 Are eukaryotes organisms whose cells have distinct nucleus containing the

cell’s genetic material, surrounded by a special envelope called the nuclear

membrane.
 They may be unicellular or multicellular.
 True fungi have cell walls composed primarily of a substance called CHITIN.
 Large multicellular fungi, like mushrooms, may look like plants but cannot
photosynthesize.
 The unicellular forms of fungi, yeasts, are oval microorganisms that are larger
than bacteria.
 Most forms of fungi are molds, form visible masses called mycelia, which are
composed of long filaments (hyphae) that branch and intertwine.
 Mycology – Study of fungi

 They are important in food chains because they decompose dead plant matter,  ZYGOMYCOTA – the conjugation fungi, are
thereby recycling vital nutrients. saprophytic molds that have coenocytic hyphae.
 Through the use of extracellular enzyme like cellulases, they are the primary  Their sexual spores are zygospores.
decomposers of hard parts of plants.
 Nearly all plants depend on symbiotic fungi, known as mycorrhizae, which
 ASCOMYCOTA – the sac fungi, include molds with
help their roots absorb minerals and water from the soil.
septate hyphae and some yeasts.
 Their aexual spores are usually conidia (meaning
dust)

 BASIDIOMYCOTA – the club fungi, also possess

septate hyphae. This include the mushrooms.
 Some Basidiomycota produce asexual
conidiospores.

 MYCOSIS – any fungal infection which are generally chronic (long-lasting) infections
because fungi grow slowly.
CLASSIFICATION
(according to the degree of tissue involvement)
1. SYSTEMIC MYCOSIS – fungal infection deep within the body.
 They are usually caused by fungi found in the soil.
 Inhalation of spores is the route of transmission; beginning in the lungs and
spreading to other body tissues.
 Not contagious from animal to human or human to human.
 Examples include Hiptoplasmosis and Coccidiodomycosis.
 Pneumocystis is an opportunistic pathogen seen in individuals with compromised
immune systems.
 Stachybotrys is another opportunistic pathogen which normally grow on cellulose
found in dead plants.
 Rhizopus and Mucor cause Mucormycosis occurs mostly in patients with diabetes
mellitus, with leukemia, or undergoing treatment with immunosuppressive drugs.
 Aspergillus causes Aspergillosis which affects people who have debilitating lung
disease or cancer and have inhaled Aspergillus spores.
 Cryptococcus and Penicillium can cause fatal diseases in AIDS patients.
 Candida albicans causes yeast infection or candidiasis, and may occur as
vulvovaginal candidiasis or thrush, a mucocutaneous candidiasis.
2. SUBCUTANEOUS MYCOSIS – fungal infection beneath the skin caused by saprophytic
fungi that live in soil and on vegetation.
 Sporotrichosis is a sub-cutaneous infection acquired by gardeners and farmers.
Infection occurs only by direct implantation of spores into a puncture wound in the
skin.
 Fungi that infect only the epidermis, hair and nails are called Dermatophytes, and
their infections are called dermatomycoses or cutaneous mycoses. Infection can be
transmitted from human to human or animal to animals by direct contact.
 Superficial mycoses are localized along hair shafts and in superficial (surface)
epidermal cells
3. OPPORTUNISTIC MYCOSIS – fungal infection caused by opportunistic pathogens
which are generally harmless in normal habitat but can become pathogenic in a host who
is seriously ill, debilitated or traumatized, whose immune system is suppressed by drugs
or who has lung disease.
 A combination of a green alga (or a cyanobacterium)
and a fungus.
 Placed in Kingdom Fungi and are classified according to
the fungal partner, most often an ascomycete.
 The two organism (lichen and ascomycete) exist in mutual
relationship, in which each partners benefits.
 They can inhabit areas in which neither fungi or algae
survive alone, they are often the first form of life to
colonize a newly exposed rock or soil.
CATEGORIES
1. Crustose lichens – grow flush or encrusting into the
substratum
2. Foliose lichens – are more leaf-like
3. Fruticose lichens – have fingerlike projections
  They are relatively simple
 They are familiar as the large brown kelp in coastal waters, green scum in a photoautotrophs that lack the
puddle, and the green stains on soil or on rocks. tissues of plants.
 Some of the are responsible for food poisonings.
 Some of them are unicellular; others form chains of cells (filamentous); and a VEGETATIVE STRUCTURE
few have thalli.
 The body of algae is called a
 Most of them are aquatic, although some of them are found in soil or on trees thallus. Thalli of larger algae
when sufficient moisture is available. (commonly called seaweeds),
consist of branched holdfasts
(anchors the alga to the rock),
stem-like and often hollow stipes,
and leaf-like blades.
 Some algae are also buoyed by
floating, gas-filled bladder called
pneumatocyst.

