Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
I. Introduction blade, for example, can induce airfoil twist/camber change that in
A SMART structure involves distributed actuators and sensors turn can cause a variation of lift distribution and can help to control
and one or more microprocessors that analyze the responses static and dynamic aeroelastic problems.
from the sensors and use integrated control theory to command Applications of smart-structures technology to aerospace and
the actuators to apply localized strains/displacements to alter sys- other systems are expanding rapidly. Major barriers include low ac-
tem response. A smart structure has the capability to respond to tuatorstroke,lack of reliablesmart material characteristicsdatabase,
a changing external environment (such as loads or shape change) unavailability of robust distributed adaptive control strategies, and
as well as to a changing internal environment (such as damage or reliable smart systems mathematical modeling and analysis. The
failure). It incorporates smart material actuators that allow the al- objective of this survey is to review the state of the art of smart
teration of system characteristics (such as stiffness or damping) as actuators, sensors, and integrated systems and point out the needs
well as of system response (such as strain or shape) in a controlled for future research.These research needs are highlightedunder each
manner. Thus, a smart structure involves four key elements: actua- section and then summarized again in the last section. In this pa-
tors, sensors, control strategies,and power conditioningelectronics. per six different topics are covered: smart material actuators and
Many types of actuatorsand sensors, such as piezoelectricmaterials, sensors and piezoelectrics, modeling of beams with induced strain
shape memory alloys, electrostrictive materials, magnetostrictive actuation, modeling of plates with induced strain actuation, shape
materials, electro- and magnetorheological uids and ber optics, memory alloys, magnetostrictors and electrostrictors, and smart-
are being considered for various applications. These can be inte- structures applications. It is an emerging multidisciplinary eld,
grated with main load-carrying structures by surface bonding or and associated methodology/technology is in its early development
embedding without causing any signi cant changes in the mass or (see related books1¡25 and review papers26¡41 ).
structural stiffness of the system.
Numerous applicationsof smart-structurestechnology to various II. Smart Material Actuators
physical systems are evolving to actively control vibration, noise, and Sensors and Piezoelectrics
aeroelastic stability, damping, shape change, and stress distribution. Piezoelectricsare the most popularsmart materials.They undergo
Applications range from space systems to xed-wing and rotary- deformation (strain) when an electric eld is applied across them,
wing aircraft, automotive, civil structures, machine tools, and med- and conversely produce voltage when strain is applied, and thus
ical systems. Much of the early development of smart-structures can be used both as actuators and sensors. Under an applied eld
methodologywas driven by space applicationssuch as vibration and these materials generate a very low strain but cover a wide range of
shape control of large exible space structures,but now wider appli- actuation frequency. Piezoelectric materials are relatively linear (at
cations are envisagedfor aeronauticaland other systems. Embedded low elds) and bipolar, but exhibit hysteresis. The most widely used
or surface-bondedsmart actuatorson an airplanewing or a helicopter piezoceramics(such as lead zirconatetitanate) are in the form of thin
Inderjit Chopra is an Alfred Gessow Professor in Aerospace Engineering and Director of the Alfred Gessow
Rotorcraft Center at the University of Maryland. Also, he was the Minta– Martin Research Professor from 1996
to 2000. After receiving his Sc.D. degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1977, he joined the
NASA Ames/Stanford University Joint Institute of Aeronautics and Acoustics, where he worked for four and half
years on the development of aeroelastic analyses and testing of advanced helicopter rotor systems. In 1981, he
joined the University Maryland as an Associate Professor, and he got promoted to Full Professor in 1986. He
has been working on various fundamental problems related to dynamics of helicopters, including aeromechanics
stability, smart structures applications, active vibration control, modeling of composite blades, rotor head health
monitoring, aeroelastic optimization, micro air vehicle development, and comprehensive aeromechanics analyses
of bearingless, tilt-rotor, servo- ap, teetering, and circulation control rotors. His direct graduate advising resulted
in 31 Ph.D. and 55 M.S. degrees. He has been the principal investigator of three major research programs: the
Army’s University Research Initiative (URI) (1992– 1997) on “Smart-Structures Technology: Innovations and
Applications to Rotorcraft Systems,” the Army’s Multidisciplinary University Research Initiative (MURI) (1996–
2001) on “Innovative Smart Technologies for Actively Controlled Jet-Smooth Rotorcraft” and Army/NASA’s
“Rotary-Wing Center of Excellence” (1982– 2006). He acted as the Department Chairman from 1988 to 1990.
An author of over 130 archival papers, Dr. Chopra has been an Associate Editor of the Journal of the American
Helicopter Society (1987– 1991), Journalof Aircraft (1987– ), and Journalof Intelligent Materialsand Systems. (1997– ).
Also, he has been a member of the editorial advisory board of three journals VERTICA (1987– 1991), Smart Materials
and Structures (1994– 2000) and SADHANA (1991– 1995). He was awarded the 1992 UM’s Distinguished Research
Professorship, 1995 UM’s Presidential Award for Outstanding Service to the Schools, 2002 AIAA Structures,
Structural Dynamics, and Materials Award, 2002 AHS Grover E. Bell Award, 2001 ASME Adaptive Structures
and Material Systems Prize, and 1996 AIAA/ASME Best Paper Award. He is a member of the Army Science Board
(1997– ). He is a Fellow of the AIAA, a Fellow of the American Helicopter Society, and a Fellow of the Aeronautical
Society of India.
Presented at the AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC 42nd Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference and Adaptive Structures Forum, 16–19
April 2001; received 18 July 2001; revision received 10 June 2002; accepted for publication 10 June 2002. Copyright ° c 2002 by Inderjit Chopra. Published
by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., with permission. Copies of this paper may be made for personal or internal use, on condition
that the copier pay the $10.00 per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923; include the code 0001-1452/02
$10.00 in correspondence with the CCC.
2145
2146 CHOPRA
A. Smart Actuators
Typical actuators consist of piezoceramics, magnetostrictives,
electrostrictives,and shape memory alloys. These normally convert
Inherent geometrical ampli cation
electric inputs into actuation strain/displacement that is transmitted
to the host structure affecting its mechanical state. Piezoelectrics
Fig. 1 Different types of actuators. and electrostrictors are available as ceramics, whereas magne-
tostrictors and shape memory alloys are available as metal alloys.
Piezoelectrics are also available in polymer form as thin soft lm.
sheets that can be readily attached or embedded in composite struc- Important performance parameters of actuators include maximum
tures or stacked to form discrete piezostack actuators(Fig. 1). These stroke or strain, maximum block force, stiffness, and bandwidth.
sheets generate isotropic strains on the surface and a non-Poisson Somewhat less important parameters include linearity, sensitivity
strain across the thickness. It is possible however to generate direc- to temperature, brittleness and fracture toughness (fatigue life), re-
tional in-plane induced strains with piezoceramics using electrode peatability and reliability, weight density, compactness, heat gener-
arrangement, specially shaped piezos, bonding arrangement, and ation, eld requirement, and ef ciency. The induced strain is often
embedded bers (Fig. 1). Piezoelectric and electrostrictive materi- treated like thermal strain. The total strain in the actuator is assumed
als are also available in the form of “stacks,” where many layers of to be the sum of the mechanical strain caused by the stress plus the
materials and electrodes are assembled together. These stacks gen- induced strain caused by the electric eld. The strain in the host
erate large forces but small displacements in the direction normal to structure is obtained by establishingthe displacement compatibility
the top and bottom surfaces. Bimorphs or bending actuators are also between the host material and the actuator. In a piezoelectric mate-
available commercially, where two layers of these materials (piezo- rial, when an electric eld is applied, the dipoles of the material try
ceramic) are stacked with a thin shim (typically of brass) between to orient themselves along the eld causing strain in the material.
them. If an opposite polarity is applied to two sheets, a bending This relation of strain vs voltage is linear in the rst order. In an
action is created. Bimorphs cause larger displacement and smaller electrostrictive material there is an interaction between the electric
force as compared to single piezo element. eld and electric dipoles that is inherently nonlinear. The magne-
Among other smart materials, shape memory alloys (SMA) ap- tostrictive response is based on the coupling of magnetic eld and
pear attractive as actuators because of the possibility of achieving magnetic dipoles in the material, a nonlinear effect. Shape memory
large excitation forces and displacements. These materials undergo is a result of phase transformation as a result of temperature change
phase transformation at a speci c temperature. When plastically of the material (caused by an thermal eld). Phase transformation
deformed at a low temperature, these alloys recover their original is very much a nonlinear phenomenon.
undeformed condition if their temperature is raised above the trans- A common piezoceramic material is lead zirconate titanate
formation temperature. This process is reversible. A remarkable (PZT), and its maximum actuation strain is about 1000 microstrain.
characteristic of SMA is the large change of modulus of elasticity Polyvinylideneuoride (PVDF) is a polymer piezoelectric lm, and
when heated above phase transition temperature (typically two to its maximum actuation strain is about 700 microstrain. A common
four times room temperature value). The most common SMA mate- ceramic electrostrictivematerial is lead magnesium niobate (PMN),
rial is nitinol (nickeltitanium alloy), which is availablein the form of and its maximum actuation strain is about 1000 microstrain. PZT
wires of different diameters. Heating of an SMA can be carried out and PMN are available in the form of thin sheets, which can be
both internally (electrical resistance) or externally (using coils), but either bonded or embedded in a structure.
the response is very slow (less than 1 Hz). It is sometime possible to The PZTs require initial polarization (with high electric eld),
speed up the responsethrough forced convectiveor conductivecool- whereas no such polarization is needed for PMNs. Terfenol, a rare
ing of material. Electrostrictivematerials are similar to piezoelectric Earth magnet-like material, can create a maximum actuation strain
materials, with about the same strain capability. However, they are of about 2000 microstrain. It needs a large magnetic eld to cause
very sensitive to temperature, have a monopolar, nonlinear relation this actuation strain. Nitinol (nickel titanium alloy) normally avail-
between the applied eld and induced strain, and exhibit negligible able in the form of wires can create free strain from 20,000 to 60,000
hysteresis. Magnetostrictive materials such as Terfenol-D elongate microstrain(2–6%). Table 1 shows comparisonof characteristicsfor
CHOPRA 2147
B. Sensors
Typical sensors consist of strain gauges, accelerometers, ber op-
tics, piezoelectric lms, and piezoceramics. Sensors convert strain
or displacement (or their time derivatives) into an electric eld.
Piezoelectric strain sensors are generally made of polymers such
as PVDF and are very exible (low stiffness). They can be easily
formed into very thin sheets ( lms) and adhered to any surface. Key Fig. 2 Typical PZT crystal cell.
factors for sensors are their sensitivity to strain or displacement,
bandwidth, and size. Other less important factors include tempera- monly used piezoceramic is PZT. These are solid solutions of lead
ture sensitivity, linearity, hysteresis, repeatability, electromagnetic zirconate and lead titanate, often doped with other elements to
compatibility, embeddibility, and associated electronics (size and obtain speci c properties. Mixing a powder of lead, zirconium,
power requirement). Typically, the sensitivity for resistor gauge is and titanium oxide and then heating the mixture to around 800–
30 V per strain, for semiconductor gauge is 103 V per strain, and 1000± C manufacture these ceramics. It transforms to perovskite
for piezoelectric and piezoceramic gauges is 104 V per strain. The PZT powder, which is mixed with binder and sintered into de-
sensitivity of ber optics sensors is de ned differently and is about sired shapes. During the cooling process, the material undergoes
106 deg per strain. Associated electronics weigh against ber op- a paraelectric to ferroelectric phase transformation. An unpoled ce-
tics sensors. Discrete shaped sensors that apply weighting to sen- ramic consists of many randomly oriented domains with no net
sors’ output can help increase sensitivity for a speci c application. polarization.
For example, a modal sensor can magnify the strain of a particular Application of high electric eld aligns most of the tetragonal
mode. Table 2 shows a comparison of characteristics of different domains in such a way that the polar axes (c axes) of unit cells
sensors. are oriented mostly parallel to the applied eld (Fig. 2). This pro-
cess is called poling, and it imparts a permanent net polarization to
C. Piezoelectric Actuators the ceramic (analogous to magnetization of a ferrous material with
Piezoelectricity means pressure electricity and is a property of a permanent magnet). This reorientation of domains also causes
certain crystalline materials such as quartz, Rochelle salt, tourma- a permanent mechanical deformation. An electric eld as well as
line, and barium titanate that develop electricity when pressure is mechanical stress can switch the crystal symmetry (that is, polar
applied. This is called the direct effect. Pierre and Jacques Curie dis- axes). With an electric eld it is possible to depole as well as re-
covered piezoelectricity in the 1880s. Soon after this, the converse pole piezoelectric ceramics, whereas mechanical stress only can
effect was discovered, that is, these crystals undergo deformation depole the materials. Poled piezoceramics exhibit both direct and
when an electric eld is applied. After its discovery, it took several converse piezoelectric effects. The actuation phase (converse ef-
decades before this phenomenon could be used in commercial ap- fect) consists of three parts. The rst one is called intrinsic effect
plications.The rst applicationwas perhaps during the World War II and covers the deformation of aligned domains. The second one
in the 1940s as an ultrasonic detector for submarines. With the dis- is called extrinsic effect and involves the deformation caused by
covery of piezoceramics, the domain of applications has expanded non-180-deg domains. It is believed to be the source of nonlin-
considerably. earity and losses in piezoceramics.44 The third effect is caused by
Piezoceramicsare polycrystallinein natureand do not have piezo- the electrostriction of materials, and as a result of this effect, the
electric characteristics in their original state. Piezoelectric effects deformation is generally proportional to the square of the electric
are induced in these materials through simple poling (application eld. Electrostriction effects are much smaller than the other two
of high dc electric eld results in polarization). The most com- effects.
2148 CHOPRA
Piezoceramic materials are relatively well behaved and linear at where d33 , d31 , and d15 are called piezoelectric strain coef cients of
low electric elds and low mechanical stress levels; they show con- a piezoelement.The d31 characterizesstrain in the 1and 2 directions
siderablenonlinearityat high values of electric eld and mechanical caused by an electric eld E 3 in the 3-directionand d33 relates strain
stress. The actuation strain can be modeled like an equivalent ther- in the 3-direction caused by eld in the 3-direction.The d15 charac-
mal strain. A piezoceramics sheet under surface excitation can be terizes 2-3 and 3-1 shear strains caused by eld E 2 and E 1 , respec-
idealized as an orthotropic material (like composite unidirectional tively. Thus, if an electric eld E 3 is applied to a free piezoelement,
laminate). The constitutive relations are based on the assumption it causes direct strains "1 , "2 , and "3 . This is very similar to thermal
that the total strain in the actuator is the sum of the mechanical strain. If an electric eld E 1 or E 2 is applied, the material reacts
strain induced by the stress, the thermal strain caused by temper- with shear strain °31 and °23 , respectively. For orthotropicmaterials
ature, and the controllable actuation strain caused by the electric there is no correspondingthermal strain. To overcome this problem,
voltage. The axes are identi ed by numerals: 1 corresponds to the it is better to assume piezoelectric materials as anisotropic.
x axis, 2 corresponds to the y axis, and 3 corresponds to the z axis. If a compressive force is applied in the polarization direction
Axis 3 is assigned to the direction of the initial polarization of the (axis 3), or tensile force is applied in the plane perpendicular to
piezoceramic, and 1 and 2 axes lie in the plane perpendicular to polarizationdirection (axis 2 or 3), it will result in a voltage that has
3 axis (Fig. 3). the same polarity as the original poling direction.
Coupledelectromechanicalconstitutiverelationsare as follows.45 For piezoelectric lm, PVDF, the induced strain is nonisotropic
Direct: on the surface of the sheet. The induced strain is expressed as
d 2 3
Di D ei¾j E j C dim ¾m C ai 1T 0 0 d31
6 0 d32 7
Converse: 6 0 7 8E 9
6 0 0
7 < 1=
d33 7
"k D d cjk E j C Skm
E
¾m C ®k 1T 6
3D6 7 E2
where vector Di of size (3 £ 1) is the dielectric displacement in 6 0 d25 07: ;
6 7 E3
newtons/millivolts or coulombs/square meter, "k is strain vector of 4d15 0 05
size (6 £ 1), E j is the applied electric eld vector of size (3 £ 1) in 0 0 0
volts/meter, and ¾m is stress vector of size (6 £ 1) in newtons/square
meter. The piezoelectric constants are the piezoelectric coef cients For piezo lms the d31 is not equal to d32 , and d25 is not equal to
d
dim (3 £ 6) and d cjk (6 £ 3) in meters/volt or coulombs/newton, the d15 .
dielectric permittivity ei¾j of size (3 £ 3) in newtons/square volt or Piezoceramics are available commercially in the form of thin
E
farads/meter, and Skm is the elastic compliancematrix of size (6 £ 6) sheets (say, of thickness 0.254 mm) such as PZT-5H from Margon
in square meters/newton. The coef cient ®k is thermal coef cient Matroc, and the manufacturer-suppliedcharacteristicsare shown in
vector of size (6 £ 1) in 1/degrees Kelvin and ai is thermal con- Table 3 (Ref. 46). Among piezoceramics PZT-5H is most widely
stants vector of size (6 £ 1) in newtons/volt-meter-degreesKelvin. used because of its lower electric eld requirement than other actu-
The superscripts c and d refer to the converse and direct effects, re- ators for the same strain. PZT-8 requires a higher eld than PZT-5H
spectively, and the superscripts ¾ and E indicate that the quantity is but will need less power because of its lower dielectricconstant.One
measured at constant stress and constant electric eld, respectively. major disadvantage of PZT-5H is that its dielectric and piezoelec-
The converse equation represents the actuator equation, whereas tric constants are very sensitive to temperature, and hence it can be
the direct equation represents the sensor equation. Normally, the
converse effect is used to determine piezoelectric coef cients. Table 3 Piezoelectric characteristics46
Rewriting the converse equation in matrix form: Coef cient PZT-5H PZT-8 PVDF
8 9 2 38 9
> " S11 S12 S13 0 0 0 > ¾1 >
> 1>> 6 S12 >
>¾ >
d31 ¡274 £ 10¡12m/V ¡97 18–24
>
>
> " >
> 6 S11 S13 0 0 07 7> 2>
> d32 ¡274 £ 10¡12 m/V ¡97 2.5–3
> 2>
< >
= 6S 7
>
>
<
>
>
=
S13 S33 0 0 0 7 ¾3 d33 593 £ 10¡12 m/V 225 ¡33
"3 6 13
D6 7 d15 741 £ 10¡12 m/V 330 ——
>
> ° >
> 6 0 0 0 S44 0 07> ¿ >
>
>
23
>
> 6 7>> 23 >> Relative permittivity e33 3400 1000 ——
> °
> > > 40 0 0 0 S44 0 5> >
> ¿ > > Free-strain range ¡250 to C850 ¹" ——
: 31
; : 31 >; Poling eld dc 12 kV/cm 5.5 ——
°12 0 0 0 0 066 ¿12 Depoling eld ac 7 kV/cm 15 ——
2 3 Curie temperature 193± C 300 ——
8 9 Dielectric breakdown 20 kV/cm —— ——
0 0 d31 > ®1 >
6 0 > > 7500 kg/m3
6 0 d31 7 8
7 E 9 >
>
> ®2 >
>
>
Density 7600 ——
> > Open circuit stiffness E11 62 GPa 87 ——
6 0 0
7
d33 7
< 1= < =
6 ®3 Open circuit stiffness E33 48 GPa 74 ——
C6 7 E2 C 1T Compressive strength (static) >517 MPa >517 ——
6 0 d15 07: ; > > 0> >
6 7 E3 >
> > Compressive depoling limit 30 MPa 150 ——
4d15 0 05 >
> 0> > Tensile strength (static) 75.8 75.8 ——
: > ;
0 0 0 0 Tensile strength (dynamic) 27.6 MPa 34.5 ——
CHOPRA 2149
5. Depoling Behavior
When the piezoelementis exposed to a high electric eld opposite
to the poling direction, it loses its piezoelectric property, accompa-
nied by more dielectric losses and lower ef ciency. This is called
depoling of piezoelectric and results in a permanent deformation.
