Uses of Sulphuric Acid

Sulphuric acid is very important industrially, and has many uses including:

 the production of fertilisers such as ammonium sulphate, potassium sulphate, calcium

superphosphate (Ca(H<2PO4)2), etc.; these are straight fertilisers, as they supply one of
the important elements of nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium (NPK);
 the manufacture of non-soapy detergents: modern detergents are organic compounds
'sulphonated' with concentrated sulphuric acid;
 the making of artificial silks like rayon: here, the fine threads in the alkaline cellulose
solution are neutralised by passing them through a bath of sulphuric acid;
 the cleaning of metals by removing the surface oxide coating: this is called pickling and
is important in preparing articles for electroplating.
 its use as an electrolyte inside batteries for cars: most car batteries are made up of lead
plates in a sulphuric acid electrolyte; occasionally, the electrolyte needs to be 'topped up'
with distilled water ; this is because small amounts of hydrogen and oxygen gases are
given off by the chemical changes inside the battery, and therefore the sulphuric acid
loses water and becomes too concentrated ; in the manufacture of drugs, paints, dyes and
many other chemicals .

Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid: The Contact Process

 The large-scale manufacture of this acid is extremely important as it is the most common
acid used in industry, with over 1 000 million metric tonnes being produced annually.

It is manufactured by the Contact Process.

Stage 1
Combustion of Sulphur sulphur + oxygen sulphur dioxide
S (s) + O2 (g) ---> SO2 (g) or
Heating of metal sulphide such as lead(II) sulphide 2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) ---> 2PbO(s) + 2SO2(g) or
Combustion of hiydrogen sulphide 2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) ---> 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(ce)

 The raw materials are sulphur and air (oxygen). Sulphur dioxide is produced by burning
either sulphur or ores which contain sulphur.

 Purification of sulphur dioxide

1. The sulphur dioxide is then purified, by removing impurities like arsenic compounds
which would otherwise poison the catalyst.
2. It is then passed through an electrostatic dust precipitator, which, as its name implies,
charges dust particles which are then removed by being attracted to oppositely charged
plates.

Stage 2
Formation of Sulphur trioxide sulphur dioxide + oxygen ---> sulphur trioxide 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g)
---> 2SO3 (g)
Catalyst: vanadium(V) oxide
Temperature: 450°C
Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres

 Sulphur dioxide and air are then washed, dried and passed over a vanadium(V) oxide
catalyst at 450°C and 2-3 atmospheres.
 The reaction is reversible but at these temperatures and pressures, 98% conversion to
sulphur trioxide is achieved:
 This reaction is exothermic, which means it favours a low temperature for high
conversion to sulphur trioxide.

Stage 3
Formation of oleum H2S2O7
sulphur trioxide + concentrated sulphuric acid ¾¾®oleum SO3(g) + H2SO4(aq) ---> H2S2O7(l)

 The next step is to dissolve the sulphur trioxide produced in concentrated sulphuric acid,
to form oleum, or fuming sulphuric acid.

Stage 4
Formation of Sulphuric acid Oleum + water ---> sulphuric acid H2S207 (1) + H2O (1) --->
2H2SO4(aq)

 This oleum is then diluted with water to the required strength of acid:
 Although this may seem a roundabout route to take to form the acid, it is necessary
because sulphur trioxide cannot be dissolved directly in water as it reacts too violently,
forming tiny droplets of sulphuric acid which are very difficult to remove.
Sulphur Dioxide as pollutant
 Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is the pollutant primarily associated with acid rain.
 Gaseous at normal temperature and pressure it dissolves in water and readily oxidises to
sulphuric acid.
 Levels of SO2 have reduced over recent years with a move away from widespread
burning of coal in homes and factories.
 It is one of the main pollutants that led to the introduction of legislation governing
atmospheric pollution such as the 1956 Clean Air Act.

Sources of Sulphur Dioxide

 The principal source of SO2 is from the combustion of fossil fuels in domestic premises
and , more importantly, non-nuclear power stations.
 Fossil fuel burning power stations account for around two thirds of total SO2 emissions in
the UK.
 Other industrial processes contribute a further 20%, with vehicles, primarily diesel,
accounting for a mere 2%.

Health effects

 SO2 is an irritant when it is inhaled and at high concentrations (over 1000ppb) may cause
severe problems in asthmatics such as narrowing of the airways, known as
bronchoconstriction.
 Asthmatics are considerably more sensitive to the effects of SO2 than other individuals
and an effect on lung function may be experienced at levels as low as 200ppb.
Manufacture of Fertilizers

 The main use of ammonia is in the manufacture of fertilizers.

 Approximately 75% of all ammonia produced is converted into various ammonium
compounds like ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4, ammonium nitrate NH4NO3, ammonium
phosphate (NH4)3PO4 and urea NH2CONH2.
 These compounds are called nitrogenous fertilizers.