LIFE CYCLE
 All algae can reproduce asexually.
 Sexual reproduction also occurs in algae. Some species reproduce alternately from
asexual into sexual

NUTRITION
 Most algae are photosynthetic; they are found throughout the photic (light) zone of bodies
of water.
 However, the oomycotes, or fungal-like algae, are chemoheterotrophs.
A. BROWN ALGAE (KELP) B. RED ALGAE
 Are macroscopic; some reach lengths of 50 meters because they have a phenomenal  Most of them have delicately branched thalli and can live at greater ocean depths.
growth rate of 20 cm per day and therefore can be harvested regularly.
 The AGAR used in microbial media is extracted from them.
 ALGIN, a thickener used in many food (ice cream and cake decorations), is extracted
 CARRAGEENAN (from alga called Irish moss) can be thickening ingredient in
from their cell wall.
evaporated milk, ice cream and pharmaceutical agents.
 ALGIN is also used in many non-food products like rubber tire and hand lotion
 Glacilaria species are used by humans for food but can produce lethal toxin.
 The brown alga Laminaria japonica is used to induce vaginal dilation before surgical
entry into the uterus through the vagina.

C. GREEN ALGAE D. DIATOMS

 Have cellulose cell walls, contain chlorophyll a and b, and store starch, as plants do.
 Believed to have given rise to terrestrial plants.
 Mostly are microscopic, although they maybe either unicellular or multicellular.
 Some filamentous kinds forms grass-green scum in ponds.
 They are unicellular or filamentous algae with complex cell walls that consist of
PECTIN and a layer of SILICA.
 They store up energy captured through photosynthesis in the form of OIL.
 They can also cause neurological disease after a person eats mussels that had been
feeding on them. The diatoms produce DOMOIC ACID, which can be seen by symptoms
like diarrhea and memory loss.
E. DINOFLAGELLATES F. WATER MOLDS or OOMYCOTA
 Collectively called as PLANKTONS, or free-floating organisms.  Most of them are decomposers, forming the cottony masses of dead algae and animals,
usually in fresh water.
 Some of the species produce neurotoxins.
 Many of the variety of oomycote are plant parasites.
 Gymnodinium breve when trap in gills of the fish, releases a neurotoxin that stops the
fish from breathing.  Phytophthoria infestans causes potato blight, also infecting soybeans and
cocoa.(Ireland)
 In genus Alexandrium produce SAXITOXINS that cause PARALYTIC SHELLFISH
POISONING (PSP).  Phytophthoria cinnamomi infects one species of Eucalyptos. (Australia)
 Large concentration of Alexandrium give the ocean a deep red color, form which the  Phytophthoria ramorum caused the ‘sudden oak death”, also infecting redwood trees.
name RED TIDE originates. (US)
 A disease called Ciguatera occurs when Gambierdiscus toxicus passes up th food-chain
and is concentrated in large fish.

 They are unicellular, eukaryotic chemoheterotrophic organisms
 They inhabit water and soil.
 The feeding and growing stage (trohozoite) feeds upon bacteria and small
particulate matter.
 The term protozoan means “first animal”, which generally describe its animal-like
nutrition.
LIFE CYCLE
 Protozoa reproduce asexually by FISSION, BUDDING, or SCHIZOGONY (multiple
fission)
 Sexual reproduction has been observed in some species such as Paramecium –
which undergo CONJUGATION, where two cells fuse, and a haploid nucleus from
each cell migrate to the other cell.

ENCYSTMENT
 Under certain condition, some species produce a protective capsule called a
CYST.
 This permits the organism to survive when food, moisture, or oxygen are lacking,
temperature is not suitable, or when toxic chemicals are present.
 NUTRITION A. ARCHAEZOA
 They are mostly aerobic heterotrophs, although many intestinal protozoa are  Eukaryotes that lack mitochondria
capable of anaerobic growth.
 Most of them live in symbiosis in the digestive
 All protozoa live in areas with a large supply of water. Some of them transport tracts of animals.
food across plasma membrane.
 They are typically spindle-shaped, with flagella
 Some species have a protective covering called PELLICLE, thus requiring projecting from the front end.
specialized structures to take in food.
 An example of this is the human parasite
 CILIATES take in food by waving cilia toward a mouth-like opening called Trichomonas vaginalis that causes urinary
CYTOSTOME. and genital tract infection. It can be
transmitted by sexual intercourse or by toilet
 AMOEBAS engulf food by surrounding it with PSEUDOPODS and through
facilities or towels.
phagocytosis.
 In all protozoa, digestion takes place in membrane-closed VACUOLES, and
wastes may be eliminated through the plasma membrane or through a
specialized ANAL PORE.

B. RHIZOPODA C. APICOMPLEXA
 Commonly known as amoebas move  Characterized by the presence of a complex of special organelles at the apexes (tips) of
by extending blunt, lobe-like their cells which contain enzymes that penetrate the host’s tissues.
projections of the cytoplasm called
 Plasmodium vivax is the causative agent of malaria. Its complex life cycle makes it
PSEUDOPODS.
difficult to develop a vaccine against malaria.
 Entamoeba histolytica is the only
 Plasmodium grows by sexual reproduction in the Anopheles mosquito.
pathogenic amoeba found in the
human intestine.  Babesiamicroti is a parasite of red blood cells causing fever and anemia in
 Acanthamoeba growing in water, immunosuppressed individuals. It is transmitted by the tick Ixodes scapularis.
can infect the cornea and cause  Taxoplasma gondii is an intracellular parasite. Its life cycle involves domestic cats.
blindness.
 Cryptosporidium causes respiratory and gallbladder infections in AIDS patients and
 Balamuthia can cause brain immunosuppressed individuals. It can be transmitted to humans through the feces of
abscesses called granolumatous cows, rodents, dogs and cats.
amoebic encephalitis.
 Cyclospora cayetanensis causes waterborne diarrhea.