For PZT-5H the dc depoling eld is approximately 5.5 kV/cm. Un-
der an ac excitation the depoling eld of the actuator becomes lower
Fig. 9 Variation of depoling eld with frequency.48
than the dc value (Fig. 9). Figure 10 shows the effect of depoling
on the actuator response. Once at or above the depoling eld, it
takes a few seconds to depole, and the strain- eld hysteresis loop crack. If the piezoelectric element is repoled with an ac eld, it is
transforms into a “butter y loop.” It is accompanied by a rapid in- recommended to apply a dc bias eld. This will ensure that the elec-
creasein currentdrawn (more energy loss). If a much highernegative tric eld in the poling direction exceeds the poling threshold, while
eld is kept for a long time, the material gets polarized along the keeping the negative eld below the depoling limit. To improve the
new poling direction. Thus, it is possible to repole the piezoelectric repeatable performance data of a piezoelectric element, it is recom-
specimen by means of exciting it with ac eld or dc eld. Although mended to apply cyclic treatment. The process involves application
repoling actuators bonded to the surface of a beam is possible, a of slightly higher eld (dc or ac) than needed and then shutting off
tensile stress is induced in the actuator, which might cause it to the eld. The process is repeated several times until the residual
CHOPRA 2151
brittle, and, therefore, the effect of dynamic stress on their charac- and there is no thermal strain:
teristics is a major concern. Recently, there have been some limited 8 9
focusedeffortsto evaluatedtheir fatiguecharacteristicsand dynamic > ¾
> 1> >
conditions.63¡66 8 9 2 3>>
> ¾ >>
Most actuators utilize direct piezoelectric effects (d31 and d33 /. < D1 = 0 0 0 0 d15 0 <> 2> >
=
There have been some selected attempts to build torsional actuators ¾3
D2 D 4 0 0 0 d25 0 05
using shear piezoelectric effect (d51 / (Refs. 67 and 68). Bonding : ; >
>¿23 >
>
D3 d31 d32 d33 0 0 0 >> >
>
together segmented piezoceramic bars that are poled in axial direc- >
>¿31 >
>
tion and arranging in opposite poling direction form a cylindrical : ;
¿12
actuator. A major drawback is very eld requirement (in several
kilovolts) to achieve desired torsional de ection.
At this time, a reliable detailed database of piezoelectric char- A stress eld causesan electricdisplacement,which in turn is related
acteristics for a range operating conditions such as electric eld, to the charge generated:
stress/strain level, and temperature is not readily available. It might 2 3
require extensive testing of standardized piezoelectric elements at ZZ dA 1
macrolevel under controlled environment in specialized test ma- qD [D1 D2 D3 ] 4dA 2 5
chines.Simpli ed constitutiverelationsfor nonlinearhigh eld con-
dA 3
ditions need to be developed. Depolarization caused by alternating
eld in terms of performancedegradationneeds to be examined. For
most applicationselectromechanicalfatigue characteristicsbecome where d A1 , d A2 , and dA 3 are, respectively,the differentialelectrode
important and need to be investigated systematically. Complex ge- areas in the 2-3, 1-3, and 1-2 planes. The charge q and voltage Vc
ometries, which result in nonuniform elds and stress distributions, are related by the capacitance of the sensor C p as
should be examined systematically through detailed modeling and
re ned testing techniques. Modeling issues related to interdigitated Vc D q = C p
electrode piezoelectric ber composites need carefully scrutiny and
validations.
Knowing the voltage, it is thus possible to measure the stress and
hence the strain. Consider a sheet sensor with two faces coated with
D. Piezoelectric Sensors thin electrode layers. In case of uniaxial stress eld (in direction 1),
The direct piezoelectric effect is the electric displacement that the capacitance is given as
is generated when a piezoelectric material is mechanically stressed
and can be used to sense structural deformation. Most applications ¾
¯
C p D e33 l c bc t c
rely on either the voltage or rate of change of voltage generated by
the sensor or the frequency spectrum of the signal generated by the
sensor. A major advantageof using piezoelectricsensors as opposed where lc , bc , and tc are length, width, and thickness of the sensor,
to conventionalfoil strain gauges is their superior signal-to-noisera- respectively. Assuming strain along the 1-direction, it follows that
tio and high-frequencynoise rejection.In applicationsinvolvinglow Z
strain levels, one requires much less signal conditioningwith piezo- d31 Yc bc
electric sensors, and, as such, they are less sensitive to noise. Other Vc D "1 dx
Cp lc
advantages are their compactness and sensitivity over a large strain
bandwidth and ease of embeddability.Most commonly used sensors
are piezo lm (PVDF) becauseof its low stiffness.Sometimes,piezo- where Yc is Young’s modulus of the sensor and "1 is averaged over
ceramic (PZT) sensors are used for speci c applications. For exam- the gauge length. The strain is calculated as
ple, it might be possible to use piezoceramics for both sensing and
actuation especially for collocated control strategies.69¡73 The PZT Vc C p
"1 D
sensors exhibit high Young’s modulus, brittleness, and low tensile d31 Yc lc bc
strength. Also, they suffer from creep with dc eld, depolarization
under high stress conditions,and linearity at high strains. In spite of For this relation it is assumed that only the strain in the 1-direction
these problems, some researchershave used piezoceramicsheet sen- exists, and there is no loss of strain in the bond layer. With the
sors in controllable structural systems74;75 and in health monitoring including of Poisson’s effect, this relation reduces to
applications.76 Giurgiutiu and Zagrai77 carried out a comparative
evaluation of different PZT sheet sensors. Because of the way the Vc C p
material is stretched during manufacturing, the PVDF behaves as "1 D
d31 [1 ¡ º.d32 =d31 /]Yc lc bc
piezoelectrically orthotropic but mechanically isotropic for small
strains.
The direct effect equations are where º is Poisson’s ratio. For conventional foil gauges the trans-
8 9 verse sensitivityis close to zero and normally neglected.In a general
> ¾1 > situation it is not possible to separate out the principal strains us-
>
>¾ > > ing one piezoelectric sensor. Unless the transverse strain is known
8 9 2 3>> 2>>
< D1 = 0 0 0 0 d15 0 ><¾ > = a priori, it is not possible to obtain longitudinal strain using one
3
D2 D4 0 0 0 d25 0 05 sensor.
: ; >¿23 > The effect of bond layer is determined assuming a uniform stain
D3 d31 d32 d33 0 0 0 >> >
> >
>
> ¿ >> beam theory. As a result of shear lag effect in the bond layer, the
: 31 >
; effective length and width of sensor get reduced:
¿12
2 38 9 2 3 Vc C p
e11
¾
0 0 <E1= a1 "1 D
C40 e22
¾
0 5 E 2 C a2 51T
4 d31 [1 ¡ º.d32 =d31 /]Yc lceff bceff
: ;
0 0 e33 ¾
E3 a3
The effective length and width of a sensor are function of sensor
The sensor equations are based on direct effect. The sensor is and bond-layer characteristics. Reference 78 presents a procedure
exposed to a stress eld, which in turn generates an electric eld. to determine these values. Because of lower thickness and stiffness
Monolithic PZT sensors are transversely isotropic, and as a result of a typical PVDF sensor, it shows a much lower shear lag loss than
d31 D d32 and d15 D d25 . Consider a case where electric eld is zero a PZT sensor.
CHOPRA 2153
1. Signal Conditioning by the sensor, as shown in Fig. 11. In this circuit C p is capacitance
To measure accurately the output of piezoelectric sensor, it needs of sensor, C c represents capacitance of cables, and C F is feedback
to be passed through some signal conditioning system. Typically, capacitance. The value of time constant as given by R F C F can be
the output impedance of piezoelectric sensor is very high while the selected to achieve the desired frequency range.
measuring device such as a voltmeter has comparatively low input The sensitivity of piezoelectric sensor is far superior than that
impedance (order of 1 MÄ). The objective of signal conditioning of conventional foil type strain gauges, with much less signal con-
systems is to provide a signal with low output impedance while ditioning required, especially for applications involving low strains
maintaining high input impedance to the sensor. One way is to short and high noise levels. Figure 12 shows impulsiveun ltered response
the electrodesof the sensor with a suitable resistor and then measure from both a conventional foil strain gauge and a PZT strain sensor,
the current passing through this resistor using an ampli er. The taken simultaneously after the cantilevered beam was impacted at
second way is to use a charge ampli er to measure charge generated its tip. There is signi cant backgroundnoise in the foil gauge output
as compared to the PZT output. The spikes in PZT output are the
overtones of the ac power-line frequency.
It is not advisable to use these sensors to measure strain above
150–200 microstrains because of increasing nonlinear piezobehav-
ior. The output of the PZT sensor requires no temperature cor-
rection over a moderate range of operating temperatures (say less
than 40± C). Figure 13 shows measured strain results from strain
gauge, PZT sensor, and PVDF sensor of size 7:1 £ 3:6 £ 0:056 mm
attached at the root of a cantilevered aluminum beam. Correlation
is generally quite satisfactory. For a constant gauge length sensi-
tivity increases with increasing sensor area. Also, as the size of
sensor increases the shear lag losses as a result of bond layer de-
crease, and there is a better transfer of strain from the surface of
the structure to the sensor. However, the larger sensor measures
average strain over a larger area instead of local strain and also
can add stiffness to the baseline structure, especially with PZT sen-
Fig. 11 Charge ampli er circuit to measure strain with piezoelectric
sensor.
sors. Even though the piezoelectric properties (dielectric permit-
tivity and piezoelectric coef cients) change with temperature, the
overall effect on the calibration of PZT sensors is small away from
Curie’s limit. On the other hand, PVDF exhibits a signi cant change
of pyroelectric properties with temperature in addition to change in
piezoelectric properties. Hence, PVDF sensors are relatively sen-
sitive to temperature, and suitable temperature compensation must
be included in measurements. For some speci c measurements spe-
cially shaped distributed PVDF sensors can increase the perfor-
mance signi cantly.79;80 Piezoelectricstrain sensorsare simple, easy
to use, and a reliablealternativeto conventionalresistance-basedfoil
Foil strain gauge strain gauges.
There have been limited attempts to validate systematically the
calibration factor for piezoelectric sensors for a wide range of fre-
quencies and strain levels. Doubtless, the sensitivity of sensor de-
pends upon strain distribution(baseline structural con gurationand
loading),sensor size, temperature,and fabricationtechniques(bond
layer thickness). There is a need to establish guidelines to optimize
the sensitivity of piezoelectric sensor under different operating con-
ditions. It is equally important to develop signal-conditioning cir-
cuitry to cover a wide range of frequencies.
Fig. 13 Correlation of measured foil strain gauge strain and PVDF sensor strain and theoretical predictions.78
2154 CHOPRA
Fig. 16a Pure extension (same voltage to top and bottom piezos).
Fig. 16b Pure bending (equal but opposite voltage to top and bottom
piezos).
Z h =2
.E S/tot D b.z/E. z/ z d z coupling stiffness
¡h =2
Z h =2
.E I /tot D b. z/E. z/ z2 dz bending stiffness
¡h =2
Z h =2
F3 D b.z/E. z/3.z / dz induced force
De nition of thickness and coordinate system ¡h =2
Z h =2
M3 D b. z/E.z /3.z/ z dz induced moment
¡h =2
". z/ D "0 ¡ z·
where
Z h =2
.E A/tot D b. z/E.z / dz extensional stiffness Fig. 18 Single actuator normalized curvature comparison for a perfect
¡h =2 bond condition.83
2156 CHOPRA
where the stiffness terms gets modi ed. The matrix form of these
governing equations is similar to that for surface-bondedactuators, Fig. 20 Piezoaxis offset from the beam axis.
except that the stiffness terms need to be modi ed to account for the
embedded location for the actuators.
Ghiringhelliet al.86 developeda semianalyticalformulationfor an
arbitrary cross-section beam with embedded piezoelectric elements
and showed good agreement of their predicted results with three-
dimensional model results.
D. Energy Formulation
Using the same basic assumptionsas used in the force equilibrium
formulation, the principle of virtual work can provide the govern-
ing equations and boundary conditions that can be easily adapted to
dynamic systems. Assuming that the only allowable modes of de-
formation are actuator extension,adhesive shear, and beam bending
and extension, the strain energy relations can be directly written.
Beam extension:
Z l c =2
³ ´2
1 @u 0b
U b0 D Eb Ab dx
2 ¡lc =2 @x
Beam bending:
Z ³ ´2
1
l c =2
@2w Fig. 21 Analytical strains and de ections (Ãb = 38 ) (Ref. 83).
Ub· D E b Ib dx
2 ¡lc =2 @x2
E. Extension-Bending-Torsion Model (Skewed Piezo)
Substrate shear: If a slender actuator is oriented at an angle with respect to the
Z ` c =2 beam axes (Fig. 20), it results in a coupled extensional, bending,
1 and torsion response. Despite two-dimensionallocal induced strain
Us D G s A s .°s /2 dx
2 ¡` c =2 distribution, the large-aspect-ratio actuator primarily acts along its
major axis because of dominant shear lag effects in the lateral direc-
Actuator extension: tion. If two identical actuators are oriented at §¯ deg at the top and
Z ³ ´2 bottom surfaces, respectively, the same potential will induce pure
` c =2 twisting, whereas an opposite potential will cause pure bending.
1 @u c
Uc D E c Ac ¡3 dx For the maximum induced twist the piezos should be oriented at
2 @x
¡`c =2 §45 deg, respectively, on the top and bottom surfaces. Park et al.83
and Park and Chopra84 developed uniform-strain and Bernoulli–
De ne Euler beam models for an isotropic beam with a surface-bonded
Z l c =2 single piezoceramic actuator at an arbitrary orientationwith respect
1 1 E b Ab ¡ s ¢2
Ib D Ab tb2 ; U b· D "b ¡ "b0 dx to the beam axis. The shear lag effects as a result of a nite thickness
12 2 ¡lc =2 3 of adhesive layer were included. The actuator was assumed to be a
Z line element and only permitted to induce strain in its lengthwise
` c =2
1 G s As ¡ ¢2 direction.
Us D u c ¡ u sb dx Using the uniform-strain theory, an expression for beam twist Á
2 ¡`c =2 ts2
with a single actuator oriented at angle ¯ is obtained as83
The principle of virtual work for static behavior is mathematically µ ¶
stated as Á 3 lc E b cos.¯/ sin.¯/ sinh.0 x/
N C sinh.0/
. x/
N D ¡ . xN C 1/
3 4 tb G b à C ® cos3 .¯/ 0 cosh.0/
±W E D ¡±U
where G b is the shear modulus of beam. Figure 21 shows variation
It will result in governing equations and boundary conditions, as of strains with skew angle. The maximum twist that occurs for ¯
obtained directly with the uniform-strain model.83 equals 45 deg.
CHOPRA 2157
three-dimensionaleffects might be needed. The linear model (using eling was based on Vlasov theory, where two-dimensional stress
linear piezoelectriccharacteristics)is accurateonly for small strains. and strain distributions associated with any local plate (shell) ele-
To predict reliable exural results with high eld conditions, non- ment of the beam are reduced to one-dimensionalgeneralizedforces
linear eld-strainsrelationsshould be included.The precedinganal- and moments. Effects of transverse shear and warping restraints
yses neglected the coupling of piezoelectricson mechanical proper- were included. Comparison with experimental data from bending-
ties (uncoupled analyses). Hagood et al.94 formulated a completely twist and extension-twist coupled graphite-epoxy composite solid
coupled piezoelectric-mechanical model for a beam with surface- beams with surface-mounted piezoceramic actuators showed that
bonded actuators. Predicted dynamics were found to be in good the inclusion of chordwise (lateral) bending is essential to predict
agreement with experimental data obtained with a cantilevered alu- a beam’s coupled response accurately. Also, Kaiser103 carried out
minum beam. Park et al.83 developedcoupledbending and extension a similar type of study with thin-walled, open- and closed-section,
analysis for an isotropicbeam with isolated surface bonded actuator. coupled composite beams with piezoelectric actuation. Cesnik and
A nite thicknessadhesive layer between actuator and beam was in- Shin104 developed a re ned multicell composite beam analysis for
cluded. The convergence point of the Bernoulli–Euler and uniform- active twist rotor with embedded AFC actuators. The approach is
strain predictions was shown to be a function of beam-to-actuator- based on a two-step asymptotic solution: a linear two-dimensional
width ratio in addition to thickness ratio. Satisfactory validation of cross-sectional analysis and a global nonlinear one-dimensional
predicted bending slope with measured values was carried out for analysis.Subsequently,the analysis was successfullyvalidated with
several different aluminum beams. Benjeddou et al.88 developed a test data for different blade con gurations and load conditions.105
uni ed beam nite element model for extensionand shear piezoelec- Ghiringhelli et al.86 developed a re ned nite element analysis for
tric actuationmechanism. This is especiallysuitable for sandwiched anisotropic beam with embedded piezoelectric actuators and suc-
beams. The model used Bernoulli–Euler theoryfor the surfacelayers cessfully compared their results with three-dimensional results. As
and Timoshenko beam theory for the core. It was shown that the pre- a part of smart-tip rotor development, Bernhard and Chopra106 de-
dicted induced deformation was lower with the shear-actuatedbeam veloped Vlasov-type beam analysis for a tailored composite cou-
theory. pled beam with induced strain actuation. It consisted of a num-
Park and Chopra84 developed coupled extension, bending, and ber of spanwise segments with reversed bending-twist couplings
torsion analysis for an isotropicbeam with surface-bondedactuators for each successive segment. Each segment acts like a bimorph,
at an arbitrary orientation with respect to the beam axis. Piezoce- and the polarity of successive surface-bonded piezoceramics is re-
ramic actuatorswere representedas line actuators.Systematicexper- versed. Because of the ip- opping excitation, the beam de ects
imental tests with cantileveredaluminum beams were carried out for into a sinusoidal bending wave, whereas the induced twist is addi-
inducedbendingand twist at differentorientationanglesto check the tive spanwise.Predictionswere validatedsatisfactorilywith test data
accuracy and limitation of models. Comparison of predicted results for several different beam con gurations. For accurate predictions
with test data showed that the models were satisfactoryin predicting it became necessary to include nonlinear measured characteristics
trends for bending slope and twist with different orientation angle. of piezoceramics and modeling of chordwise bending. It is now
The predicted bending slope deviated signi cantly from measured well established that effects of transverse shear can be very impor-
value for orientation angles greater than 45 deg (Fig. 25), more so tant at both local and global level for the response of composite
for piezoceramicswith moderate aspect ratios. Detailed strain mea- beams because of low values of shear modulus G compared with
surements showed that the local strains are quite two-dimensional. the direct modulus E (G/E ratio). A rst-order shear deformation
Therefore, the inclusion of effects of transverse actuation might be method is Timoshenko’s model, which assumes a constant shear
necessary to re ne the analysis. stress across the cross section. This is called rst-order shear de-
Jung et al.95;96 made an assessment of the state of the art in mod- formation theory (FSDT). 107;108 This model, however, violates the
eling of thin- and thick-walled composite beams with a view to traction-freeboundary condition on the top and bottom surfaces. To
emphasize the special characteristics of composite materials. The compensate this anomaly, a shear correction factor is applied. To
review encompasses modeling nonclassical effects such as out-of- capture the nonlinear distribution of transverse shear strain across
plane warping, warping restraints, and transverse shear. Compos- the cross section, higher-order shear deformation theories (HSDT)
ite beam modeling ranges from simple analytical models to de- are used. These theories however are unable to capture accurately
tailed nite element models and has been validated using limited a dramatic change of properties at a local ply level. A further re-
test data from simple tailored specimen.97¡101 The anisotropic na- nement to HSDT is to use layer-wise shear deformation theory
ture of composite materials makes the structural properties direc- (LWSDT),109 which models shear distribution for each layer sepa-
tion dependent. Using special ply layup, structural couplings such rately. Robbins and Reddy110 carried out static and dynamic anal-
as bending-torsion and extension-torsion can be introduced. These ysis of piezoelectrically actuated beams using LWSDT. Saravanos
couplings can be exploited with induced strain actuation to actively and Heyliger111 developed coupled layer-wise analysis of compos-
control aerodynamic shape such as in helicopter blades or an air- ite beams with embedded piezoelectric actuators and sensors. It
plane. In modeling of a composite beam with induced stain actu- was shown that consistent and more detailed stress distributions es-
ation as a one-dimensional structure, it is important to encompass pecially near the end of the actuator are obtained with layer-wise
all of the important effects caused by bending and shear de ec- theory. For prediction of higher modes of vibration and/or thicker
tions and twist of reference axis of the beam and warping defor- composite structures, it might be more appropriateto use layer-wise
mations of the cross section. Normally, the warping deformations theory.
