LEARNING BY EXPERIMENTS

DIGITAL
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

By :
M. C. SHARMA, M. Sc.

Publishers :
B.P.B. Publications
DELHI MADRAS HYDERABAD
By the same author
1. Practical Transistor Novelties
2. Simple Audio Projects
3. Practical SCR/Triac Projects
4. 4 Easy to Build Alarms
5. Using Field Effect Transistors
6. 555 Timer-Use and Applications
7. Build Your Own Test Instruments
8. Understanding and Using Multimeters
9. Using Semi-conductor Diodes
10. Power Supplies for all occasions
11. Care & Repair of Electronic Flash Guns
12. Learning by Experiments-CMOS I. Cs.

First Printing 1978

Reprinted 1980

Published by G. C. Jain for Business Promotion Bureau,

Delhi-110007 and printed by him at Goyal Offset
p
rinters, Shahzada Bagh, Delhi - 35
Oc Business Promotion Bureau
 CONTENTS
Page
Preface. 5
1. Introduction
The b i nary sy ste m , bi nar y c od e d d e c im al (B CD ),
data representation, logic levels and logic logi circuits. 7
2. Logic Circuits
The inverter, AND gate, NAND gate, OR gate, NOR gate,
Wire AND gate, Schmitt trigger NAND gate, Exclusive OR
and Exclusive-NOR gates. 14
3. Flip-Flops
The RS flip-flop, D flip-flop and JK flip-flop. 30
4. Sequential Circuits
R i p p l e c ou n t e r s , d o w n c o u n t e r , u p - d o w n c o u n te r,
special counters, BCD counters, shift registers, Left-Right
Shifting, Ring counters and Johnson counters.
g,
41
Combinational Circuits
BCD to decimal decoders, seven segment decoders,
multiplexers and de-multiplexers.
10. Clocks and One Shots
Clock oscillators, one shot multivibrator and re-trig-
gerable one shots.
5. Applications
Simple alarm, coin-toss, RF phase shifter, three phase
square wave generator, sequential switching,-electro-
nic dice. time base totalizer, frequency counter,
time interval meter, digital clock and number of
pulses generator. 91
6. Appendix
List of parts, power supply and logic board. 102
8. Answers 105
 PREFACE

Digital techniques are now used virtually in every area of

electronics. The greatest use is in computers; but apart from com-
puters, digital methods are no w emplo yed in co mmunicatio ns,
telemetry, industrial controls and consumer equipment like radio,
TV, watch, clocks etc. As an electronics engineer, technician or a
hobbyist, you can benefit by knowing digital techniques.

The classical approach to electronics education had been to

stress on circuit theory and to use simple block diagrams to show
interconnections. As a result, most of us are oriented in such a
manner that we allot a disproportionate importance to circuitry
and consider organization as being of nominal importance. How-
ever, more elaborate systems cannot be understood solely in terms
of circuit operations. In fact, as systems become more complex,
understanding must be based more and more on the way in which
circuits are interconnected, with much less attention to the fine
details of circuit operation, so long as it performs its function (like
amplification, oscillation etc.). Digital systems are a represent-
ative of this class. The basic circuits are very simple and of very
few types, but it is possible to make a wide variety of devices by
interconnecting them in different ways.

Digital techniques are not new. They have been known for
years, The key and dc relay telegraphy is the ancient digital system. It
is only the availability of modern, low cost integrated circuits that
has made their widespread use practical.

The aim of this book is to present, in a simple and practical

manner. the principles of digital electronics. Along with explana-
tions of circuit functions, practical experiments, which can be per-
formed without the necessity of elaborate equipment or external gui-
dance, have been described. A knowledge of transistors on the part
of reader is presumed. To help in providing a deeper understanding
of the subject, exercises with answers have also been included. A
 LEARNING BY EXPERIMENTS

DIGITAL
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

By :
M. C. SHARMA, M. Sc.

Publishers :
B.P.B. Publications
DELHI MADRAS HYDERABAD
By the same author
I. Practical Transistor Novelties
2. Simple Audio Projects
3. Practical SCR/Triac Projects
4: Easy to Build Alarms
5. Using Field Effect Transistors
6. 555 Timer-Use and Applications
7. Build Your Own Test Instruments
8. Understanding and Using Multimeters
9. Using Semi-conductor Diodes
10 Poaer Supplies on all occasions
11 Care and Repair
of Electronic Flash
I Learning by Experiments-CMOS I. Cs.