D. CILIOPHORA
 Members have cilia that are similar to but shorter than flagella.
 They are arranged in precise rows on the cell, move in unison to propel the cell through
its environment and to bring food particles to the mouth.
 Balantidium coli, the only ciliate human parasite is the causative agent of a severe,
though rare, type of dysentery.
 Other examples of ciliates include Paramecium at Vorticella.
E. EUGLENOZOA
 EUGLENA are photoautotrophs having a semi-rigid plasma membrane called PELLICLE and
move by flagellum.
 HEMOFLAGELLATES (blood parasites) are transmitted by the bites of blood-feeding insects and
are found in the circulatory system of bitten hosts.
 Genus Trypanosoma includes the species that causes the African sleeping sickness.
 T. brucei gambiense which transmitted by the tsetse fly.
 T. cruzi, is the causative agent of Chaga’s disease transmitted by the ‘kissing bug’ so named
because it bites in the face.
 Obligatory Intracellular Parasites – absolutely require living host cells in order to
multiply.
DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
a. Contain a single type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA.
b. Contain a protein coat (sometimes itself enclosed by an envelope of lipids,
proteins, and carbohydrates) that surrounds the nucleic acid.
c. Multiply inside living cells by using the synthesizing machinery of the cell.
d. Cause the synthesis of specialized structures that can transfer the viral nucleic
acid to other cells.
 Viruses have a few or no enzymes of their own metabolism, and to multiply, they
must take over the metabolic machinery of the host cell.
  It is determined through the electron microscope.
 The host range of virus is the spectrum of host cells the virus can infect.  Viruses ranges from 20 to 200 nm in length.
 Most viruses are able to infect specific types of cells of only one host species.  A VIRION is a complete, fully developed, infectious viral particle composed of
 Viruses that infect bacteria are called BACTERIOPHAGES, or PHAGES. nucleic acid and surrounded by a protein coat that protects it from the environment
and is a vehicle of transmission from one host cell to another.
 The particular host range of a virus is determined by the virus’ requirements for its
specific attachment to the host cell and the availability within the potential host
of cellular factors required for viral multiplication.
 For a virus to infect a host cell, the outer surface of the virus must chemically
interact with specific receptor sites on the surface of the cell.

 A virus can have either DNA or RNA, but never both.

 The nucleic acid can be double-stranded or single stranded.
 There are viruses with double-stranded DNA, with single-stranded DNA, with
double-stranded RNA, and with single-stranded RNA.
 The nucleic acid can be linear or circular, some are in several separate segments.

 The nucleic acid of a virus is surrounded by a A. HELICAL VIRUSES

protein coat called CAPSID.
 Resemble long rods that may be rigid or
 Each capsid is composed of protein sub-units called flexible
CAPSOMERES.
 The viral nucleic acid is found inside a
 The arrangement of capsomeres is characteristic of hollow, cylindrical capsid that has a
a particular type of virus. helical structure.
 In some viruses, the capsid is covered by an  Viruses that cause rabies and Ebola
ENVELOPE, which usually compose of combination hemorrhagic fever are helical
of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates.
 Envelopes may or may not be covered by SPIKES,
which are carbohydrate-protein complexes that
project from the surface of the envelope.
 Viruses which are not covered by an envelope are
known as NONENVELOPED viruses.
B. POLYHEDRAL VIRUSES C. ENVELOPED VIRUSES
 Also called many-sided viruses  Roughly spherical
 Many animal, plant and bacterial  They can be enveloped
viruses are polyhedral helical or enveloped
 The capsid is in the shape of an polyhedral.
ICOSAHEDRON, a regular polyhedron  Example enveloped helical
with 20 triangular faces and 12 corners. virus is the Influenza virus
 The capsomeres of each face form an  Example of enveloped
equilateral triangle. polyhedral virus is the
 Example of this is the Adenovirus and Herpes simplex virus
Poliovirus

D. COMPLEX VIRUSES
 The nucleic acid in a virion contains only a few of the genes needed for the synthesis of
 Most of bacterial viruses new viruses.
(bacteriophages) have
complicated structures.  For a virus to multiply, it must invade a host cell and take over the host’s metabolic
machinery.
 Examples of this is the Pox
virus and T-Even  The means by which a virus enters and exits a host cell may vary, but the basic
Bacteriophage mechanism of viral multiplication is similar for all viruses.
 A single virion can give rise to several or even thousands of similar viruses in a single
host cell.
 This process can cause drastic change to the host cell and can even cause its death.