are much smaller than the exural deformations. This helps to sim- It is clear from testing of simple isotropic beams with surface-
plify the complexity of inherently three-dimensional problem into attachedpiezoelectricelementsthat the local strain distribution(at or
two parts: a two-dimensional local deformation eld of the cross near the actuator) is two-dimensional,84 and, therefore, beam mod-
section that is used to calculate the section properties and a one- eling with induced strain actuationshould re ect such a distribution.
dimensional global deformation eld to predict the response of the Simple beam theories often give erroneous results for beams with
beam. The rst level of idealization of the global deformation in- low actuator-to-beam-thickness ratio (such as the case with piezo-
cludes the Bernoulli–Euler model for bending and the St. Venant bimorphs). Detailed three-dimensional models [say, nite element
model for torsion. In the next levels torsion-related warping, trans- method (FEM) models] should be used to establish the strain ac-
verse shear strain, and cross-sectiondeformation (in-planewarping) tuation mechanism. Most beam theories have either neglected the
effects are included. For composite thin-walled beams it is possible shearing effect of bond layer (by assuming perfect bond condition)
to model the shell wall either as a membrane or as a thick laminate or have incorporated a highly approximate shear model (for ex-
including the effect of transverse shear as well as bending distribu- ample, uniform shear stress within bond thickness); however, test
tion. Chandra and Chopra102 developed a formulation for coupled results92 showed that the bond thickness has a dominant effect on
composite thin-walled open- and closed-section beams with dis- the induced strain transfer from the actuator to beam. It should
tributed induced strain actuation (surface-mounted or embedded) be important to examine systematically the shearing effect of bond
and then validated the analysis with experimental data. Beam mod- layer using a higher-ordershear deformationtheory such as LWSDT
2160 CHOPRA
and establish the limits of simple beam models (uniform-strain and in the x, y, and z directions. The strains are de ned as
Bernoulli–Euler models). There have been only limited studies on 8 9
the validation of predictions for composite coupled beams with > @u >
surface-attached or embedded piezoceramics; these should be ex- 8 09 >
> >
>
" >
> @x >
>
panded to cover more beam con gurations and tailored couplings >
< x>= >
< >
=
@v
for static and dynamic loads. Such studies can be very important for "0 D " 0y D
shape control of aerospace systems. Most predictionshave incorpo- >
: >
; >
> >
>@y
"x0y >
> >
>
rated linear piezoelectriccharacteristicsthat are strictly true for low >
> @u @v >
>
eld conditions.To cover moderate to high electric elds, it is worth- : C ;
@y @x
while to include nonlinear characteristics of piezoelectrics. It will
be important to examine systematically the effect of piezoelectric- 8 9
>
> ¡@ 2 w >
>
mechanical couplings on actuation strain for a range of isotropic > >
and laminated beams. 8 9 > > @x
> 2 >
>
>
< ·x = >
< ¡@ 2 w >
=
· D ·y D
IV. Modeling: Plate with Induced Strain Actuation : ; > > @ y2 >
>
·x y >
> >
>
One of the basic elements of adaptive structures is a thin compos- >
> >
>
> @ 2w >
ite plate with surface-induced or embedded sheet actuators. With a :¡2 ;
tailored laminated plate, induced strain actuation can control its ex- @ x@ y
tension, bending,and twisting. Plates with distributedinduced strain
actuators can be used to control pointing of precision instruments and actuation strain vector
in space; to control structural borne noise; and to change aerody- 8 9
namic shape for vibration reduction, utter suppression, and gust < 3x =
alleviation. K D 3y
Several plate theories have been developed to predict exural : ;
3x y
response of laminated plates with surface-bonded or embedded in-
duced strain actuators that include classical laminated plate theory
(CLPT), FSDT, HSDT, and LWSDT. All of these theories assume Matrix QN is the transformed reduced stiffness of the plate. By sub-
that the actuators and substrate are integrated as plies of a laminated stituting the assumed deformation into the stress strain equations
plate undergoingconsistentdeformation.They, however,differ from and integrating through the thickness t of plate with N plies for net
each other in terms of displacement distribution through the thick- forces and moments,
ness of plate (modeling of transverse shear). 8 9 22 3 2 33
Among these plate theories, the CLPT is most widely used. It > Nx > A11 A 12 A 16 B11 B12 B16
>
> >
> 6 4A 7
is based on the Kirchoff–Love hypothesis that is quite similar to >
> Ny >
> 6 12 A 22 A 26 5 4 B12 B22 B26 5 7
the Bernoulli–Euler beam theory. It assumes a linear variation of >
> >
> 6 7
<N = 6 A16 A 26 A 66 B16 B26 B66 7
bending strain across thickness, and the effects of transverse shear 62 37
xy
D 6 B B B 3 2D D
are neglected. (A line originally normal to midplane of plate re- >
> Mx >
> 6 11 12 16 11 12 D16 77
mains normal to midplane after bending deformation.) It implies a >
> >
> 6 4B B B 5 4D D 7
>
> My >
> 4 12 D26 55
perfect bonded condition between actuators and substrate. This the- >
:M > ;
22 26 12 22
ory is truly applicable for thin plates (length/thickness> 30), where xy B16 B26 B66 D16 D26 D66
transverse shear effects are negligible.
8 9 8 9
The constitutive relation for any ply of a laminated plate is > "x0 >
>
> >
> >
> Nx3 >
>
>
> >
0 >
>
> >
>
N ¡ 3/
¾ D Q." >
> " >
> >
> N y3 >
>
>
< >
y
= >
<N >
=
£ ° x0y ¡
x y3
where stress vector >
> > > Mx3 >
>
> ·x >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
8 9 >
> ·y >
> >
> M y3 >
>
< ¾x = >
> > >
:M >
: > ; ;
x y3
¾D ¾y · xy
: ;
¿x y where extensional stiffness
² D ²0 C z· coupling stiffness
Z X
N ³ ´
where ² 0 is the midplane strain and · is the bending curvature. Co- h 2k ¡ h 2k ¡ 1
BD QN z dz; Bi j D . QN i j /k
ordinates x and y are in the in-plane directions, and z represents the t 2
kD1
out-of-plane direction (Fig. 27). The u, v, and w are displacements
bending stiffness
Z X
N ³ ´
h 3k ¡ h 3k ¡ 1
DD QN z2 dz ; Di j D . QN i j /k
kD1
3
A. Constitutive Models
Many constitutive models have been developed to describe the
thermomechanical behavior of SMA materials. Some models are
based primarily on thermomechanics, and others are based on
Fig. 31 Schematic of shape memory effect in stretching. a combination of thermomechanics and SMA phenomenology
CHOPRA 2165
ical stress, the thermoelastic stress, and the stress caused by phase
transformation. Note that the Young’s modulus E and the phase
transformation coef cient Ä are functions of the martensite volume
fraction. These are normally expressed as
E .» / D E A C ».E M ¡ E A /; Ä.» / D ¡" L E.» /
where " L is the maximum recoverable strain. The E A and E M re-
spectively represent Young’s modulus at austenite and martensite
states. Tanaka developed an evolutionary equation for the marten-
site volume fraction. The evolutionary equation determined from
dissipation potential was resolved to have the following form:
» D 4.¾; T /
Fig. 34 Schematic of phase transformation. This equationimplies that the martensite volume fraction » is a func-
tion of stress and temperature. Tanaka models » as an exponential
and/or statistical mechanics. Most of these constitutive models are function.During the M Ã A transformation,the martensite volume
phenomenological-based macroscale models that are developed for fraction is
quasi-static loading only. One of the most popular one-dimensional
models is Tanaka’s model138 and is based on thermomechanics. In » D 1 ¡ expfa M .M s ¡ T / C b M ¾ g
this model the second law of thermodynamics is written in terms of and during the M ! A transformation it is de ned as
the Helmholtz free energy,followed by derivationof the rate form. It
is assumed that the uniaxial strain, temperature, and martensite vol- » D exp[a A . As ¡ T / C b A ¾ ]
ume fraction » are the only state variables. An exponential expres- where the material constants are de ned as
sion of » is developed in terms of stress and temperature. Liang and
Rogers139 presented a model, which is based on the rate form of the .0:01/ aA
aA D ; bA D
constitutiveequation developed by Tanaka. In their model, a cosine . As ¡ A f / CA
representationwas used to describe the martensite volume fraction.
.0:01/ aM
A major drawback of these two models is that they only describe aM D ; bM D
the stress-induced martensite transformation and do not consider .Ms ¡ M f / CM
strain-induced martensite transformation (shape memory effect).
The coef cients used in the preceding constitutive relations, E,
Hence, they cannot be applied to model the detwinning of marten-
2, and Ä, and the parameters Ms , M f , A s , A f , C A , and C M are de-
site that is responsible for the SME at low temperatures. To over-
termined normally through testing of the SMA wires (Table 6). Note
come this de ciency, Brinson140 developeda constitutivemodel that
that the transformation temperatures Ms , M f , As , and A f are deter-
separates out the martensite volume fraction into two parts: stress-
mined in a stress-freecondition.The stress in uence coef cients C A
induced martensite and temperature-induced martensite. The rst
and C M are the slope of the critical stress-temperature plots for the
part describes the amount of detwinned or stress-preferred variant
austenite and martensite transformation boundaries, respectively.
of martensite present, and the second part describes the fraction
Liang and Rogers139 utilized the same constitutive relation but
of martensite caused by the reversible phase transformation from
developed a new form of the evolutionary equation for the marten-
austenite phase.
site volume fraction. The difference between the two models arises
To cover both the shape memory and pseudoelasticity effects,
in the modeling of the martensite volume fraction. In this model »
the coef cients of the constitution equation are assumed to be non-
is modeled as a cosine function. Both models however lack proper
constants. Another constitutive model is the thermodynamic model
representation of shape memory effect (detwinning at room tem-
by Boyd and Lagoudas,141;142 which is based on free energy and
perature). Both models describe transformation from martensite to
dissipation potential. This model is derived from the Gibbs free en-
austenite and vice versa. They are, however, valid only for fully
ergy instead of the Helmholtz free energy used in Tanaka’s model.
detwinned martensite state.
This model can cover three-dimensionalstates and nonproportional
Unlike the preceding two models, Brinson’s model140 represents
loading. Another model that uses a thermodynamic formulation is
the transformation from the detwinned martensite to the stress-
by Ivshin and Pence.143 There are other models that are not based
preferred variant, which leads to a description of shape memory
on these two approaches. For example, Graesser and Cozzarelli144
effect below A s . This model uses a similar representation for con-
developed a three-dimensional model based on evolutionary plas-
stitutive equation with some modi cations. The modi ed relation is
ticity. Sun and Hwang145 derived a micromechanical model taking
as follows:
into account thermodynamics,microstructure,and micromechanics
and covering both SME and pseudoelasticity.Matsuzaki et al.146 de- ¾ ¡ ¾0 D E.» /" ¡ E.»0 /"0 C Ä.» /»s ¡ Ä.»0 /»s0 C 2.T ¡ T0 /
veloped a general one-dimensionalthermomechanicalmodel taking
into accounteffectsof energy dissipation,latent heat, and heat trans- In this model the martensite volume fraction is divided into two
fer during phase transformation. They introduced a general form of parts:
phase interaction energy function that was determined form qua-
sisteady experimental stress-strain data. The model showed good » D »S C »T
agreement with test data at different strain rates. Barrett147 devel-
oped a one-dimensional constitutive model for SMA that includes where » S is the portion of the detwinned(or stress preferred)marten-
phase change hardening, hysteresis with partial transformation, and site present at low temperature and »T is the portion of twinned (or
tension-compressiontransformations.The model however differen-
tiates between stress-induced and temperature-induced martensite Table 6 Thermomechanical properties of SMA wires tested
volume fractions. (Dynalloy 15 mil NiTi binary alloy)158
The rst four models are described in more detail. Tanaka138 Coef cient/ Coef cient/
assumedthat strain ², temperatureT , and martensitevolume fraction property Unit Value property Unit Value
» , are the state variables to describe one-dimensional behavior of
the shape memory alloys (such as SMA wires). The constitutive ¾crs Pa 1.38eC6 As ±
C 52
f ±C
equation is as follows: ¾cr Pa 1.72eC6 Af 65
CA Pa/± C 8eC6 Ms.Tanaka/ ±C 43.5
.¾ ¡ ¾0 / D E.» /." ¡ "0 / C 2.T ¡ T0 / C Ä.» /.» ¡ »0 / CM Pa/± C 12eC6 M f .Tanaka/ ±C 40.7
EA Pa 45eC9 Ms .Brinson/ ±C 55
where subscript 0 represents the initial condition of SMA. This EM Pa 20.3eC9 M f .Brinson/ ±C 42
equation shows that the stress consists of three parts: the mechan-
2166 CHOPRA
the wire (to, say, 4% strain with a strain rate of 0.0005/s) at a constant
temperature (well above A f ) and then release to zero stress condi-
tion. After 20–30 cycles the pseudoelasticbehavior of the wire gets
stabilized.156 In the second approach the SMA wire is mechanically
strained at room temperature (in martensite phase) followed by a
thermal cycle under no stress condition by heating the wire above
A f and then cooling down below M f . Again, it requires about 20–
30 cycles to stabilize the material.156;157 Both methods are equally
effective to stabilize the material, except the rst method is simple
because it does not require thermal cycling.
b) Resistive heating
Fig. 36 Experimental critical stress-temperature plot.155
martensite nish and austenite nish follow nearly the same slopes
and help determine M f and A f . The critical stress ¾crs is the stress
at which the transformation from twinned to detwinned martensite
f
starts, and the criticalstress ¾cr representsthe stress where this trans-
formation is nearly complete. These critical stresses are determined
for a temperature below Ms . As shown in Fig. 35b, the region above
f
¾cr line represents pure detwinned martensite state, and the region
below ¾crs line is a twinned state. The interpretation of Ms and M f
can be different by two approaches.Strain at which detwinning gets
completed is referred to as "l . The parameters C A and C M are the
slopes of these two curves. It is assumed that below Ms the critical Fig. 37 Stress-strain plots.158
f
stresses ¾crs and ¾cr associated with the detwinning are independent
of temperature (a small anomaly from test data). The critical stress-
temperature data obtained at low stresses and temperatures were
found to be more sensitive to test conditions and in fact were more
dif cult to obtain. To determine the transformation temperatures
(M s , M f , A s , and A f ) of the SMA wire under no stress condi-
tion, Perkin–Elmer DSC is normally used. This instrument uses the
change in heat capacity of the material to determine the start and
nish transformation temperatures. When the material undergoes
phase transformation, it absorbs (or emits) large amount of heat
with a relatively small change of temperature, and the DSC cap-
tures such a change. Two different temperature control methods are
used; the rst involves the use of a thermal chamber (environmental
heating), and the second involves internal heating (resistive heat-
ing). Even though similar trends are observed with both methods of
heating, transformationstresses differ as a result of small variations
in temperature. For example, the transformation from martensite
to austenite state takes place at lower temperatures in the case of
resistive heating.
To stabilize the SMA for a repeatable behavior,it becomes neces-
sary to “cycle” the material mechanically.One approach is to stretch Fig. 38 Comparison of models with test data.158
2168 CHOPRA
in this regime. It is clear that as long as coef cients of models are plete constrained stresses developed at different temperatures for
identi ed properly from test data all constitutive models can pre- different prestrains. The nal constrained stress is independent of
dict stress-strainbehavior satisfactorilyat high temperatures (above prestrain as long as it is above a threshold value of 2%. Below about
A s ).158 Note that the Tanaka model uses exponential representa- 2% prestrain, the stress path followed, and the nal stresses are de-
tion for martensite volume fraction, which can lead to numerical pendent on prestrain. Most of the models satisfactorily predict the
convergence problem during the iterative solution process. constrained recovery stress, as long as the values are low (less than
plastic yield stress). Lower prestrainsoffer the advantageof less per-
D. Resistive Heating vs Internal Heating manent plastic deformation and fatigue with repeated cycles.159;160
During the phase transformation of SMA, there is a large vari- Figure 39b shows the stress history of SMA wire in repetitivecycles.
ation of internal resistance of material.159 As a result of this, it is After three cycles the material is stabilized, and the following cy-
quite dif cult to hold constant temperature with resistive heating cle repeats the results of previous cycle. This clearly shows that
especially during phase transformations. It is however possible to the SMAs can be used as active force generators under repetitive
achievea temperaturecontrolof the order of 2–3± C by very slow heat loading.
activation of wire. Figure 36a shows the critical stress-temperature
plot from experimental data points obtained using environmental F. Nonquasistatic Loading
heating. Figure 36b shows the corresponding critical stress plot for If the material is strained at a faster rate, the material does not have
resistive heating. By comparing the two, it appears that the entire time to relax and as a result attains a higher stress value. The rise
plot appears shifted towards lower temperatures in case of resistive in stresses might be a result of local temperature changes that occur
heating. However, the slopes of critical stresses seem to remain un- immediately if the wire undergoes nonquasistatic loading. After a
changed. In a polycrystal structure involving different phases, the high strain rate, if the material is relaxed it returns to its quasistatic
resistance level can be quite different in each phase. Passing the stress value. (Local temperatures might settle down to equilibrium
current through the wire can result in a differential heating of ma- values.) This is called stress relaxationphenomenon.159¡162 Shaw163
terial (surface temperature different from internal temperature). As pointed out that some of the self-heatingeffect arises from the orig-
a result, it might not be prudent to mix two sets of data. It might be ination of local nucleation sites with temperature differences along
important to use different values of Ms and M f for modeling two the wire. It has been shown that the transformationstresses increase
cases of heat activation. signi cantly as a function of strain rates (Fig. 40). If the loading is
noncontinuous,the SMA appearsto fall back into its thermodynamic
E. Constrained Recovery Behavior equilibrium state (stress relaxation). This phenomenon also mani-
Large recovery stresses are developed when the SMA wire is fests itself as a dependence of the material behavior on the loading
constrained during the heating process. Figure 39a shows the com- pattern (Fig. 41). For dynamic loading it is necessary to develop
b)
Fig. 39 Restrained recovery behavior with prestrain.155 Fig. 41 Effect of loading pattern on stress-strain behavior.155
CHOPRA 2169
range and showed that the area of hysteresis loop decreases with
increasing strain rate. Ju and Shimamoto173 developed compos-
ite beam with embedded SMA bers to augment its damping.