First Printing 1978

Reprinted 1980

Published by G. C. Jain for Business Promotion Bureau,

Delhi-110007 and printed by him at Goyal Offset
p
rinters, Shahzada Bagh, Delhi - 35
Oc Business Promotion Bureau
 CONTENTS

Page
Preface 5
1. Introduction
The b i nary sy ste m , bi nar y c od e d d e c im al (B CD ),
data representation, logic levels and logic logi circuits. 7
Logic Circuits
The inverter, AND gate, NAND gate, OR gate, NOR
gate
e x c l u s ive-OR and exclusive-NOR gates. 14
3. Flip-Flops
The RS flip-flop, L' flip-Plop and JK flip-flop. 30
4, Sequential Circuits
special counters, BCD counters, shift registers,
left-rightR i p p l e c o u n t e r s , d o w n c o u n t e r , u p -d o w n
counter,
shiftin g , ring counters and Johnson counters.
g,
41
5. Combinational Circuits
BCD to decimal decoders, seven segment decoders,
multiplexers and de-multiplexers.
6. Clocks and One Shots
Clock oscillators, one shot multivibrator and re-trig-
gerable one shots.
7. Applications
Simple alarm, coin-toss, RF phase shifter, three phase
square wave generator, sequential switching,-electro-
nic dice. time base totalizer, frequency counter,
time interval meter, digital clock and number of
pulses generator.
91
8. Appendix
List of parts, power supply and logic board. 102
10. Answers 105
 PREFACE

Digital techniques are now used virtually in every area of

electronics. The greatest use is in computers; but apart from com-
puters, digital methods are no w emplo yed in co mmunicatio ns,
telemetry, industrial controls and consumer equipment like radio,
TV, watch, clocks etc. As an electronics engineer, technician or a
hobbyist, you can benefit by knowing digital techniques.

The classical approach to electronics education had been to

stress on circuit theory and to use simple block diagrams to show
interconnections. As a result, most of us are oriented in such a
manner that we allot a disproportionate importance to circuitry
and consider organization as being of nominal importance. How-
ever, more elaborate systems cannot be understood solely in terms
of circuit operations. In fact, as systems become more complex,
understanding must be based more and more on the way in which
circuits are interconnected, with much less attention to the fine
details of circuit operation, so long as it performs its function (like
amplification, oscillation etc.). Digital systems are a represent-
ative of this class. The basic circuits are very simple and of very
few types, but it is possible to make a wide variety of devices by
interconnecting them in different ways.

Digital techniques are not new. They have been known for
years, The key and dc relay telegraphy is the ancient digital system. It
is only the availability of modern, low cost integrated circuits that
has made their widespread use practical.

The aim of this book is to present, in a simple and practical

manner. the principles of digital electronics. Along with explana-
tions of circuit functions, practical experiments, which can be per-
formed without the necessity of elaborate equipment or external gui-
dance, have been described. A knowledge of transistors on the part
of reader is presumed. To help in providing a deeper understanding
of the subject, exercises with answers have also been included. A
few practical applications have also been given to enable the person
to assemble and enjoy interesting projects. All circuits have
been limited to TTL logic only which is the most popular one at
present. But, once the basic principles are understood, it is not
difficult to handle other types. I hope readers will find it useful.
Suggestions for improvement shall be gratefully accepted.

M. C. Sharma
 1
Introduction

In electronics there are two basic types of signals, Analog and Digital. Of these the
analo g signals are more familiar. An analog is an ac or dc voltage (or current) that varies
smoothly and continuously and which does not change in steps. Digital signals are
essentially a series of pulses or rapidly changing voltage (or current) levels that vary in
discrete steps or increments. Examples of analog and digital signals are shown in Fig. 1.
Electronic circuits that pr ocess these step signals are called digital , lo gic o r pulse
circuits.

ANALOG SIGNALS DIGITAL SIGNALS

Fig. 1. Examples of Analog and Digital Signals.

In practical life there are many examples of both. The speedo meter o f a car is an
analo g d evice while the od o meter, which changes in steps of 1 km, is digital. The tuning
control in a radio receiver is analog while the channel selector in a TV is digital. In
electronics, digital methods permit new approaches in equipment design. They also make it
possible to do things that have no analog equivalent.

The same device can behave as an analog or as a digital device depending on the way it is
used. Consider an electric bulb. We
can vary the current through it continuously and its brightness
vary. Used in this way, the bulb is an analog device. There are
virtually an infinite number of brightness levels.

T he mo st co m mo n wa y o f u s i ng g a li g h t b ulb a s a d ig it al
d ev ice , is to gi ve i t s b r ill ia n ce t wo l e vel s ; 'o ff' a nd o n '. T h e
lamp thus has only two states and we can say that lamp is binary
in nature.

The term 'binary' designates any two state device or signal.

The two states can be represented in many ways, e.g. off and on;
no and yes; open and closed etc. The most common way of represe-
nting them is by '0' and ' 1'. The meanings to 0 and 1 can be given
arbitrarily.

