequences of repeated pharmacological stimulation. There is considerable
evidence, however, that the organism’s experience with the drug administration
environment, as well as the drug, often importantly contributes to tolerance and
dependence. The role of such environmental cues has been elaborated in a
model which emphasizes Pavlovian conditioning principles. This account is
based on the work of a number of investigators, but primarily Wikler (e.g., 1973,
1977, 1980), who have stressed the contribution of pharmacological learning to
drug effects. This chapter describes the conditioning theory of tolerance,
summarizes the data which supports the theory, discusses the relevance of the
theory to drug dependence, and presents the implications ofthe theory for the
treatment of drug abuse. Since some of the material has been summarized
previously (Hinson and Siegel, 1980; Siegel, 1978a, 1979 b), this chapter
emphasizes developments subsequent to earlier reviews.

Title:  Assessment of Drug Abuse among the Students of

Tertiary Institutions in Agogo Township
Authors:  Baah Baafi, Irene
Keywords:  Drug Abuse
Students
Tertiary Institutions
Assessment
Asante Akyem Agogo
Issue Date:  27-Jun-2018
 Abstract:  Drug abuse has always been seen as a psycho-
social problem that affects the society and this
threatens the future of its youth. The present
study was conducted to assess drug or substance
abuse among tertiary students. A non-
experimental survey with descriptive quantitative
design was employed in the study. The research
was conducted among tertiary institutions namely
Presbyterian University College Ghana,
Presbyterian Nurses’ and Midwifery Training
College and Agogo Presbyterian Women’s’ College
of Education all in Asante Akyem Agogo. A sample
size of three hundred and forty (340) was chosen
using Krejcie and Morgan’s formula taken from a
population of 2910 in which 97% responded.
Questionnaires comprising open and closed ended
questions were distributed to gather data from the
respondents after which it was analyzed using the
Statistical Package of Social Sciences. The study
revealed that drugs such as alcohol (91.7%),
marijuana (46.7%), cocaine (11.7%), cigarette
(35%), tobacco (35%), tranquilizers (21.7%)
were been used. Factors such as peer influence
(48.3%), curiosity (23.3%) and reliever of fatigue
(13.3%) are the main reasons for respondents’
indulgent in drugs. The study concluded that
factors that are associated with students on
campus use of drugs include gender of individual,
unstructured time with peers, socio-economic
factors, poor parent-family connectedness,
parental responsiveness and community factors
like drug availability and it is therefore
recommended that policies should be enacted to
increase number of trained drug addiction
counseling lecturers, rules and regulations
concerning drug addiction should be made strict
and parental check is also recommended.
URI:  http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/206
Appears in Collections: Department of Nursing
http://ir.presbyuniversity.edu.gh:8080/jspui/handle/123456789/206

_______-
Paper Information

Journal:   IRANIAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS   fall 2018-winter 2019 , Volume 9 , Number 2 #g00501;

Page(s) 237 To 258.

Paper: 

Qualitative Study on the Phenomenology of Marijuana Addiction Among Students in Tehran

Author(s):  FAROKHI MEYSAM, Shahbazi Amin

* 

Abstract: 

The purpose of this study is to investigate the experience of Marijuana addiction among students in Tehran. In this
study, The information of 12 Marijuana affiliates has been compiled by interviewing and participating observation for
1 year and 4 months, And the data collected have been analyzed and interpreted by the method of
phenomenological methodology. The results of the research in four main themes of the position of family and
relatives in reducing or increasing the tendency towards narcotics, Effective factors in the tendency to experience
drug use, The mental and psychological effects of Marijuana's addiction, Action and behavioral factors caused by
marijuana use, And 25 sub-themes include the history of addiction in family members, Lack of adequate supervision
during adolescence and youth, The lack of attention to the presence of the father in the teenage education process,
Family Violence, The social thrill of conflicting attitudes to religious values in the family, Accompanying relatives in
social anomalies, The addiction of relatives and family as a stimulant of drug use, Control of drug use due to
emotional attachment to parents, Use videos and songs with addictive content, Provide the appropriate place,
Accompanying friends and relatives in drug use, Drug tendency to escape from problems, Addiction to marijuana for
pleasure, Loss of emotions and sentimentality, Reduce social relationships, Earning pleasure only through drugs, A
strong tendency to experience other drugs, Not being able to leave drugs, Courage and boldness false, Confusion
when sleeping, The gradual increase in drug use, Create illusion, music, Dance, Silence, Severe laugh, Claver. The
results indicate that social factors such as family, Relatives and consumption of cultural products are very influential
in the course of addiction. In addition, Students do not have a proper understanding of the consequences of using
Marie-Juana, And they assumed that there would be no problem for them if consumers had multiple physical and
psychological problems.

Keyword(s): Phenomenology,Marijuana,Addiction,Drugs,Tehran Students