Damping was shown to be a function of both temperature and
current.
quadrant. S H is the compliance of the rod at nominal operating Dapino et al.191 developed a coupled nonlinear and hysteretic mag-
eld (bias eld). The rst equation shows that the strain of a mag- netomechanical model for magnetostrictives. The magnetostrictive
netostrictive element is function of mechanical stress and applied effect is modeled by taking into account the Jiles–Atherton model of
magnetic eld. The second equation shows that the magnetic in- ferromagnetic hysteresis in combination with quartic magnetostric-
duction B varies with stress and applied eld. This model appears tion law. This model provides a representation of the bidirectional
a generalization of two phenomenological relations: linear Hook’s couplingbetween the magnetic and elasticstates.The model appears
law (" D S¾ / and magnetic constitutive law (B D ¹H ). Thus the to represent accurately the magnetic hysteresis in the material. An-
total strain consists of two parts: mechanical strain and magne- janappa and Bi192 and Anjanappa and Wu193 presented a simple
tostrictive strain. In a similar way, the magnetic induction consists one-dimensional model to simulate the quasistatic response of a
of two parts: constant-stressmagnetic componentand magnetoelas- magnetostrictiveminiactuator (they developed)as a result of the ap-
tic interaction component. The magnetic and structural regimes are plied magnetic eld.Also, Wu and Anjanappa194 andKrishnamurthy
coupled through magnetizationas a result of both externally applied et al.195 developed a simple rule-of-mixture model to calculate the
magnetic eld and stress-induced eld. This linear model provides response of magnetostrictive particulate composite. Flatau et al.196
adequate characterization of magnetostrictive material at the low discussed magnetostrictive particle composites in terms of un-
operating regime. Note that at high operating regimes hysteresis derlying physical processes that occur during fabrication, mate-
and nonlinearities become important. rial characterization, design considerations, and structural health
For an unloaded rod, strain and ux are as follows. sensing.
Strain: Kannan197 provided a continuum level quasistatic, three-
dimensional nite element analysis using nonlinearbehaviorof bulk
" D dH magnetostrictive materials and particulate magnetostrictive com-
Flux: posites. Two alternate possibilities for a nonlinear incremental con-
stitutive model are explored: characterization in terms of magnetic
B D ¹T H eld (normally used) or in terms of magnetization. The analysis
was validated with available experimental data on structures incor-
For longitudinal induced strain porating Terfenol-D. To model particulate magnetostrictive com-
³ ´ ³ ´ ³ ´ posites, interactions between particles are captured by combin-
d"33 dB3 d"3 1 ing a numerical micromechanical analysis with the Mori–Tanaka
d33 D D ; S33 D D
dH3 ¾
d¾3 H
d¾3 H
Y3H homogenization approach. Pradhan et al.198 developed rst-order
³ ´ shear deformation theory (FSDT) to study vibration control of lam-
dB3 inated composite plate with embedded magnetostrictivelayers. The
¹¾33 D effects of material properties and placement of magnetostrictive
dH3 ¾
layers on vibration suppression were examined. It was found that
The elastic modulus Y3H
and magnetomechanical coef cients d33 the maximum suppression is obtained when the magnetostrictive
vary from material to material and often with operating conditions. layers were relatively thin and placed far away from the neutral
For ETREMA Terfenol-D rods axis.
Calkins et al.199 and Dapino et al.200 provided an overview of
¹¾33 D 9:2 .emu/ magnetostrictive sensor technology. Magnetostrictive sensors take
advantage of the coupling between the elastic and magnetic states
D 11:56 £ 10¡6 .MKS units/ of a material to measure motion, stress, and magnetic eld. Sen-
sors are classi ed into three categories: passive, active, and hybrid.
d33 D 1:6 £ 10¡6 Oe¡6 Passive sensors are based on Villari effect and measure change in
magnet ux in a coil surrounding the sensor caused by an exter-
D 20 £ 10¡9 m/A nally imposed stress. Active sensors use an internal excitation of
The nominal open circuit Young’s modulus is the material (such as with coil) to facilitate the measurement of
permeability (often with another coil) caused by an external forc-
Y3H D 2:65 £ 1010 N/m2 ing. Hybrid or combined sensors rely on the use of magnetostrictive
¯ element to actively excite another material (say, ber optic) that
H
S33 D 1 Y3H D 0:377 £ 10¡10 m2 /N allows measurement of change in its properties as a result of ex-
ternal change. Many different sensors based on their applications
The properties of a magnetostrictive element depend on level of are discussed and contrasted with conventional sensors in terms of
stress, magnetization, and temperature distribution. Butler183 and sensitivity and implementation issues. Flatau et al.201 developed a
Butler et al.184 provided a comprehensive introduction to the mag- high-bandwidth-tuned vibration absorber using Terfenol-D actua-
netostrictivematerials and especially to the ETREMA’s Terfenol-D. tor and showed a signi cant change of modulus from demagnetized
Engdahland Svensson185 presenteda simple, uncoupled nite differ- state to magnetic saturation.202 Simple experiments were conducted
ence analysis to predict steady responseof magnetostrictiverod as a to demonstrate proof of concept. Kellogg and Flatau203 developed
result of applied sinusoidalmagnetic eld using linear material char- an analysis of the noncontact nature of sensing using magnetostric-
acteristics. Kvarnsjo and Engdahl186 developed a two-dimensional tives. Kellogg and Flatau carried out systematic measurement of
nite difference transient analysis caused by magnetic eld using elastic modulus of Terfenol-D under controlled thermal, magnetic,
nonlinear material characteristics.The nite difference methods are and mechanical loading conditions and showed dramatic change
less versatile to deal with structures constituting dissimilar materi- of modulus with the dc applied magnetic eld. Because the mag-
als such as the case with smart structures. Claeyssen et al.187 de- netostrictive materials, especially Terfenol-Ds, are brittle in ten-
veloped a three-dimensional,coupled, linear nite element analysis sion (tensile strength » 28 MPa, compressive strength » 700 Mpa),
to establish the effective dynamic coupling constants of a magne- they are normally placed under a mechanical compressiveprestress.
tostrictive actuator. They used an empirical representationof mate- Also, a prestress improves the magnetic state of the material and
rial characteristics. Carman and Mitrovic188 formulated a coupled hence the magnetomechanical coupling. However, a large com-
one-dimensional nonlinear nite element analysis incorporating a pressive prestress can overpower the elastic de ections caused by
phenomenologicalconstitutivemodel for magnetostrictiveactuator. magnetostriction. Under dynamic conditions the performance of
The model showed good agreement with test data at high preloads. magnetostrictive material is affected by eddy currents that produce
However this model is unable to represent saturation effects. Fol- magnetic ux opposite to externally applied magnetic eld (skin
lowing the work of Hom and Shanker,189 Duenas et al.190 developed effect). Pratt et al.204 exploited the nonlinear transduction of non-
a more comprehensive constitutive model of magnetostrictive ma- biased Terfenol-D actuators to design an autoparametric vibration
terial that includes magnetization saturation and thermal effects. absorber.
CHOPRA 2173
panel utter,222 performanceenhancement,223 and interiorstructure- up to 100 lb, and actuation frequency up to 10 KHz. By stacking
borne noise.224 Compared to xed-wing aircraft, helicopters ap- RAINBOWs in a clamshell con guration, it is possible to obtain
pear to show the most potential for a major payoff with the ap- higher stroke.226;227 THUNDER actuator is a curved shaped device
plication of smart-structures technology. Given the broad scope of composed of a metallic layer bonded to a prestressed piezoelectric
smart-structures applications, developments in the eld of rotor- layer.228 Displacement is achieved via the induced d31 contraction.
craft are highlighted in this section. Although most of current ap- A cantilevered 1 £ 0.5 in. actuator can generate the displacement of
plications are focused on the minimization of helicopter vibration, 10 mils and a block force of 8 lb. The Moonie actuator consists of
there are other potential applications such as interior/exterior noise metal-ceramic composite, composed of a piezoelectricceramic disk
reduction, aerodynamic performance enhancement including stall sandwiched between two metal end caps. The end caps act as stroke
alleviation, aeromechanical stability augmentation, rotor tracking, ampli ers of lateral displacement of the PZT sheet.229 C-block actu-
handling qualities improvement, rotor head health monitoring, and ators are multilayered arched bimorph piezoelectricactuators, and a
rotor primary controls implementation (swashplateless rotors) (see large axial displacement can be achieved using a series arrangement
review paper30 ). For aerospace systems two types of actuation con- of C-actuators.230;231 So far, most of these specially shaped actua-
cepts have been incorporated. One approach uses active materials tors have not been exploited into challenging applications. Many
directly, surface-bonded or embedded, to actively twist or camber of these actuators are in their early state of development and lack
control of lifting surface. Another approach actively controls auxil- rigorous modeling and database.
iary lifting devices such as leading-/trailing-edge aps using smart For many practical applications it is necessary to develop large
material actuators. Currently, a major barrier is the limited stroke of strokes. To increase actuation force, multilayered piezostack actua-
smart actuators, requiring a large ampli cation. tors are used. These consist of a large number of thin piezoelectric
sheets stacked in a series arrangement, separated by electrodes that
A. Stroke Ampli cation make use of induced strain in thickness direction (d33 actuation).
For most applicationsthere is a need for compact, moderateforce, These devices inducesmall free displacementsbut much larger actu-
moderate bandwidth, and large displacement actuators. Most actu- ation force than sheet actuators.Nominal performanceof piezostack
ators, in particular piezoceramic actuators, are low force and low actuatorsrange in free displacementfrom 15 to 25 ¹m, block forces
stroke devices. Typically, piezoceramic sheet actuators generate up to 1000 lb, and frequencies up to 20 kHz. Combined with suit-
free displacements from 1 to 5 ¹m and block forces from 2 to able ampli cation mechanism, piezostackshave been used in a wide
20 lb (1 lb D 453.6 g) and frequencies up to 20 kHz. Individual rangeof applications.There have been severalstudiesto characterize
piezoelectric sheet actuators can be combined in series to obtain the electromechanicalbehavior of peieostacks.232¡235 For example,
higher actuation displacement. The actuation force is however un- Lee232 evaluated the characteristics of 11 different stack actuators
affected, and also, there is a limit on increasing the length of thin including maximum free strain, maximum block force, operating
sheet actuators (buckling constraint). Another approach to increase voltage, and energy density (Table 7). These actuators were tested
the actuation displacement is by building piezoelectricbimorphs. A systematically using specially built test apparatus under different
bimorph or bending actuator consists of two or more even layers of eld levels, operating frequencies, and preloads.
piezoelectric sheets bonded on either side of a thin metallic shim To increase the stroke of piezostack actuators, some form of am-
(main load carrying member). By applying an opposite potential to pli cation mechanism is needed. Current ampli cation mechanisms
top and bottom sheets, a pure bending actuation is generated. In a can be divided into two types: uidic and mechanical.Typically, u-
cantileveredarrangement the tip displacement can be used for actu- idic approaches use two cylinders of different diameters to obtain
ation of a system. With piezobimorph one can obtain displacements desired ampli cation of stroke.Although uid ampli ers might pro-
from 5 to 10 ¹m and forces up to 0.5 lb. Using more layers can vide higher ampli cation than mechanical devices, they suffer from
increase the actuation force, but the displacement is reduced. To uid losses, weight penalty, and complexity of system.236;237 So
increase actuation force, multilayered actuators such as piezostacks far, there has been limited success with these devices. Mechanical
can be used. However, the stroke of piezostacks is quite small. A ampli cation can be categorized into two types: rigid lever/frame
key challenge is to amplify the stroke of these actuators. Large me- ampli ers238¡241 and elastic extensional ampli ers.242;243 These
chanical ampli cation using a compact leverage system often leads ampli cationdevices trade force with displacement,but have a detri-
to substantial losses at hinges and slippage at knife edges. Replac- mental effect on power transfer ef ciency and energy density.244;245
ing mechanical hinges with exure can overcome some of these Several single-stage mechanical ampli cation devices that include
problems, but requires large effort and experience to perfect such lever-fulcrummechanism(Fig. 50) and triangularframe mechanism
systems. Also, the actuation ef ciency is reduced. To amplify the have been built to actuate a trailing-edge ap of a rotor blade. In
stroke of piezodevices, specially shaped actuators are being built. comparison to uidic devices, these provide simple, lightweight,
Typicalexamplesincludereducedand internallybiasedoxidewafers and ef cient ampli cation systems. However, they suffer from the
(RAINBOW) actuators, thin-layer composite unimorph ferroelec- degradation of performance caused by losses (stiffness and power)
tric driver and sensor (THUNDER) actuators, Moonie actuators, especially with high ampli cation factor. From the stiffness point
and C-block actuators. RAINBOW are dome-shaped actuators that of view, the triangle frame system is normally more ef cient than
are built by bonding piezoceramic layer and a chemical reduced the lever-fulcrum system because its structural members experi-
layer (acts like a shim).225 The piezoelectric layer is on the convex ence mostly extensional loads in contrast to bending loads for
side, and an electric eld changes the curvature of the actuator. The lever-fulcrum ampli ers (Table 8). However, the stiffness of the
projected free displacements are of the order of 1000 ¹m, forces lever-fulcrum can be maintained at much higher value but with
CHOPRA 2175
Fabricated actuator
Fig. 52 L-L ampli cation mechanism.232
Output energy is
1
U0 D 2
K e u 2e
© ¯ ª
D r [1 C r.1 C 1=r s /]2 Umax
The actuation energy ef ciency depends upon stiffness ratio r and (25.4 mm), which is bonded to a thin steel diaphragm that provides
leverage ampli cation ratio G. An optimal value is obtained by a leakproof seal and a restoring spring force. Two passive ball-type
setting d´=dr D 0, which results in check valveswere installedon the pumpinghead to direct ow to and
from high-capacityaccumulators.The piezostacks were actuated at
ropt D 1=G 2 ; ´opt D 1
4 frequenciesof 10–250 Hz by a sinusoidalvoltage of amplitude 50 V.
The maximum value of energy ef ciency can be 14 . Because G is The results showed that the differentialpressure created between ac-
greater than 1, the maximum energy transfer occurs when the output cumulatorsincreaseswith actuationfrequencyand reachesthe maxi-
stiffness is lower than actuator stiffness. For G D 1 (no stroke am- mum at 150 Hz. Beyond this frequencythe pressuredifferentialfalls.
pli cation) r opt becomes equal to 1.0 (matched stiffness condition). A maximum temperature of 55± C was measured on the piezostack.
The optimal value of r decreases rapidly as G increases. There are two major challenges with the successful development
To cover the effect of mass, the active material energy density of this device, operation of control valves at high frequencies, and
ratio is de ned as temperature control of piezostack at high elds and frequencies.
U0 Mact r G2 Mact
´mass D ; ´mass D E. Piezoactuation Power Reduction
Umax M tot .1 C r G 2 /2 Mtot The piezoelectric and electrostrictiveactuators exhibit highly ca-
D. Comparison of Actuators pacitive electrical characteristics. If a sinusoidal voltage is applied
There is a wide variation of characteristicsamong different smart to an ideal capacitor, the charge during the positive half-cycle of
material actuators. Hence, it becomes important to make a compar- excitation equals the discharge during the negative half-cycle, and
ative evaluation of their characteristics. Many applications require hence the net energy dissipation in one cycle is zero. For a nonideal
moderate force and large displacement at low frequencies (say less capacitor (capacitor and resistance in series) there is a net energy
than 100 Hz). Stroke ampli cationdevicestrade force with displace- dissipationby the resistanceas a result of ohmic heating. As a result,
ment; however, energy per cycle remains constant. If the actuator a typical ampli er requires a large heat sink. This power is called
is operating at the same frequency, the total work per cycle might active power:
not be suf cient for a speci c application. One way to increase the
power output of the actuation device is to operate it at a higher fre- Pactive D V £ I £ cos Á W
quency than the operation frequency and harness more energy per
cycle. However, this requires frequency recti cation to achieve the where V is voltage, I is the current drawn in amperes, Á is the phase
desired actuator output frequency independent of piezodrive fre- lag of current with respect to voltage, and cos Á is called the power
quency. Thus, the amount of work from an actuator is maximized factor of the circuit. To make the most ef cient use of power supply,
through impedance matching with load, whereas the power is max- the power factor should be close to unity. The size and weight of
imized by increasing its frequency. Devices like inchworm motors, the ampli er are determined by the amount of reactive power it
ultrasonic motors, micropulse actuators, and piezohydraulic pump generates. The power factor correction is achieved by adding an
are all based on this principle. The piezohydraulicpump appears to inductancein the circuit.This can be achievedin two differentways:
show the most potential among these devices and is discussed next. in series and in parallel with the capacitance (Fig. 58).
There have been attempts to develop hybrid hydraulic actuation The net impedance of the series con guration is
systems to amplify the stroke of piezostack actuators.263¡265 It is a
stepwise actuation concept to provide moderately large force and j .!2 LC ¡ 1/
ZN total D R C
stoke.Typically,it consistsof two parts: a pump drivenby piezostack !C
actuators that pumps uid from a low-pressure accumulator to a
high-pressure accumulator and an output hydraulic actuator driven and the impedance of the parallel con guration is
by Whetstone bridge network of valves that use the pressure dif-
j !L
ferential created in the accumulators. The high-frequency energy ZN total D R C
of the piezoelectric stack is exploited by using valves. Sirohi and 1 ¡ !2 LC
Chopra266;267 built a prototype pump driven by two piezostack ac-
tuators (Fig. 57). The stack displaces a piston of diameter 1 in.
a) Series
Schematic arrangement
c) Piezostacks-actuated ap: full-scale wing section model tested in f) Froude-scale rotor model (6 ft diam) on hover tower with
open-jet wind tunnel; produced § 6-deg ap de ection piezobimorph-actuated aps
Fig. 61 Smart rotor development at Alfred Gessow Rotorcraft Center.
bias at an rpm of 2150. Using a neural-network-basedadaptivefeed- performance of this actuation device, a dual L-L ampli cation sys-
back controller,individualblade control resulted in over 80% reduc- tem was built and successfully tested in vacuum chamber and in
tion in vibratory hub loads in the Glenn L. Martin wind tunnel. A wind tunnel. This new actuation system showed a signi cant im-
Froude-scaled rotor model was also tested successfully in an open- provement in ap performance at different operating conditions.276
loop investigation by Fulton and Ormiston.275 Straub et al.277 are building a full-scale smart rotor system for the
Lee232 and Lee and Chopra238;246;276 built a model of blade section MD-900 Explorer ( ve-bladed, 34-ft-diam) with piezostack actu-
of length 12 in. and chord 12 in. (1 in. D 25.4 mm) with trailing- ated aps to actively control its vibration and noise. To amplify the
edge ap (span 4 in. and chord 3 in.) actuated with piezostacks in stroke of piezostacks,a biaxial X-frame mechanism is incorporated.
conjunction with double-lever (L-L) ampli cation mechanism. The The system will be tested in both open- and closed-loop ight inves-
model was tested in a vacuum chamber to simulate the full-scale tigations. Hall and Prechtl278 built 16 th Mach-scale rotor model with
centrifugal eld (600 g) and showed a desired stroke-ampli cation trailing-edge aps actuated with X-frame actuatorsand successfully
factor of about 20 at all rotor harmonics (up to six). The model was tested on a hover stand. Flap de ections of §2.4 deg were achieved.
tested in an open-jet wind tunnel and successfullydemonstrated ap Also, Janker et al.242 developed a novel piezostack-based exural
performance of about §10 deg at 120 ft/s. To improve bidirectional actuator for actuation of trailing-edge aps.