In digital electronics, the binary system has become very popu-

lar because of ease of implementation. An electronic unit that has
only two states, on and off, is very much simpler in design, less
expensive, faster and reliable. In the above example of bulb, when
used as an analog device, any variation in line voltage will show
up as variatio n i n brilliance. But in the digital mode, it is very
easy to say definitely whether the lamp is off or on inspire of wide
var iatio ns i n t he line vo ltage. T his illu str ates t h at the d igital
systems have high noise rejection capability.

The Binary System

In the binary system, we use only two digits, 0 and 1. These

binary digits, or bits, when, appropriately arranged can also rep-
resent any decimal number. For example, the binary number 1101
represents the decimal number 13. The basic distinguishing
feature of any number system is its base or 'radix'. The decimal system has
a radix of ten. i.e. we go to the next column on the tenth count.
The binary system has a radix of two only. Both systems are
positional or weighted number systems. This means that each
d igit o r b it p o sitio n in a nu mb er carr ies a particular weight in
d eter mining the magnitud e o f that numb er . To d etermine the
number, you multiply each digit by the weight of the position and
add your results. This is illustrated for both systems in Fig. 2.

8
Table in Fig-3 shows the binary equivalents of some decimal
numbers.

Fig-2. Weighted Decimal and Binary Systems

Decimal Binary Decimal Binary

No Equivalent No Equivalent

0 0000 10 1010
1 0001 11 1011
2 0010 12 1100
3 0011 13 1101
4 0100 14 1110
5 0101 15 1111
6 0110 16 10000
7 0111 32 100000
8 1000 64 1000000
9 1001 128 10000000
Fig. 3. Binary Equivalents of Decimal Numbers,

9
 Binary numbers are also referred to as binary words; e.g. an 8 bit binary number is also
an 8 bit binary word. Fig. 4 illustrates as how a binary word can be represented in electronic
circuits by switches or by lamps. In the illustration a switch in on position or a glowing
lamp is taken to represent a binary 1 while an off switch or a dark lamp represents a
binary 0. The weights of the positions is also shown in the figure.

Fig. 4. Representation of Binary Words by Switches and by Lamps

The number of bits in a word determine the number of discrete states that can
exist; or in other words, the maximum decimal number value that can be represented. The
total number of states is given by the formula N=2 11, where N is the total number of states
and n is the number of bits in the word used. For example, with a four bit word we can
represent a maximum of 2^ 4 or 16 states. These can be seen as binary numbers from binary
0000 (decimal 0) to binary 1111 (decimal 15) in fig. 3.

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

Because the decimal number is so familiar, it is easy to use. The binary system is less
convenient. Digital engineers recognized this problem and developed a special form of
binary code that was more compatible with the decimal system. This special code is known
a Binary Coded Decimal or BCD. This code uses the standard 8421 binary weighted code
for decimal numbers from 0 through 9. A four bit word can actually represent decimal
numbers upto 15, but in this case the decimal equivalents from 10 through 15 are considered
invalid and therefore ignored. To carry to next set of 4 bit binary word is given on the
tenth count of the previous number, as done in the decimal system.
Data Representation

There are two basic ways in which digital numbers are tran-
smitted; processed or manipulated. These are known as series'
and 'Parallel'. In the series method, each bit of binary word is
processed or transmitted serially one after another, one at a time
The primary advantage is that this system requires only a single
line or channel for data transmission from one place to another. It
is, therefore, simplest and economical, but it takes a longer
processing time.

In the parallel method, all bits of binary words are processed

simultaneously. This system requires as many separate channels or
wires as the number of bits in the word. The transmission is,
therefore, more complex but fast.

Logic Levels
The basic element for representing a single bit of data is a
switch. Its on-off nature makes it perfect for binary data repres-
entation. A mechanical switch however, is too sluggish and cannot
be manipulated fast. A transistor on the other hand, can readily
assum e two d istinct sta tes, con ductive and cut- off. It can
also change states at a very fast rate. The transistor is, therefore,
very much used as a switch in digital electronic circuits.

The bit assignments are represented by voltage levels. For

example, a binary 0 may be represented by 0 volts. And a binary I
by +5 volts. This is called a positive logic system and used in
the TTL circuits. In a negative logic system, 0 volts will
represent binary 1 and +5 volts will represent binary 0. The
switching element merely controls the voltage levels.

Logic Circuits
Our ability to think logically requires both, a capability for
making decisions based on the available data or facts and our
ability to remember. This holds true for d i gital circuits and
equipment as well. The decision making circuits are called
`gates' while the memory circuits are made up of circuits called `flip-
flops'.

11
II