2180 CHOPRA
Bernhard and Chopra279¡281 built 6-ft-diam Mach-scaled smart and slippageat knife edges. The goal should be to increase displace-
active blade-tip (10%) rotor actuated with piezoinduced bending- ment capability of smart materials actuators by 300–500% and/or
torsion coupled composite beam. A novel spanwise variation in ply build ef cient stroke-ampli cation devices. Even though there are
layup of the composite beam and phasing of surface-mounted new revolutionary smart materials such as single crystal piezoce-
piezoceramic actuators is used to convert the bending-torsion ramics and magnetic shape memory alloys are emerging, their com-
coupledbeam into a pure twist actuator.At 2000 rpm in hover,blade- mercial viability and applications are at an embryonic stage.
tip pitch de ections of 1.7–2.9 deg were achieved at the rst four
harmonics (for an excitation of 125 Vrms ). The associated changes B. Database for Smart Materials Characteristics
in blade lift corresponded to an aerodynamic thrust authority up For design development of smart structures, it is essential to
to 30%. This concept appears promising as an auxiliary device for have a reliable database of characteristics of smart materials. At
partial control of noise and vibration. this time such a database for a wide range of test conditions is
Chen and Chopra282;283 built a 6-ft-diam Froude-scaled rotor not available. Thus, there is need to develop a reliable database of
model with controllable twist blades. For this concept banks of smart material characteristicsthrough extensive testing of engineer-
specially shaped (large aspect ratio) multilayered piezoceramic ele- ing specimens (standardized at macrolevel). For example, electro-
ments were embedded at §45 deg relative to blade axis respectively mechanical-thermal fatigue characteristics that are key to product
over the top and bottom surfaces; an in-phase activation resulted reliability are lacking and need focused effort.
in pure twist in the blade. The model was successfully tested on
a hover stand and in the Glenn L. Martin wind tunnel. A tip twist
of the order of §0.4 deg at 4/rev was obtained in both hover and C. Piezoelectric Strain Sensors
forward ight (¹ D 0:33) that amounted to over 10% rotor thrust Piezoelectric sensors have enormous potentialto measure signals
authority. Although the oscillatory twist amplitudes attained in the with high noise levels; however, their calibration factors for a wide
forward ight experiments were less than the target value (1 deg range of operating conditions and con gurations are not available.
of tip twist for complete vibration suppression), it showed the po- Hence, it is important to establish sensitivity of these sensors for
tential for partial vibration suppression. Rogers and Hagood257;258 different sensor size, temperature, bond layer, and strain level.
and Derham and Hagood259 built a controllable-twist Mach-scaled
rotor by embedding active ber composite (AFC) and tested on a D. Beam Modeling
hover stand. Even though it did not achieve the projected tip twist Because the local strain distribution near a piezoactuator is two-
of §2 deg, it showed enormous potential for full-scale rotor appli- dimensional, it is important to re ne one-dimensionalbeam models
cations. Cesnik et al.284 and Cesnik and Shin285 further improved that capture this effect. Simple models for beams with actuators not
this technology and successfully tested a Mach-scaled rotor model aligned with the beam axis are inadequate and should be improved.
with embedded active bers in the transonic dynamics wind tunnel Because the bond layer plays an important role in the induced strain
in both open-loop and closed-loop investigations. They have also transfer from actuator to beam, higher-order shear deformation the-
re ned analytical tools related to this rotor system. ory should be used to examine this effect and also to establish the
Shape memory alloys (SMA) show enormous potential in pro- limits of widely used simple beam theories. Beam analyses need to
viding large induced strains (up to 6%), but are limited to low- be re ned to include nonlinear piezocharacteristics, piezoelectric-
frequency (less than 1 Hz) applications such as tab adjustment for mechanical couplings, and layerwise shear variations. Validation
rotor tracking. Epps and Chopra,286;287 systematically investigated studies should be expanded to cover coupled composite beams with
the development of an SMA-actuated trailing-edge tab for in- ight surface-mounted or embedded actuators. Modeling of active com-
blade tracking. They built a model of blade section of span and posite plies that use AFC/MFC type bers need carefully scrutiny
chord of 12 in. with a tab of span 4 in. and chord 2.4 in. actuated and systematic validations.
with two to ve nitinol wires of diameter 0.015 in. respectively
both on top and bottom surfaces. To lock the tab at a desired angle E. Plate Modeling
(in power-off condition), a gear-locking mechanism consisting of There is a general lack of validation studies with experimental
spur gears, pulling solenoid, and pawl was built. A displacement data or with detailed analyses. Most plate models assume a perfect
feedback controller was developed to ne tune the tab de ection bond condition that is too restrictive. There is a need to develop
in about 10 s. This wing section was tested in the open-jet wind detailed three-dimensional nite element analyses or higher-order
tunnel, and tab de ections of the order of 20 deg were obtained at a shear deformationformulationsincludingnonlinear actuationstrain
speed of 120 ft/s. This conceptappears promising for full-scalerotor and piezoelectric-mechanical couplings to check the limitations of
tracking. Recently, Singh and Chopra288 improved this design and existing laminated plate analyses (such as CLPT) as well as to un-
successfully tested it in the wind tunnel for a repeatable open-loop derstand the diffusion of actuation strain. Validation studies with
and closed-loop performance. experimental test data should be expanded to cover a range of com-
There are other potentialapplicationsof smart-structurestechnol- posite coupled plate con gurationsincluding active ber composite
ogy to rotary-wing systems that might result in enormous payoff in plies.
terms of performance improvement and cost saving. These include
externalnoise suppression,289 internalnoise suppression,290 primary
F. Shape Memory Alloys
rotor controls,291;292 performance enhancement including dynamic
stall delay,293 active transmission mounts,294;295 and active/passive Systematic validationof constitutivemodels of SMA for different
damping augmentation.296¡298 temperaturesand strains (extensionaland shear) is not readily avail-
able. Building of composite structures with embedded SMAs is still
a challenge and needs a focused effort. Analysis of structures with
VIII. Summary embedded SMA has so far shown mixed success in terms of correla-
The summary of the state of the art as presented in the paper tion of predicted results with measured data. Re ned analysesusing
together with recommendations for future work are as follows: higher-ordershear deformationtheory or detailed three-dimensional
nite element analysis should be developed to investigate the actu-
A. Development of Large Stroke Smart Actuators ation mechanism as well as the structural integrity of system. To
At this time most of the commerciallyavailablesmart material ac- exploit the potential of SMA to various applications, it is important
tuators (such as piezoceramics and magnetostrictors)are low stroke to re ne and simplify analyses and carry out systematic validations.
and low force devices. For most applications there is a need for Most current constitutive models are developed for uniaxial qua-
compact,moderate force (about100 lb), moderate bandwidth (about sisteady loading and require reformulationsand extensions to cover
100 Hz), and large displacement (in millimeters) actuators. A key torsionaland three-dimensionalstress conditionsfor both steadyand
challenge is to amplify the stroke of existing actuators by trading transient thermal and mechanical loadings. Innovations are needed
force with displacement. Large mechanical ampli cation using a to increase frequency response of SMA actuators. Exploitation of
compact leverage system often leads to substantial losses at hinges SMA to augment structural damping needs further examination.
CHOPRA 2181
G. Magnetostrictives and Electrostrictives gorithms, proper analog/digital lters, and data multiplexing and
At this time most of the smart-structures studies are focused wireless transmission. Keeping in view the future goal to reduce
on piezoelectric and SMA actuators. Simpli ed constitutive re- maintenance costs of aerospace systems by at least 25–50%, there
lations for magnetostrictive and electrostrictive actuators are not is a need of focused fundamentalresearch activitiesrelated to health
readily available. To exploit these actuators for some special ap- monitoring of aerospace and other systems using smart sensors.
plications, it is important to develop simpli ed constitutive rela-
tions and validate them with experimental data. Detailed measured L. Revolutionary Smart Materials
nonlinear electromechanical/magnetomechanical characteristics of Recently, there have been some exciting developments in smart
electostrictives and magnetostrictives are not readily available and materials such as the emergence of magnetic shape memory alloys,
should obtained for a wide range of load conditions. single crystal piezoceramics, and piezoelectric and electrostrictive
polymeric actuator materials that have a stroke of an order of mag-
H. Application to Realistic Systems nitude larger than current piezoceramics. These materials require
Currently, this emerging technology is applied to models/ careful scrutiny by researchers. There is every potential that these
simulations that are often unrealistic. For a proper assessment of revolutionarymaterials might open up many new frontiers of appli-
this technology,it is necessary to apply it to realistic structures.Ma- cations and result in “quantum-jump” in system performance and
jor barriers are actuator stroke, unavailability of robust distributed reliabilityand dramatic reduction in acquisitionand operatingcosts.
parameter control strategies, and nonexistent mathematical model- That will be the dawn of smart materials.
ing of the smart system. The objective should be to build and test Acknowledgments
dynamically scaled models and evaluate performance of actuators
and feedback control algorithms under different operating condi- Most of these research activities were supported by the U.S.
tions. Using these test data, validate comprehensive analyses and Army Research Of ce under Grants URI: DAAL 03-92-G-0121
then carry out multidisciplinary optimization studies to develop a and MURI: DAAH-04-96-10334 with Gary Anderson and Tom
smart actuation system. Doligalski as Technical Monitors. The author acknowledges many
useful discussions and enthusiastic input from Friedrich Straub,
I. Expand Smart-Structures Applications to Improve Boeing, Mesa, Arizona; Yung Yu, National Rotorcraft Technology
Performance and Minimize Acoustics Center; Alfred Gessow, Norman Wereley, Darryll Pines, and V. T.
Currently, most applications of smart-structures technology to Nagaraj, University of Maryland;and many graduatestudents(Peter
aeronautical systems such as wings and rotors are focused on vi- Chen, Andy Bernhard, Nikhil Koratkar, Jeanette Epps, Taeoh Lee,
bration minimization. There is an enormous payoff to exploit this Jayant Sirohi, Harsha Prahlad, Mike Spencer, and Judah Milgram).
technology to improve system performance, primary controls im- References
plementation, and minimize external/internal noise. It is necessary 1
Banks, H. T., Smith, R. C., and Wang, Y., Smart Material Structures
to build dynamically scaled models and test them in different oper- Modeling, Estimation and Control, Wiley, New York, 1996.
ating conditions.Key barriers are large bandwidth/large stroke actu- 2
Cady, W. G., Piezoelectricity, Dover, New York, 1964.
ators, reliable active noise control analyses, robust acoustic sensors, 3 Clark, R. L., Saunders, W. R., and Gibbs, G. P., Adaptive Structures
well-de ned objectives,and unavailabilityof distributedparameters Dynamics and Control, Wiley, New York, 1998.
4 Culshaw, B., Smart Structures and Materials, Artech House Optoelec-
control algorithms.The objectiveshould be to build and test dynam-
ically scaled models and evaluate performance of smart actuators tronics Library, Boston, 1996.
5 Dorey, A. P., and Moore, J. H., Advances in Actuators, Inst. of Physics
and feedback controllers under different ight conditions. Using
Publishing, London, 1995.
these test data, validate comprehensive analyses and then carry out 6 Duerig, T. W., Melton, K. N., Stokel, D., and Wayman, C. M., Engineer-
multidisciplinaryoptimization studies to develop a smart-structures ing Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys, Butterworths, London, 1990.
system to simultaneously increase system performance and mini- 7 Duerig, T. W., and Zadno, G. R., “An Engineer’s Perspective of Pseu-
mize noise and vibration. The challenge is to replace servoactuators doelasticity,” Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys, Butterworths,
with smart actuators for primary controls in a cost-effectivemanner London, 1990.
and with no degradation in product reliability. 8 Fremond, M., and Miyazaki, S., Shape Memory Alloys, Springer-Verlag,
K. Structural Health Monitoring of Systems Design, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, England, U.K., 2000.
20 Tiersten, H. F., Linear Piezoelectric Plate Vibrations, Plenum, New
Aerospace systems are highly susceptible to damage because of
severe vibratory and fatigue loads. The problem is addressed by York, 1950.
21 Tzou, H. S., and Anderson, G. L. (eds.), Intelligent Structural Systems,
frequent inspection of damage-sensitive parts and, if required, re-
Kluwer Academic, Norwell, MA, 1992.
placement of such parts. This contributes to higher operating and 22 Tzou, H. S., Piezoelectric Shells Distributed Sensing and Control Con-
maintenance costs. Health monitoring of aerospace systems offer tinua, Kluwer Academic, Norwell, MA, 1993.
the potential to lower operating costs and enhance ight reliabil- 23 Uchino, K., Piezoelectric Devices and Ultrasonic Motors, Kluwer Aca-
ity. At this time there have been only limited experimental studies demic, Norwell, MA, 1997.
on this topic, and analytical tools are primitive. Major barriers are 24 Ueha, S., Tomikawa, Y., Kurosawa, M., and Nakamura, N., Ultrasonic
unavailability of robust sensors, reliable system identi cation al- Motors Theory and Applications, Clarendon, Oxford, 1993.
2182 CHOPRA
25 Wayman, C. M., and Duerig, T. W., “An Introduction to Martensite 52 Warkentin, D. J., and Crawley, E. F., “Embedded Electronics for Intel-
and Shape Memory,” Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys, Butter- ligent Structures,” Proceedings of the 32th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC
worths, London, 1990. Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, AIAA,
26 Benjeddou, A., “Advances in Piezoelectric Finite Element Modeling of
Washington, DC, 1991.
53 Hagood, N. W., Kindel, R., Ghandi, K., and Gaudenzi, P., “Improving
AdaptiveStructural Elements: A Survey,” Computers and Structures, Vol. 76,
No. 4, 2000, pp. 347–363. Transverse Actuation of Piezoceramics Using Interdigitated Surface Elec-
27 Birman, V., “Review of Mechanics of Shape Memory Alloy Structures,”
trodes,” Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engi-
Applied Mechanics Reviews, Vol. 50, No. 11, 1997, pp. 629–645. neers’ Symposium on Smart Structures and Intelligent Systems, Vol. 1917,
28
Chee, C. Y. K., Tong,L., and Steven, G. P., “A Review on the Modelingof Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (International Society
Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators Incorporated in Intelligent Structures,” for Optical Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1993.
Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1998, 54 Bent, A. A., and Hagood, N. W., “Piezoelectric Fiber Composites with
pp. 3–19. Interdigitated Electrodes,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Struc-
29 Chopra, I., “State-of-the-Art of Smart Structues and Integrated Sys-
tures, Vol. 8, No. 11, 1997, pp. 903–919.
tems,” Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engi- 55 Yoshikawa, S., Farrell, M., Warkentin, D., Jacques, R., and Saarmaa, E.,
neers 3th Annual Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials, Vol. 2717, “Monolithic Piezoelectric Actuators and Vibration Dampers with Interdigi-
Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (International Society tated Electrodes,” Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumenta-
for Optical Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1996. tion Engineers’ 6th Annual Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials,
30 Chopra, I., “Status of Application of Smart Structures Technology to
Vol. 3668, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (Interna-
Rotorcraft Systems,” Journal of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 45, tional Society for Optical Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1999, pp. 575–
No. 4, 2000, pp. 228–252. 585.
31 Crawley, E., “Intelligent Structures for Aerospace: A Technology Over- 56 Wilkie, K. W., Bryant, R. G., High, J. W., Fox, R. L., Hellbaum, R. F.,
view and Assessment,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 32, No. 8, 1994, pp. 1689–1699. Jalink, A., and Mirick, P. H., “Low-Cost Piezocomposite Actuator Struc-
32 Cross, L. E., “Ferroelectric Ceramics: Materials and Application
tural Control Applications,” Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical In-
Issues,” Ceramic Transanctions, Vol. 68, No. 1, 1996, pp. 15–30. strumentation Engineers’ 7th Annual Symposium on Smart Structures and
33 Domeci, M. C., “Recent Progress in the Dynamic Applications of Piezo-
Materials, Vol. 3668, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers
electric Crystals,” Shock and Vibration Digest, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1988,pp. 3–20. (International Society for Optical Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1999.
34 Garg, D. P., Zikry, M. A., and Anderson, G. L., “Current and Potential 57 Ha, S. K., Keilers, C., and Chang, F. K., “Finite Element Analysis
Future Research Activities in Adaptive Structures: An ARO Perspective,” of Composite Structures Containing Distributed Piezoceramic Sensors and
Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 10, No. 4, 2001, pp. 610–623. Actuators,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 30, No. 3, 1992, pp. 772–780.
35 58 Hagood, N. W., and Anderson, E. H., “Simultaneous Sensing and Ac-
Giurgiutu, V., “Review of Smart-Materials Actuation Solutions for
Aeroelastic and Vibration Control,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems tuation Using Piezoelectric Materials,” Society of Photo-Optical Instrumen-
and Structures, Vol. 11, No. 7, 2000, pp. 525–544. tation Engineers, SPIE 1543, July 1991.
36 Loewy, R. G., “Recent Developments in Smart Structures with Aero- 59
Ghiringhelli, G. L., Masarati, P., and Mantegazza, P., “Characterization
nautical Applications,” Proceedings of 37th Israel Annual Conference in of Anisotropic, Non-Homogeneous Beam Sections with Embedded Piezo-
Aerospace Sciences, Technion–Israel Inst. of Technology, Haifa, Israel, Electric Materials,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures,
1997. Vol. 8, No. 10, 1997, pp. 842–858.
37 Niezrecki, C., Brei, D., Balakrishnan, S., and Moskalik, A., “Piezoelec- 60 Mukherjee, B. K., Ren, W., Liu, S. F., Masys, A. J., and Yang, G.,
tric Actuation: State of the Art,” Shock and Vibration Digest, Vol. 33, No. 4, “Non-Linear Properties of Piezoelectric Ceramics,” Proceedings of the
2001, pp. 269–280. 2001 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers’ North American
38 Sunar, M., and Rao, S. S., “Recent Advances in Sensing and Con-
Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials, Society of Photo-Optical
trol of Flexible Structures via Piezoelectric Materials Technology,” Applied Instrumentation Engineers (International Society for Optical Engineering),
Mechanics Reviews, Vol. 52, No. 1, 1999, pp. 1–16. Bellingham, WA, 2001.
39 Strehlow, H., and Rapp, H., “Smart Materials for Helicopter Rotor Ac- 61 Yang, G., Liu, S. F., Ren, W., and Mukherjee, B. K., “Effects of Uniaxial
tive Control,” AGARD/SMP Specialist’s Meeting on Smart Structures for Stress on the Piezoelectric, Dielectric, and Mechanical Properties of Lead
Aircraft and Spacecraft, Oct. 1992. Zirconate Titanate Piezoceramics,” Ferroelectrics, Vol. 262, No. 1–4, 2001,
40 Takagi, T., “Present State and Future of the Intelligent Materials and
pp. 207–212.
Systems in Japan,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 62 Ren, W., Masys, A. J., Yang, G., and Mukherjee, B. K., “The Field
Vol. 10, No. 7, 1999, pp. 575–581. and Frequency Dependence of the Strain and Polarisation in Piezoelec-
41 Wada, B. K., “Adaptive Structures—An Overview,” Journal of Space-
tric and Electrostrictive Ceramics,” Ferroelectrics, Vol. 261, No. 1–4, 2001,
craft and Rockets, Vol. 27, No. 3, 1990, pp. 330–337. pp. 27–32.
42
Giurgiutiu, V., Rogers, C. A., and Chaudhary, Z., “Energy-Based Com- 63 Gerson, R., Burlage, S. R., and Berlincourt, D., “Dynamic Tensile Stress
parison of Solid-State Induced-Strain Actuators,” Journal of Intelligent Ma- of a Ferroelectric Ceramic,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,
terial Systems and Structures, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1996, pp. 4–14. Vol. 42, No. 3, 1967, pp. 583–591.
43 Near, C. D., “Piezoelectric Actuator Technology,” Proceedings of the 64
Brown, R. F., “Effect of Two-Dimensional Mechanical Stress on the
Society of Photo-OpticalInstrumentationEngineer’s 3rd AnnualSymposium Dielectric Properties of Poles Ceramic Barium Titanate an d Lead Zirconate
on Smart Structures and Materials, Vol. 2717, Society of Photo-Optical Titanate,” Canadian Journal of Physics, Vol. 39, No. 5, 1961, pp. 741–753.
Instrumentation Engineers (International Society for Optical Engineering), 65 Freiman, S. W., and White, G. S., “Intelligent Ceramic Materials: Issues
Bellingham, WA, 1996, pp. 246–258. of Brittle Fracture,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures,
44 Li, S., Cao, W., and Cross, L. E., “The Extrinsic Nature of Nonlin-
Vol. 6, No. 1, 1995, pp. 49–54.
66 Wang, D., and Carman, G. P., “Combined Electrical and Mechanical
ear Behavior Observed in Lead Zirconate Titanate Ferroelectric Ceramic,”
Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 69, No. 10, 1991, pp. 7219–7224. Fatigue of Piezoelectric Ceramics Undergoing Polarization Switching for
45 “Inst. of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standard on Piezoelec-
Large Displacement Actuation,” Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical
tricity,” Std. 176, ANSI/IEEE, 1987. Instrumentation Engineers’ 5th Annual Symposium on Smart Structures and
46 Morgon Matroc Inc. Piezoceramic Databook, Morgan Matroc Electro-
Materials, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (Interna-
ceramic Div., Bedford, OH, 1993. tional Society for Optical Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1998, pp. 210–
47 Kreuger, H. H. A., “Effect of High Static Stress on the Piezoelectric
223.
Properties of Transducer Materials,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of 67 Glazounov, A. E., Zhang, Q. M., and Kim, C., “Torsional Actuator
America, Vol. 43, No. 3, 1967, pp. 636–645. and Stepper Motor Based on Piezoelectric d15 Shear Response,” Journal of
48 Sirohi,J., and Chopra, I., “Fundamental Behaviorof Piezoceramic Sheet
Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 11, No. 6, 2000, pp. 456–
Actuators,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 11, 468.
No. 1, 2000, pp. 47–61. 68 Kim, J., and Kang, B., “Performance Test and Improvement of Piezo-
49 Ghandi, K., and Hagood, N. W., “Nonlinear Modeling and Characteriza-
electric Torsional Actuators,” Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 10, No. 4,
tion Techniques for Phase Transitions in Electro-Mechanically Coupled De- 2001, pp. 750–757.
vices,” Dept. of Aeronautics and Astronautics, AMSL 98-1, Massachusetts 69 Bailey, A., and Hubbard, J. E., “Distributed Piezoelectric-Polymer Ac-
Inst. of Technology, Cambridge, MA, May 1998. tive Vibration Control of a Cantilevered Beam,” Journal of Guidance, Con-
50
Lynch, C. S., “On the Development of Multiaxial Phenomenological trol, and Dynamics, Vol. 8, No. 5, 1985, pp. 605–611.
Constitutive Laws for Ferroelectric Ceramics,” Journal of Intelligent Mate- 70 Hanagud, S., Obal, M. W., and Calise, A. J., “Optimal Vibration Control
rial Systems and Structures, Vol. 9, No. 7, 1998, pp. 555–563. by the Use of Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators,” Journal of Guidance,
51 Durr, J. K., Herold-Schmidt, U., Zaglauer, H. W., and Arendts, F. J.,
Control, and Dynamics, Vol. 15, No. 5, 1992, pp. 1199–1206.
“On the Integration of Piezoceramic Actuators in Composite Structures for 71 Dosch, J. J., Inman, D. J., and Garcia, E., “A Self-Sensing Actuator for
Aerospace Applications,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Struc- Collocated Control,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures,
tures, Vol. 10, No. 11, 1999, pp. 880–889. Vol. 3, No. 1, 1992, pp. 166–185.
CHOPRA 2183
72 Inman, D. J., Dosch, J. J., and Garcia, E., “A Self-Sensing Piezoelectric 97 Bauchau, O. A., and Hong, C. H., “Nonlinear Composite Beam Theory,”
Actuator for Collocated Controls,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 55, No. 2, 1988, pp. 156–163.
98 Cesnik, C. E. S., and Hodges, D. S., “VABS: A New Concept for Com-
and Structures, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1992, pp. 166–185.
73 Anderson, E. H., and Hagood, N. W., “Simultaneous Piezoelectric Sens- posite Rotor Blade Cross-Sectional Modeling,” Journal of the American
ing/Actuation: Analysis and Application to Controlled Structures,” Journal Helicopter Society, Vol. 42, No. 1, 1997, pp. 27–38.
99 Smith, E. C., and Chopra, I., “Formulation and Evaluation of an Analyt-
of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 174, No. 5, 1994, pp. 617–639.
74 Qui, J., and Tani, J., “Vibration Control of a Cylindrical Shell Using ical Model for Composite Box-Beams,” Journal of the American Helicopter
Distributed Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators,” Journal of Intelligent Ma- Society, Vol. 36, No. 3, 1991, pp. 23–35.
100 Stemple, A. D., and Lee, S. W., “Finite Element Model for Compos-
terial Systems and Structures, Vol. 6, No. 4, 1995, pp. 474–481.
75 Lee, C. K., and O’Sullivan, T., “Piezoelectric Strain Rate Gages,” Jour- ite Beams of Arbitrary Cross-Sectional Warping,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 26,
nal of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 90, No. 2, 1991, pp. 945–953. No. 12, 1988, pp. 1512–1520.
76 Samuel, P., and Pines, D., “Health Monitoring/Damage Detection of a 101 Librescu, L., Meirovitch, L., and Song, O., “Integrated Structural Tai-
Rotorcraft Planetary Geartrain Using Piezoelectric Sensors,” Proceedings of loring and Adaptive Materials Control for Advanced Aircraft Wings,” Jour-
the Society of Photo-OpticalInstrumentation Engineers’ 4th Annual Sympo- nal of Aircraft, Vol. 33, No. 1, 1996, pp. 203–213.
102 Chandra, R., and Chopra, I., “Structural Modeling of Composite
sium on Smart Structures and Materials, Vol. 3041, Society of Photo-Optical
Instrumentation Engineers (International Society for Optical Engineering), Beams with Induced Strain Actuation,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 31, No. 9, 1993,
Bellingham, WA, 1997, pp. 44–53. pp. 1692–1701.
103 Kaiser, C., “Piezothermoelastic Behavior of Thin-Walled Com-
77 Giurgiutiu, V., and Zagrai, A. N., “Characterization of Piezoelectric
posite Beams with Elastic Couplings,” Proceedings of AIAA/ASME/
Wafer Active Sensors,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Struc-
ASCE/AHS/ASC 42nd Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Con-
tures, Vol. 11, No. 12, 2000, pp. 959–976.
78 Sirohi, J., and Chopra, I., “Fundamental Understanding of Piezoelectric ference, AIAA, Reston, VA, 2001.
104 Cesnik, C. E. S., and Shin, S. J., “On the Modeling of Integrally Ac-
Sensors,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 11,
tuated Helicopter Blades,” International Journal of Solids and Structures,
No. 4, 2000, pp. 246–257.
79 Pines, D. J., and Von Flotow, A. H., “Specially Convolving Wave Prop- Vol. 38, No. 10, 2001, pp. 1765–1789.
105 Shin, S. J., and Cesnik, C. E. S., “Integral Twist Actuation of He-
agation Sensors for Structural Control-Part.I: Analytical Development of licopter Rotor Blades for Vibration Reduction,” Dept. of Aeronautics and
One-Dimensional Structures,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Astronautics, AMSL 01-07, Massachusetts Inst. of Technology, Cambridge,
Structures, Vol. 8, No. 11, 1997, pp. 929–952. MA, Aug. 2001.
80
Pines, D. J., and Von Flotow, A. H., “Specially ConvolvingWave Propa- 106
Bernhard, A. P. F., and Chopra, I., “Analysis of Bending-Torsion Cou-
gation Sensors for Structural Control-Part.II: Experimental Veri cation Us- pled Actuator for a Smart Rotor with Active Blade Tips,” Smart Material
ing PVDF Sensors,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, and Structures, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2001, pp. 35–52.
Vol. 8, No. 12, 1997, pp. 1059–1072. 107 Raja, S., Rohwer, K., and Rose, M., “Piezothermoelastic Modeling
81 Crawley, E., and de Luis, J., “Use of Piezoceramic Actuators as El-
and Active Vibration Control of Laminated Composite Beams,” Journal of
ements of Intelligent Structures,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 25, No. 10, 1987, Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 10, No. 11, 1999, pp. 890–
pp. 1373–1385. 899.
82 Crawley, E., and Anderson, E., “Detailed Models of Piezoceramic Ac- 108 Shen, M. H., “A New Modeling Technique for the Piezoelectric Actu-
tuation of Beams,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, ated Beams,” Computers and Structures, Vol. 57, No. 3, 1995, pp. 361–366.
Vol. 1, No. 1, 1990, pp. 4–25. 109 Reddy, J. N., “A Generalization of Two-Dimensional Theories of Lam-
83 Park, C., Walz, C., and Chopra, I., “Bending and Torsion Models
inated Composite Plates,” Communications in Applied Numerical Methods,
of Beams with Induced-Strain Actuators,” Smart Material and Structures, Vol. 173, No. 3, 1987, pp. 173–180.
Vol. 5, No. 1, 1996, pp. 98–113. 110 Robbins, D. H., and Reddy, J. N., “Analysis of Piezoelectrically Ac-
84 Park, C., and Chopra, I., “Modeling Piezoceramic Actuation of Beams tuated Beams Using a Layer-Wise Displacement Theory,” Computer and
in Torsion,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 34, No. 12, 1996, pp. 2582–2589. Structures, Vol. 41, No. 2, 1991, pp. 265–279.
85 Banks, H. T., and Zhang, Y., “Computational Methods for Curved Beam 111 Saravanos, D. A., and Heyliger, P. R., “Coupled Layerwise Analysis
with Piezoelectric Patched,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and of Composite Beams with Embedded Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators,”
Structures, Vol. 8, No. 3, 1997, pp. 260–278. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 6, No. 3, 1995,
86 Ghiringhelli, G. L., Masarati, P., and Mantegazza, P., “Characterization pp. 350–363.
112 Crawley, E. F., and Lazarus, K. B., “Induced Strain Actuation of
of Anisotropic Non-Homogeneous Beam Sections with Embedded Piezo-
electric Materials,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Isotropic and Anisotropic Plates,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 23, No. 6, 1991,
Vol. 8, No. 10, 1997, pp. 842–858. pp. 944–951.
113
87 Trindade, M. A., Bengeddou, A., and Ohayon, “Parametric Analysis Hong, C. H., and Chopra, I., “Modeling and Validation of Induced
of the Vibration Control of Sandwich Beams Through Shear-Based Piezo- Strain Actuation of Composite Coupled Plates,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 37,
electric Actuation,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, No. 3, 1999, pp. 372–377.
114 Lee, C. K., “Theory of Laminated Piezoelectric Plates for the Design of
Vol. 10, No. 5, 1999, pp. 377–385.
88 Benjeddou, A., Trindade, M. A., and Ohayon, R., “A Uni ed Beam Fi- Distributed Sensors/Actuators: Part I: Governing Equations and Reciprocal
nite Element Model for Extension and Shear Piezoelectric Actuation Mech- Relationships,” Journal of Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 87, No. 3,
anisms,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 8, 1990, pp. 1144–1158.
115
No. 12, 1997, pp. 1012–1025. Lee, C. K., “Piezoelectric Laminates: Theory and Experiment for Dis-
89 Benjeddou, A., Trindade, M. A., and Ohayon, R., “New Shear Actuated tributed Sensors and Actuators,” Intelligent Structural Systems, edited by
Smart Structures Beam Finite Element,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 37, No. 3, 1999, H. S. Tzou and G. L. Anderson, Kluwer Academic, Norwell, MA, 1992,
pp. 378–402. pp. 75–168.
116 Wang, B. T., and Rogers, C. A., “Laminate Plate Theory for Spa-
90 Zhang, X. D., and Sun, C. T., “Formulation of an Adaptive Sandwich
tially Distributed Induced Strain Actuators,” Journal of Composite Materi-
Beam,” Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 5, No. 6, 1996, pp. 814–823.
91 Cai, D., and Gao, Y., “Shear Control and Analytical Solutions for 2-D als, Vol. 25, No. 4, 1991, pp. 433–452.
117 Heyliger, P., “Exact Soluationsfor Simply Supported Laminated Piezo-
Smart Beam Theory,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, electric Plates,” Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 64, No. 2, 1997,pp. 299–
Vol. 9, No. 3, 1998, pp. 182–188. 306.
92 Chen, P. C., and Chopra, I., “Hover Testing of Smart Rotor with Induced- 118 Gopinathan, S. V., Varadan, V. V., and Varadan, V. K., “A Review
Strain Actuation of Blade Twist,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 35, No. 1, 1997, and Critique of Theories for Piezoelectric Laminates,” Smart Materials and
pp. 6–16. Structures, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2000, pp. 24–48.
93
Im, S., and Atluri, S. N., “Effects of Piezo Actuator on a Finitely De- 119 Wang, J., and Yang, J., “Higher-Order Theories of Piezoelectric Plates
formed Beam Subjected to General Loading,”AIAA Journal, Vol. 27, No. 12, and Applications,” Applied Mechanics Reviews, Vol. 53, No. 1, 2000,
1989, pp. 1801–1807. pp. 87–99.
94 Hagood, N. W., Chung, W. H., and Flotow, A. V., “Modeling of Piezo- 120
Rahmoune, M., Benjeddou, A., Ohayon, R., and Osmont, D., “New
electric Actuator Dynamics for Active Structural Control,” Journal of Intel- Thin Piezoelectric Plate Models,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems
ligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 1, No. 3, 1990, pp. 327–354. and Structures, Vol. 9, No. 12, 1998, pp. 1017–1029.
95 Jung, S. N., Nagaraj, V. T., and Chopra, I., “Assessment of Composite 121 Yu, Y. Y., “Some Recent Advances in Linear and Nonlinear Dynamical
Rotor Blade Modeling Techniques,” Journal of the American Helicopter Modeling of Elastic and Piezoelectric Plates,” Journal of Intelligent Meterial
Society, Vol. 44, No. 3, 1999, pp. 188–205. Systems and Structures, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1995, pp. 237–254.
96 Jung, S. N., Nagaraj, V. T., and Chopra, I., “Re ned Structural Model for 122 Bisegna, P., and Maceri, F., “A Consistent Theory of Thin Piezoelectric
Thin- and Thick-Walled Composite Rotor Blades,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 40, Plates,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 7, No. 4,
No. 1, 2002, pp. 105–116. 1996, pp. 372–389.
2184 CHOPRA
123 Bisegna, P., and Carusa, G., “Mindlin-Type Finite Elements for Piezo- 150 Lin, P., Tobushi, H., Ikai, A., and Tanake, K., “Deformation Properties
electric Sandwich Plates,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Struc- Associated with the Martensitic and R-Phase Transformations in TiNi Shape
tures, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2000, pp. 14–25. Memory Alloy,” Journal of Applied Biomechanics, Vol. 10, No. 2, 1995,
124 Carrera, E., “An Improved Reissner-Mindlin Type Model for the Elec-
pp. 1–11.
tromechanical Analysis of Multilayered Plates Including Piezo-Layers,” 151 Tanaka, K., Nishimura, F., Matsui, H., Tobushi, H., and Lin, P. H.,
Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 8, No. 3, 1997, “Phenomenological Analysis of Plateaus on Stress-Strain Hysteresis in TiNi
pp. 232–248. Shape Memory Alloy Wires,” Mechanics of Materials, An International
125 Reddy, J. N., “A Simple Higher-Order Theory for Laminated Compos-
Journal, Vol. 24, No. 1, 1996, pp. 19–30.
ite Plates,” Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 51, No. 4, 1984, pp. 745–752. 152 Tobushi, H., Yamada, S., Hachisuka, T., Ikai, A., and Tanaka, K., “Ther-
126 Nosier, A., Kapania, R. K., and Reddy, J. N., “Free Vibration Analysis
momechanical Properties due Martensitic and R-Phase Transformations of
of Laminated Plates Using a Layerwise Theory,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 31, TiNi Shape Memory Alloy Subjected to Cyclic Loadings,” Smart Materials
No. 12, 1993, pp. 2335–2346. and Structures, Vol. 5, No. 6, 1996, pp. 788–795.
127 Reddy, J. N., “A Generalization of Two-Dimensional Theories of Lam-
153 Sittner, P., Stalmans, R., and Tokuda, M., “An Algorithm for Prediction
inated Composite Plates,” Communications in Applied Numerical Methods,
of the Hysteresis Responses of Shape Memory Alloys,” Smart Materials and
Vol. 3, No. 3, 1987, pp. 173–180.
128 Sun, C. T., and Whitney, J. M., “Theories for the Dynamic Response Structures, Vol. 9, No. 4, 2000, pp. 452–465.
154
of Laminated Plates,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 11, No. 2, 1973, pp. 178–183. Naito, H., Matsuzaki, Y., and Ikeda, T., “A Uni ed Model of Thermo-
129
Mitchell, J. A., and Reddy, J. N., “A Re ned Hybrid Plate Theory for mechanical Behavior of Shape Memory Alloys,” Society of Photo-Optical
Composite Laminates of Piezoelectric Laminae,” International Journal of InstrumentationEngineers, Vol. 4333,Society of Photo-OpticalInstrumenta-
Solids and Structures, Vol. 32, No. 16, 1995, pp. 2345–2367. tion Engineers (International Society for Optical Engineering), Bellingham,
130
Robbins, D. H., and Reddy, J. N., “An Ef cient Computational Model WA, 2001, pp. 291–313.
155 Prahlad, H., and Chopra, I., “Experimental Characterization of Ni-Ti
for the Stress Analysis of Smart Plate Structures,” Smart Materials and
Structures, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1996, pp. 353–360. Shape Memory Alloy Wires Under Uniaxial Loading Conditions,” Journal
131
Chattopadhyay,A., Li, J., and Gu, H., “Coupled Thermo-Piezoelectric- of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 11, No. 4, 2000, pp. 272–
Mechanical Model for Smart Composite Laminate,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 37, 282.
156 Epps, J., and Chopra, I., “Comparative Evaluation of Shape Mem-
No. 12, 1999, pp. 1633–1638.
132 Zhou,X., Chattopadhyay,A., and Gu, H., “Dynamic Response of Smart ory Alloy Constitutive Models with Experimental Test Data,” Proceedings
Composites Using a Coupled Thermo-Piezoelectric-Mechanical Model,” of AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC 38th Structures, Structural Dynamics, and
AIAA Journal, Vol. 38, No. 10, 2000, pp. 1939–1948. Materials Conference and Adaptive Structures Forum, AIAA, Reston, VA,
133
Vel, S. S., and Batra, R. C., “Three-Dimensional Analytical Solutionfor 1997.
Hybrid Multilayered Piezoelectric Plates,” Journal of Applied Mechanics, 157 Bo, Z., and Lagoudas, D. C., “Comparison of Different Thermo Me-
Vol. 67, No. 3, 2000, pp. 558–567. chanical Models for Shape Memory Alloys,” Adaptive Structures and Com-
134 Yang, J. S., and Batra, R. C., “Mixed Variational Principles in Nonlinear
posite Materials: Analysis and Applications: American Society of Mechan-
Piezoelectricity,” International Journal of Nonlinear Mechanics, Vol. 30, ical Engineers Symposium, Vol. 54, 1994, pp. 9–19.
No. 5, 1995, pp. 719–726. 158
Prahlad, H., and Chopra, I., “Comparative Evaluation of Shape Mem-
135 Batra, R. C., and Vidoli, S., “Higher-Order Piezoelectric Plate Theory
ory Alloy Constitutive Models with Experimental Data,” Journal of Intelli-
Derived from a Three-Dimensional Variational Principle,” AIAA Journal, gent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 12, No. 6, 2001, pp. 386–396.
Vol. 40, No. 1, 2002, pp. 91–104. 159 Faulkner, M. G., Amairaj, J. J., and Battaacharyya, A., “Experimental
136 Ha, S. K., Kellers, C., and Chang, F. K., “Finite Element Analysis
Determination of Thermal and Electrical Propeties of Ni-Ti Shape Memory
of Composite Structures Containing Piezoceramic Sensors and Actuators,”
Wires,” Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 9, No. 5, 2000, pp. 632–639.
AIAA Journal, Vol. 32, No. 3, 1992, pp. 772–780. 160
137 Buehler, W. J., Wiley, R. C., and Wang, F. E., “Nickel-Based Alloys,” Mikuriya, S., Nakahara, T., Tobushi, H., and Watanabe, H., “The Esti-
U.S. Patent 3,174,851,23,March 1965. mation of Temperature Rise in Low-Cycle Fatigue of TiNi Shape-Memory
138 Tanaka, K., “A Thermomechanical Sketch of Shape Memory Effect: Alloy,” JSME International Journal, Series A, Vol. 43, No. 2, 2000, pp. 166–
One-Dimensional Tensile Behavior,” Res. Mechanica, Vol. 18, No. 3, 1986, 172.
161 Tobushi, H., Nakahara, T., Shimeno, Y., and Hashimoto, T., “Low-
pp. 251–263.
139 Liang, C., and Rogers, C. A. , “One-Dimensional Thermomechanical Cycle Fatigue of TiNi Shape Memory Alloy and Formulation of Fatigue
Constitutive Relations for Shape Memory Material,” Journal of Intelligent Life,” Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, Vol. 122, No. 2,
Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1990, pp. 207–234. 2000, pp. 186–191.
140 Brinson, L. C., “One-Dimensional Constitutive Behavior of Shape 162 Prahlad, H., and Chopra, I., “Development of a Strain-Rate Dependant
Memory Alloy Constitutive Models,” Journal of Intelligent Material Sys- Model for Uniaxial Loading of SMA Wires,” 12th International Conference
tems and Structures, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1990, pp. 207–234. on Adaptive Structures and Technologies, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2001.
141 Boyd, J. G., and Lagoudas, D. C., “A Thermodynamic Constitutive 163 Shaw, J. A., “Thermo-Mechanical Model for 1-D Shape Memory Al-
Model for the Shape Memory Materials Part I. The Monolithic Shape loys Wire with Propagating Instabilities,” International Journal of Solids
Memory Alloys,” International Journal of Plasticity, Vol. 12, No. 6, 1996, and Structures, Vol. 139, No. 5, 2002, pp. 1275–1305.
pp. 805–842. 164
Lexcellent, C., and Rejzner, J., “Modeling of the Strain Rate Effect,
142 Boyd, J. G., and Lagoudas, D. C., “A Thermodynamic Constitutive
Creep and Relaxation of a Ni-Ti Shape Memory Alloy Under Tension
Model for the Shape Memory Materials Part II. The SMA Composite Mate- (Compression)-Torsional ProportionalLoading in the Pseudoelastic Range,”
rial,” International Journal of Plasticity, Vol. 12, No. 7, 1996, pp. 843–873. Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 9, No. 5, 2000, pp. 613–621.
143 Ivshin, Y., and Pence, T. J., “A Thermo Mechanical Model for One 165
Potapov, P. L., and Silva, P. D., “Time Response of Shape Memory
Variant Shape Memory Material,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems Alloy Actuators,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures,
and Structures, Vol. 5, No. 4, 1994, pp. 455–473. Vol. 11, No. 2, 2000, pp. 125–134.
144
Graesser, E. J., and Cozzarelli, F. A., “A Proposed Three-Dimensional 166 Davidson, F. M., Liang, C., and Lobitz, D., “Investigation of Torsional
Model Constitutive Model for Shape Memory Material,” Journal of Intelli-
Shape Memory Alloy Actuators,” Proceedings of the Society of Photo-
gent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1994, pp. 78–89.
145 Sun, Q. P., and Hwang, K. C., “Micromechanics Modeling for the Con- Optical Instrumentation Engineers’ Symposium on Smart Structures and
Materials, Smart Structures and Integrated Systems, Vol. 2717, Society of
stitutive Behavior of Polycrystalline Shape Memory Alloys-1. Derivation of
Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (International Society for Optical
General Relations,” Journal of Mechanical Physics Solids, Vol. 41, No. 1,
Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1996, pp. 672–682.
1993, pp. 1–17. 167 Keefe, A. C., and Carman, G. P., “Thermo-Mechanical Characteriza-
146 Matsuzaki, Y., Naito, H., Ikeda, T., and Funami, K., “Thermo-
Mechanical Behavior Associated with Pseudoelastic Transformation of tion of Shape Memory Alloy Torque Tube Actuators,” Smart Materials and
Shape Memory Alloys,” Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 10, No. 5, Structures, Vol. 9, No. 5, 2000, pp. 665–672.
168 Prahlad, H., and Chopra, I., “Characterization of SMA Torsional
2001, pp. 884–892.
147 Barrett, D. J., “A One-Dimensional Constitutive Model for Shape Actuators for Variable Twist Tilt Rotor (VTTR) Blades,” Proceedings of
Memory Alloys,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC 43rd Structures, Structural Dynamics, and
Vol. 6, No. 3, 1995, pp. 329–337. Materials Conference and 10th Adaptive Structures Forum, AIAA, Reston,
148 Brinson, L. C., and Huang, M., “Simpli cation and Comparisons of VA, 2002.
169 Thomson, P., Balas, G. J., and Leo, P. H., “Pseudoelastic Hystersis
Shape Memory Alloy Constitutive Models,” Journal of Intelligent Material
Systems and Structures, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1996, pp. 108–114. of Shape Memory Wires for Passive Structural Damping: Theory and Ex-
149 Tobushi, H., Lin, P. H., Tanaka, K., Lexcellent, C., and Ikai, A., “De- periments,” Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, Vol. 1917,
formation Properties of TiNi Shape Memory Alloy,” Journal of Physique Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (International Society
IV, Vol. 5, C2, 1995, pp. 409, 410. for Optical Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1993.
CHOPRA 2185
170 Wolons, D., Gandhi, F., and Malovrh, B., “Experimental Investigation 194 Wu, Y., and Anjanappa, A., “Modeling of Embedded Magnetostrictive
of the Pseudoelastic Hysteresis Damping Characteristics of Shape Memory Particualte Actuators,” Proceedings of the 1996 Society of Photo-Optical
Alloy Wires,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 9, Instrumentation Engineers Conference on Smart Structures and Materials,
No. 2, 1998, pp. 116–126. Vol. 2717, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (Interna-
171 Malovrh, B., and Gandhi, F., “Mechanism-Based Phenomenological
tional Society for Optical Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1996.
Models for the Pseudoelastic Hystersis Behavior of Shape Memory Alloys,” 195 Krishanmurthy, A. V., Anjanappa, M., and Wu, Y., “Use of Magne-
Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2001, tostrictive Particle Actuators for Vibration Attenuation of Flexible Beams,”
pp. 21–30. Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 206, No. 2, 1997, pp. 133–149.
172 Lammering, R., and Schmidt, I., “Experimental Investigations on the 196 Flatau, A. B., Dapino, M. J., and Calkins, F. T., “Magnetostrictive
Damping Capacity of NiTi Components,” Smart Materials and Structures, Composites,” Comprehensive Composite Materials Handbook, edited by A.
Vol. 10, No. 5, 2001, pp. 853–859. Kelly and C. Zweben, Vol. 5, Elsevier, 2000, pp. 563–574.
173 Ju, D. Y., and Shimamoto, A., “Damping Property of Expoxy Matrix
197 Kannan, K. S., “Galerkin Finite Element Scheme for Magnetostric-
Composite Beams with Embedded Shape Memory Alloy Fibers,” Journal of tive Structures and Composites,” Ph.D. Dissertation, Dept. of Mechanical
Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 10, No. 7, 1999, pp. 514– Engineering, Univ. of Maryland, College Park, June 1997.
520. 198 Pradhan, S. C., Ng, T. Y., Lam, K. Y., and Reddy, J. N., “Control of
174 Rogers, C. A., and Barker, D. K., “Experimental Studies of Ac-
Laminated Composite Plates Using Magnetostrictive Layers,” Smart Mate-
tive Strain Energy Tuning of Adaptive Composites,” Proceedings of
rials and Structures, Vol. 10, No. 4, 2001, pp. 657–667.
AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC 31st Structures, Structural Dynamics, and 199 Calkins, F. T., Flatau, A. B., and Dapino, M. J., “Overview
Materials Conference, AIAA, Washington, DC, 1990.
175 Baz, A., Imam, K., and McCoy, J., “Active Vibration Control of Flexi- of Magnetostrictive Sensor Technology,” Proceedings of AIAA/ASME/
ble Beams Using Shape Memory Actuators,” Journal of Soundand Vibration, ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Confer-
Vol. 140, No. 3, 1990, pp. 437–456. ence, AIAA, Reston, VA, 1999.
176 Baz, A., Ro, J., Mutua, M., and Gilheany, J., “Active Buckling Con- 200 Dapino, M. J., Calkins, F. T., and Flatau, A. B., “Magnetostrictive De-
trol of Nitinol-Reinforced Composite Beams,” Conference on Active Mate- vices,” Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, edited
rial and Adaptive Structures, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation En- by J. G. Webster, Wiley, 1999, pp. 278–305.
201 Flatau, A. B., Dapino, M. J., and Calkins, F. T., “High Bandwidth
gineers (International Society for Optical Engineering), Bellingham, WA,
1991, pp. 167–176. Tunability in a Smart Vibration Absorber,” Journal of Intelligent Material
177 Brinson, L. C., Bekker, A., and Huang, M., “Deformation of Shape Systems and Structures, Vol. 11, No. 12, 2000, pp. 923–929.
Memory Alloys due to Thermo-Induced Tramsformation,” Journal of Intel- 202 Pratt, J., and Flatau, A. B., “Development and Analysis of a Self-
ligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1996, pp. 97–107. Sensing Magnetostrictive Actuator Design,” Journal of Intelligent Material
178 Lagoudas, D. C., Moorthy,D., Quidwai, M. A., and Reddy, J. N., “Mod-
Systems and Structures, Vol. 6, No. 5, 1995, pp. 639–648.
eling of Thermomechnical Response of Active Laminates with SMA Strips 203 Kellogg, R., and Flatau, A. B., “Experimental Investigationof Terfenol-
Using Layerwise Finite Element Method,” Journal of Intelligent Material D’s Elastic Modulus,” Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical In-
Systems and Structures, Vol. 8, No. 6, 1997, pp. 476–488. strumentation Engineers’ Conference on Smart Structures and Materials,
179 Turner, T. L., “A New Thermoelastic Model for Analysis of Shape
Vol. 4327, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (Interna-
Memory Alloy Hybrid Composites,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems tional Society for Optical Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 2001, pp. 541–
and Structures, Vol. 11, No. 5, 2000, pp. 382–394. 549.
180 Epps, J., and Chandra, R., “Shape Memory Actuation for Active Tun- 204 Pratt, J. R., Oueini, S. C., and Nayfeh, A. H., “Terfenol-D Nonlinear
ing of Composite Beams,” Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation En- Vibration Absorber,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures,
gineers (International Society for Optical Engineering), Bellingham, WA, Vol. 10, No. 1, 1999, pp. 29–35.
Feb.–March 1995. 205 Balckwood, G. H., and Ealey, M. A., “Electrostrictive Behavior in Lead
181 Furuya, Y., “Design and Material Evaluation of Shape Memory Com-
Magnesium Niobate (PMN) Actuators, Part I: Material Properties,” Smart
posites,” Journal of IntelligentMaterial Systems and Structures, Vol.7, No. 2,
Materials and Structures, Vol. 2, No. 2, 1993, pp. 124–133.
1996, pp. 321–330. 206 Uchino, K., “Electrostrictive Actuators,” Ceramic Bulletin, Vol. 65,
182 Birman, V., “Micromechanics of Composites with Shape Memory Al-
loy Fibers in Uniform Thermal Fields,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 34, No. 9, 1996, 1986, pp. 647–652.
207 Damjanovic, D., and Newnham, R. E., “Electrostrictive and Piezoelec-
pp. 1905–1912.
183 Butler, J. L., “Application Manual for the Design of ETREMA tric Materials for Actuator Applications,” Journal of Intelligent Material
Terfenol-D Magnetostrictive Transducers,” ETREMA Products, Edge Tech- Systems and Structures, Vol. 3, No. 2, 1992, pp. 190–208.
208 Pablo, F., and Petitjean, B., “Characterization of 0.9PMN-0.1PT
nologies, Ames, IA, 1988.
184 Butler, J. L., Butler, S. C., and Clark, A. E., “Unidirectional Mag- Patches of Active Vibration Control of Plate Host Structures,” Journal of
netostrictive Piezoelectric Hybrid Transducer,” Journal of the Acoustical Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 11, No. 11, 2000, pp. 857–
Society of America, Vol. 88, No. 1, 1990, pp. 7–11. 867.
185 Engdahl, G., and Svensson, L., “Simulation of the Magnetostrictive 209 Fripp, M., and Hagood, N., “Distributed Structural Actuation with
Performance of Terfenol-D in Mechanical Devices,” Journal of Applied Electrostrictives,” Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 203, No. 1, 1997,
Physics, Vol. 63, No. 8, 1988, pp. 3924–3926. pp. 11–40.
186 Kvarnsjo, L., and Engdahl, G., “Nonlinear 2-D Transient Modeling of 210 Fripp, M., and Hagood, N., “Comparison of Electrostrictive and Piezo-
Terfenol-D Rods,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 27, No. 6, 1991, ceramic Actuators for Vibration Suppression,”Proceedings of the 1995 Soci-
pp. 5349–5351. ety of Photo-OpticalInstrumentationEngineers’Conference on Smart Struc-
187 Claeyssen, F., Bossut, R., and Boucher, D., “Modeling and Character-
tures and Materials, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers
ization of Magnetostrictive Coupling,” Power Transducers for Sonics and (International Society for Optical Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1995.
Ultrasonics, Springer-Verlag, 1991, pp. 132–151. 211
Hom, C. L., and Shankar, N., “A Fully Coupled Constitutive Model for
188
Carman, G. P., and Mitrovic, M., “Nonlinear ConstitutiveRelations for Electrostrictive Ceramic Materials,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems
Magnetostrictive Materials with Applications to 1-D Problems,” Journal of and Structures, Vol. 5, No. 6, 1994, pp. 795–801.
Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 6, No. 5, 1995,pp. 673–683. 212 Hom, C. L., and Shankar, N., “A ConstitutiveModel for Relaxor Ferro-
189 Hom, C., and Shankar, N., “A Finite Element Method for Electrostric-
electrics,” Proceedings of the 1999 Society of Photo-OpticalInstrumentation
tive Ceramic Devices,” International Journal for Solids and Structures,
Engineers’ North American Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials,
Vol. 33, No. 12, 1995, pp. 1757–1779.
190 Duenas, T. A., Hsu, L., and Carman, G. P., “Magnetostrictive Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (International Society
for Optical Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1999.
Composite Material Systems Analytical/Experimental,” Symp. Advances 213 Piquette, J. C., and Forsythe, S. E., “A Nonlinear Material Model of
Smart Materials-Fundamentals Applications, Materials Research Society
Symposium Proceeding 459, 1996. Lead Magnesium Niobate (PMN),” Journal of the Acoustical Society of
191
Dapino, M. J., Smith, R., Faidley, L. E., and Flatau, A. B., “A Coupled America, Vol. 101, No. 1, 1997, pp. 289–296.
214 Wada, B. K., Fanson, J. L., and Crawley, E. F., “Adaptive Structures,”
Structural Magnetic Strain and Stress Model for Magnetostrictive Transduc-
ers,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 11, No. 2, Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1990,
2000, pp. 135–152. pp. 157–174.
192 Anjanappa, M., and Bi, J., “A Theoretical and Experiment Study of 215 Lin, C. Y., Crawley, E. F., and Heeg, J., “Open- and Closed-Loop Re-
Magnetostrictive Mini-Actuators,” Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 3, sults of a Strain-Actuated Active Aeroelastic Wing,” Journal of Aircraft,
No. 1, 1994, pp. 83–91. Vol. 33, No. 5, 1996, pp. 987–994.
193 Anjanapp, M., and Wu, Y., “Magnetostrictive Particulate Actuators 216 Kudva, J., Appa, K., Martin, C., Jardine, P., and Sendeckji, G., “De-
Con guration, Modeling and Characterization,” Smart Structures and Ma- sign, Fabrication and Testing of the DARPA/WL ‘Smart Wing’ Wind Tunnel
terials, Vol. 6, No. 3, 1997, pp. 393–402. Model,” AIAA Paper 97-1198, April 1997.
2186 CHOPRA
217 Kudva, J., Martin, C. A., Scherer, L. B., Jardine, A. P., McGovan, 237 Garcia-Bonito, J., Brennan, M. J., Elliott, S. J., and Pinnington, R. J.,
A. R., Lake, R. C., Sendeckji, G., and Sanders, B., “Overview of the “A Novel High-Displacement Piezoelectric Actuator for Active Vibration
DARPA/AFRL/NASA Smart Wing Program,” Proceedings of the 1999 So- Control,” Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1998, pp. 31–42.
ciety of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers’ North American Sympo- 238 Lee, T., and Chopra, I., “Design of Peizostack-Driven Trailing-Edge
sium on Smart Structures and Materials, Vol. 3674, Society of Photo-Optical Flap Actuator for Helicopter Rotors,” Smart Materials and Structures,
Instrumentation Engineers (International Society for Optical Engineering), Vol. 10, No. 1, 2001, pp. 15–24.
Bellingham, WA, 1999, pp. 230–248. 239 Prechtl, E. F., and Hall, S. R., “Design of a High Energy Discrete
218 Becker, J., and Schroder, W., “Advanced Aircraft Structures Program:
Servo-Flap Actuator for a Helicopter Rotor Control,” Proceedings of the
An Overview,” Proceedings of the 1999 Society of Photo-Optical Instru- 1997 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers’ North Ameri-
mentation Engineers’ North American Symposium on Smart Structures and can Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials, Vol. 3041, Society of
Materials, Vol. 3674, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (International Society for Optical
(International Society for Optical Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1999, Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1997, pp. 158–182.
pp. 2–12. 240 Straub, F. K., “Active Flap Control for Vibration Reduction and Per-
219 Durr, J. K., Herold-Schmidt, U., and Zaglauer, W., “On the Integration
formance Improvement,” Proceedings of the 54th Annual Forum, Vol. 1,
of Piezoceramic Actuators in Composite Structures for Aerospace Appli- American Helicopter Society, Alexandria, VA, 1998.
cations,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 10, 241 Fenn, R. C., Downer, J. R., Bushko, D. A., Gohalekar, V., and Ham,
No. 11, 1999, pp. 880–889.
220 Ehlers, S. M., and Weisshaar, T. A., “Static Aeroelastic Control of an N. D., “Terfenol-D Driven Flaps for Helicopter Vibration Reduction,” Smart
Materials and Structures, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1996, pp. 49–57.
Adaptive Lifting Surface,” Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 30, No. 4, 1993, pp. 534– 242 Janker, P., Kloppel, V., Hermle, F., Lorkowski, T., Storm, S.,
540.
221 Lazarus, K. B., Crawley, E. F., and Bohlmann, J. D., “Static Aeroelastic Christmann, M., and Wettemann, M., “Development and Evaluation of a
Control Using Strain Actuated Adaptive Structures,” Journal of Intelligent Hybrid Piezoelectric Actuator for Advanced Flap Control Technology,”25th
Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 2, No. 3, 1991, pp. 386–410. European Rotorcraft Forum, Rome, Sept. 1999.
222 Frampton, K. D., Clark, R. L., and Dowell, E. H., ”Active Control of 243 Xu, W., and King, T., “Flexural Hinges for Piezoelectric Displace-
Panel Flutter with Piezoelectric Transducers,” Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 33, ment Ampli ers: Flexibility,Accuracy, and Stress Concentration,”Precision
No. 4, 1996, pp. 768–774. Engineering, Vol. 19, No. 1, 1996, pp. 4–10.
223 Bein, T., Hanselka, H., and Breitbach, E., “An Adaptive Spoiler to Con- 244 Prechtl, E. F., and Hall, S. R., “Design of a High Ef ciency, Large
trol the Transonic Shock,” Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 9, No. 2, Stroke, Electromechanical Actuator,” Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 8,
2000, pp. 141–148. No. 1, 1999, pp. 13–30.
224
Fuller, C. R., Hansen, C. H., and Snyder, S. D., “Experiments on Active 245
Paine, J. S. N., and Chaudhry, Z., “The Impact of Ampli cation on
Control of Sound Radiation from a Panel Using a Piezoceramic Actuator,” Energy Ef ciency and Energy Density of Induced Strain Actuators,” Pro-
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 91, No. 6, 1992, pp. 3313– ceedings of ASME Aerospace Division, AD-Vol. 52, American Society of
3320. Mechanical Engineers, 1996, pp. 511–516.
225 Hooker, M. W., “Properties and Performance of RAINBOW Piezo- 246
Lee, T., and Chopra, I., “Design Issues of a High-Stroke, On-Blade
electric Actuator Stacks,” Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical In- Piezostack Actuator for Helicopter Rotor with Trailing-Edge Flaps,” Jour-
strumentation Engineers’ 4th Annual Symposium on Smart Structures and nal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 11, No. 5, 2000,
Materials, Industrial and Commercial Applications, 1997, pp. 413-420. pp. 328–342.
226
Li, G., Furman, E., and Haertling, G. H., “Fabrication and Proper- 247 Frecker, M., and Can ed, S., “Optimal Design and Experimental Val-
ties PSZT Antiferroelectric Rainbow Actuators,” Ferroelectrics, Vol. 188,
idation of Compliant Mechanical Ampli ers for Piezoceramic Stack Actua-
No. 1–4, 1996, pp. 223–236.
227 Li, G., Furman, E., and Haertling, G. H., “Finite Element Analysis of tors,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 11, No. 5,
2000, pp. 360–369.
Rainbow Ceramics,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 248 Frecker, M., Ananthsuresh, G. K., Nishiwaki, S., Kikuchi, N., and
Vol. 8, No. 5, 1997, pp. 434–443.
228 Mossi, K. M., and Bishop, R. P., “Characterization of Different Types Kota, S., “Topological Synthesis of Complaint Mechanisms Using Multi-
of High-Performance THUNDER Actuators,” Proceedings of the Society Criteria Optimization,” Journal of MechanicalDesign, Vol. 119, No. 2, 1997,
of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers’ 6th Annual Symposium on pp. 238–245.
249 Edinger, B., Frecker, M., and Gardner, J., “Dynamic Modeling of an
Smart Structures and Materials, Smart Materials Technologies Conference,
Vol. 3675, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (Interna- Innovative Piezoelectric Actuator for Minimally Invasive Surgery,” Jour-
tional Society for Optical Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1999, pp. 43–52. nal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 11, No. 10, 2000,
229 Onitsuka, K., Dogan, A., Tressler, J. F., Xu, Q., Yoshikawa, S., and pp. 765–770.
250 Bothwell, C. M., Chandra, R., and Chopra, I., “Torsional Actuation
Newnham, R. E., “Metal-Ceramic Composite Transducer, The Moonie,”
Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 6, No. 4, 1995, with Extension-Torsional Composite Coupling and Magnetostrictive Actu-
pp. 447–455. ators,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 33, No. 4, 1995, pp. 723–729.
230 Moskalik, A., and Brei, D., “Parametric Investigation of the De ection 251
Bernhard, A. P. F., and Chopra, I., “Hover Testing of Active Rotor
Performance of Serial Piezoelectric C-Block Acutaors,” Journal of Intelli- Blade-Tips Using a Piezo-Induced Bending-Torsion Coupled Beams,” Jour-
gent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 9, No. 3, 1998, pp. 223–231. nal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 9, No. 12, 1998,
231 Moskalik, A., and Brei, D., “Quasi-Static Behavior of Individual
pp. 963–974.
C-Block Piezoelectric Acuators,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems 252
Glazounov, A. E., Zhang, Q. M., and Kim, C., “New Torsional Actu-
and Structures, Vol. 8, No. 7, 1997, pp. 571–587. ator Based on Shear Piezoelectric Response,” Proceedings of the Society of
232
Lee, T., “Design of High Displacement Smart Trailing Edge Flap Ac- Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers’ 5th Annual Symposium on Smart
tuator Incorporating Dual-Stage Mechanical Stroke Ampli ers for Rotors,” Structures and Materials, Smart Materials Conference, Vol. 3044, Society of
Ph.D. Dissertation, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering, Univ. of Maryland, Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (International Society for Optical
College Park, Dec. 1999. Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1998.
233 Giurgiutiu,V., Rogers, C. A., and Chaudhary, Z., “Energy-Based Com-
253
Centolanza, L. R., Smith, E. C., and Morris, A., “Induced Shear Piezo-
parison of Solid State Induced-Strain Actuators,” Journal of Intelligent Ma-
electric Actuators for Rotor Blade Trailing Edge Flaps and Active Tips,”
terial Systems and Structures, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1996, pp. 4–14.
234 Giurgiutiu, V., and Rogers, C. A., “Large Amplitude Rotary Induced- AIAA Paper 2001-1559, April 2001.
254 Bent, A. A., and Hagood, N. W., “Anisotropic Actuation with Piezo-
Strain (LARIS),” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures,
Vol. 8, No. 1, 1997, pp. 41–50. electric Fiber Composites,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and
235
Mitrovic, M., Carman, G. P., and Straub, F. K., “Electromechanical Structures, Vol. 6, No. 3, 1995, pp. 338–349.
255 Bent, A. A., and Hagood, N. W., “Piezoelectric Fiber Composites with
Characterization of Piezoelectric Stack Actuators,” Proceedings of the Soci-
ety of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers’ 6th Annual Symposium on Interdigitated Electrodes,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Struc-
Smart Structures and Materials, Smart Materials Technologies Conference, tures, Vol. 8, No. 11, 1997, pp. 903–919.
256 Hagood, N. W., and Pizzochero, A., “Residual Stiffness and Actuation
Vol. 3668, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (Interna-
tional Society for Optical Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1999, p. 589. Properties of Piezoelectric Composites: Theory and Experiment,” Journal of
236 Giurgiutiu, V., and Rogers, C. A., “Stiffness Issues in the Design of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 8, No. 9, 1997,pp. 724–737.
ISA Displacement Ampli cation Devices: Case Study of a Hydraulic Dis- 257 Rogers, J. P., and Hagood, N. W., “Preliminary Mach-Scale Hover
placement Ampli er,” Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instru- Testing of an Integral Twist-Actuated Rotor Blade,” Proceedings of the
mentation Engineers’ 2nd Annual Symposium on Smart Structures and Ma- 1997 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers’ North Ameri-
terials, Smart Materials Conference, Vol. 2443, Society of Photo-Optical can Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials, Vol. 3041, Society of
Instrumentation Engineers (International Society for Optical Engineering), Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (International Society for Optical
Bellingham, WA, 1995. Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1997.
CHOPRA 2187
258 Rogers, J. P., and Hagood, N. W., “Design and Manufacture pp. 25–34.
278 Hall, S. R., and Prechtl, E. F., “Preliminary Testing of a Mach-Scaled
of an Integral Twist-Actuated Rotor Blade,” Proceedings of the 38th
AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materi- Active Rotor Blade with a Trailing Edge Servo-Flap,” Proceedings of the
als Conference and Adaptive Structures Forum, AIAA, Reston, VA, 1997. 1999 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers’ North Ameri-
259 Derham, R. C., and Hagood, N. W., “Rotor Design Using Smart Ma-
can Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials, Vol. 3668, Society of
terials to Actively Twist Blades,” Proceedings of the 52nd Annual Forum, Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (International Society for Optical
Vol. 2, American Helicopter Society, Alexandria, VA, 1996, pp. 1242–1252. Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 1999, pp. 14–21.
260 Wilkie, K. W., Wilbur, M. L., Mirick, P. H., Cesnik, C. E. S., and Shin, 279
Bernhard, A. P. F., and Chopra, I., “Trailing Edge Flap Activated by a
S. J., “Aeroelastic Analysis of the NASA/Army/MIT Active Twist Rotor,” Piezo-Induced Bending-Torsion Coupled Beam,” Journal of the American
Proceedings of the 55th Annual Forum, Vol. 2, American Helicopter Society, Helicopter Society, Vol. 44, No. 1, 1999, pp. 3–15.
Alexandria, VA, 1999, pp. 533–544. 280 Bernhard, A. P. F., and Chopra, I., “Analysis of a Bending-TorsionCou-
261 Wikkie, W. K., Bryant, R. G., High, J. W., Fox, R. L., Hellbaum, R. F.,
pled Actuator for a Smart Rotor with Active Blade Tips,” Smart Materials
Jalink, A., Little, B. D., and Mirick, P. H., “Low-Cost Piezocomposite Ac- and Structures, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2001, pp. 35–52.
tuator for Structural Control Application,” Proceedings of the 2000 Society 281 Bernhard, A. P. F., and Chopra, I., “Hover Test of an Active-Twist,
of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers’ North American Symposium Mach-Scale Rotor Using a Piezo-Induced Bending-Torsion Actuator Beam,”
on Smart Structures and Materials, Vol. 3985, Society of Photo-Optical National Specialists Meeting, American Helicopter Society, Alexandria, VA,
Instrumentation Engineers (International Society for Optical Engineering), Oct. 2000.
Bellingham, WA, 2000. 282 Chen, P. C., and Chopra, I., “Wind Tunnel Test of a Smart Rotor with
262 Pokines, B. J., and Garcia, E., “A Smart Material Microampli cation
Individual Blade Twist Control,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and
Mechanism Fabricated Using LIGA,” Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 7, Structures, Vol. 8, No. 5, 1997, pp. 414–425.
No. 1, 1998, pp. 105–112. 283 Chen, P. C., and Chopra, I., “Hover Testing of Smart Rotor with
263 Mauck, L. D., and Lynch, C. S., “Piezoelectric Hydraulic Pump De-
Induced-Strain Actuation of Blade Twist,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 35, No. 1,
velopment,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 11, 1997, pp. 6–16.
No. 10, 2000, pp. 758–764. 284
Cesnik, C. E. S., Shin, S. J., and Wilbur, M. L., “Dynamic Response of
264 Nasser, K., and Leo, D. J., “Ef ciency of Frequency-Recti ed Peizo-
Active Twist Rotor Blades,” Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 10, No. 1,
hydraulic and Piezopneumatic Actuation,” Journal of Intelligent Material 2001, pp. 62–76.
Systems and Structures, Vol. 11, No. 10, 2000, pp. 798–810. 285 Shin, S. J., Cesnik, C. E. S., and Hall, S. R., “Control of Integral Twist-
265 Roberts, D., Hagood, N., Carretero, H., Li, H., Mlcak, R., and Su,
Actuated Helicopter Blades for vibration Reduction,” Proceedings of the
Y., “Piezoelectrically Driven Hydraulic Ampli cation Microvalve for High 58th American Helicopter Society Annual Forum, Vol. 2, American Heli-
Pressure High Frequency Applications,” Proceedings of the 2000 Society copter Society, Alexandria, VA, 2002, pp. 2122–2134.
of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers’ North American Symposium 286 Epps, J. J., and Chopra, I., “In-Flight Tracking of Helicopter Rotor
on Smart Structures and Materials, Vol. 4327, Society of Photo-Optical Blades Using Shape Memory Alloy Actuators,”Proceedings of the 56th
Instrumentation Engineers (International Society for Optical Engineering), American Helicopter Society Annual Forum, Vol. 1, American Helicopter
Bellingham, WA, 2000, pp. 366–380. Society, Alexandria, VA, 2000, pp. 328–343.
266 Sirohi, J., and Chopra, I., “Development of a Compact Hybrid Ac- 287 Epps, J. J., and Chopra, I., “In-Flight Tracking of Helicopter Rotor
tuator,” Proceedings of the 2001 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Blades Using Shape Memory Alloy Actuators,” Smart Materials and Struc-
Engineers’ North American Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials, tures, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2001, pp. 104–111.
Smart Materials Technologies Conference, Vol. 4327, Society of Photo- 288
Singh, K., and Chopra, I., “Design of an Improved Shape Memory
Optical Instrumentation Engineers (International Society for Optical Engi- Alloy Actuator for Rotor Blade Tracking,” Proceedings of the 2002 Society
neering), Bellingham, WA, 2001, pp. 401–412. of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers’ North American Symposium
267 Sirohi, J., and Chopra, I., “Design and Testing of a High-Pumping Fre-
on Smart Structures and Materials, Vol. 4701, Society of Photo-Optical
quency Piezoelectric-Hydraulic hybrid Actuator,” Proceedings of the 2002 Instrumentation Engineers (International Society for Optical Engineering),
Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers’ North American Sym- Bellingham, WA, 2002, pp. 244–266.
posium on Smart Structures and Materials, Vol. 4701, Society of Photo- 289 Chen, P. C., Baeder, J. D., Evans, R. A. D., and Niemczuk, J., “Blade-
Optical Instrumentation Engineers (International Society for Optical Engi- Vortex Interaction Noise Reduction with Active Twist Smart Rotor Technol-
neering), Bellingham, WA, 2002, pp. 552–569. ogy,” Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2001, pp. 77–85.
268 Sirohi, J., and Chopra, I., “Actuator Power Reduction Using Tuned L-C 290 Sampath, A., and Balachandran, B., “Active Control of Multiple Tones
Oscillator Circuits,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, in an Enclosure,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 106,
Vol. 12, No. 12, 2000, pp. 867–878. No. 1, 1999, pp. 211–225.
269 Clingman, J. D., “Drive Electronics for Large Piezoactuators,” Pro- 291 Shen, J., and Chopra, I., “Actuation Requirements for a Swashplate-
ceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers’ 4th less Helicopter Control System with Trailing-Edge Flaps,” Proceedings of
Annual Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials, Industrial Applica- the 43rd AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics and
tions Conference, Vol. 3044, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation En- Materials Conference and Adaptive Structures Forum, AIAA, Reston, VA,
gineers (International Society for Optical Engineering), Bellingham, WA, 2002.
1997, pp. 459–467. 292 Shen, J., and Chopra, I., “A Parametric Design Study for a Swashplate-
270
Main, J. A., Garcia, E., and Newton, D. V., “Precision Position Control less Helicopter Rotor with Trailing-Edge Flaps,” Proceedings of the 58th
of Piezoelectric Actuators Using Charge Feedback,” Journal of Guidance, American Helicopter Society Annual Forum, Vol. 2, American Helicopter
Control, and Dynamics, Vol. 18, No. 5, 1995, pp. 1068–1073. Society, Alexandria, VA, 2002, pp. 2134–2148.
271 Chandrasekaran, S., Linder, D. K., and Smith, R. C., “Optimized De- 293 Kube, R., and Kloppel, V., “On the Role of Prediction Tools for Adap-
sign of Switching Ampli ers for Piezoelectric Actuators,” Journal of Intel- tive Rotor System Developments,” Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 10,
ligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 11, No. 11, 2000, pp. 887–901. No. 1, 2001, pp. 137–144.
272 Koratkar, N. A., and Chopra, I., “Development of a Mach-Scaled Model
294 Pelinescu, I., and Balachandran, B., “Analytical Study of Active Con-
with Piezoelectric Bender Actuated Trailing-Edge Flaps for Helicopter Indi- trol of Wave Transmission Through Cylindrical Struts,” Smart Materials and
vidual Blade Control (IBC),” AIAA Journal, Vol. 38, No. 7, 2000, pp. 1113– Structures, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2001, pp. 121–136.
1124. 295 Mahapatra, D. R., Gopalkrishnan, S., and Balachandran, B., “Active
273 Koratkar, N. A., and Chopra, I., “Wind Tunnel Testing of a Mach-
Feedback Control of Multiple Waves in Helicopter Gearbox Support Struts,”
Scaled Rotor Model with Trailing-Edge Flaps,” Smart Materials and Struc- Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 10, No. 5, 2001, pp. 1046–1058.
tures, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2001, pp. 1–14. 296
Kamath, G. M., Wereley, N. W., and Jolly, M. R., “Characterization
274 Koratkar, N. A., and Chopra, I., “Wind Tunnel Testing of a Mach-
of Magnetorheological Helicopter Lag Dampers,” Journal of the American
Scaled Rotor Model with Trailing-Edge Flaps,” Proceedings of the 57th
Helicopter Society, Vol. 45, No. 4, 1999, pp. 234–248.
Annual Forum of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 2, American Heli- 297 Kim, S. J., and Yun, C. Y., “Performance Comparison Between Piezo-
copter Society, Alexandria, VA, 2001, pp. 1069–1099. electric and Elastomeric Lag Damper on Ground Resonance Stability of
275
Fulton, M., and Ormiston, R. A., “Small Scale Rotor Experiments
Helicopter,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 12,
with On-Blade Elevons to Reduce Blade Vibratory Loads in Forward Flight,”
No. 4, 2001, pp. 215–222.
Journal of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 46, No. 2, 2001,pp. 96–106. 298 Konstanzer, P., Grohmann, B., and Kroplin, B., “Decentralized Vibra-
276
Lee, T., and Chopra, I., “Wind Tunnel Test of Blade Sections with
tion Control and Coupled Aeroservoelastic Simulation of Helicopter Rotor
Piezoelectric Trailing-Edge Flap Mechanism,” Proceedings of the 57th An-
Blades with Adaptive Airfoils,” Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and
nual Forum of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 2, American Helicopter
Structures, Vol. 12, No. 4, 2001, pp. 209–214.
Society, Alexandria, VA, 2001, pp. 1912–1923.
277 Straub, F. K., Ngo, H. T., Anand, V., and Domzalski, D. B., “Devel-
opment of a Piezoelectric Actuator for Trailing-Edge Flap Control for Full A. M. Baz
Scale Rotor System,” Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2001, Associate Editor