Example
Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4
H2SO4(aq) + 2NH3(aq) --->(NH4)2SO4(aq)

Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3

HNO3(aq) + NH3(aq) ---> NH4NO3(aq)

ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4

H3PO4(aq) + 3NH3(aq) ---> (NH4)3PO4(aq)

Urea NH2CONH2
CO2(g) + NH3(g) ---> CO(NH2)2(p) + H2O(l)

 They are solids for ease in handling and water soluble so that they seep into the soil to be
absorbed by the roots of the plant.
 Nitrogen is an essential element for healthy plant growth as we saw earlier with the
nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen is essential for making proteins which are needed for healthy
growth of stems and leaves. The proportion of nitrogen present in a particular fertiliser
can be calculated and is usually quoted as an 'N' value on the fertiliser bag.

Solvent Uses

 queous ammonia is used as a degreasing agent, as it is a good solvent of grease and fat.
 Many household cleaners boast of the 'power of ammonia' for removing grease stains
around the kitchen.
 However, it is wrong, as stated in some commercials, to talk of 'liquid ammonia'.
 It is more accurate to say 'ammonia solution', as ammonia does not liquefy until a
temperature of -34 °C is reached.

Characteristic of ammonia
React with acid to form salt and water

As an alkali, ammonia can react with acid to form salt and water.
Example
H2SO4(aq) + 2NH3(aq) ---> (NH4)2SO4(aq)
HNO3(aq) + NH3(aq) ---> NH4NO3(aq)
H3PO4(aq) + 3NH3(aq) ---> (NH4)3PO4(aq)

Ammonia solution react with positive ions

Ammonia dissolve into water to form ammonium and hydroxide ion.
NH3 + H2O ---> NH4+ + OH-

The hydroxide ion can react with many kinds of positive ion to form precipitate.

Testing for Ammonia Gas

 Ammonia is the only common alkaline gas, so it can be identified with moist red litmus
paper turning blue.
 However, a more specific chemical test is to hold close to the suspected ammonia, a glass
rod dipped into some concentrated hydrochloric acid.
 This will give off fumes of hydrogen chloride gas which, in the presence of ammonia,
form a dense, white 'smoke' of ammonium chloride:

ammonia gas + hydrogen chloride gas ---> ammonium chloride

NH3 (g) + HC1 (g) ---> NH4C1 (s)

 In the same way, mixing a gas jar of hydrogen chloride and ammonia gas produces the
same dense, white smoke. The smoke again is the fine-particled solid called ammonium
chloride.

The Haber Process

The reaction

 Ammonia is made by the Haber process from nitrogen and hydrogen:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ---> 2NH3(g); Heat of reaction = -92 kJ mo1-1

 The reaction is exothermic, and involves a decrease in the number of moles of gas.

Sources of the raw material

Hydrogen
Hydrogen is produced industrially from cracking oil

Nitrogen
Nitrogen from liquefaction of the air

Condition

Catalyst Iron
Promoter Aluminium oxide
Ratio of Hydrogen
The two gases are combined directly in a ratio of 3 : 1
and Oxygen
 At 450 °C

 An application of Le Chatelier's shows that the forward reaction

should be assisted by a low temperature.
Temperature  At low temperature, the rate of attainment of equilibrium is low. At
high temperature, the position of equilibrium is over to the left.
 A compromise temperature is adopted, and a catalyst is employed
to speed up the attainment of equilibrium concentrations.

At 200-1000 atm

Pressure  An application of Le Chatelier's shows that the forward reaction

should be assisted by a high pressure.

Products

 The yield is about 10%, and unreacted gases are recycled

When the ammonia has been produced, it is liquefied 'out', by reducing the temperature to -34°C
(239 K)

The Manufacture of Nitric Acid (Ostwald Process)

Introduction

Industrially, nitric acid is made by the catalytic oxidation of ammonia over heated platinum.
Oxidising ammonia produces oxides of nitrogen which can then be dissolved in water to produce
nitric acid.

Reaction

 Initially, nitrogen(II) oxide will be formed from the catalytic oxidation of ammonia using
the transition metal platinum.

ammonia + oxygen ---> nitrogen(II) oxide + steam

4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) ---> 4NO (g) + 6H2O (g)

 The nitrogen(II) oxide is rapidly cooled before combining with oxygen (from excess air)
to form nitrogen(IV) oxide.

2NO (g) + O2 (g) ---> 2NO2 (g)

 The nitrogen(IV) oxide, mixed with excess air, is then allowed to react with water to
form nitric acid.

nitrogen(IV) oxide + oxygen (air) + water ---> nitric acid

4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (1) ---> HNO3 (aq)
Uses of Nitric Acid

 Most of the nitric acid made is used to make the all-important fertilisers, such as
ammonium nitrate.
 Other uses of nitric acid include making explosive, like nitroglycerine, or TNT
(trinitrotoluene), and making dyes. Modern dyes are azo dyes, which can be formed by
the reduction of various nitro-compounds.
ALLOY

 An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals mixed in a certain percentage.

Characteristic of metal

 A pure metal has the following characteristics:

1. Ductile – can be drawn into wires

2. Malleable – can be made into sheets
3. High melting and boiling points
4. High density
5. High electrical conductivity

 Many metal are also soft. Metals like iron and copper also form oxides easily.
 As a result, the uses of pure metals are limited, and alloys are made to improve the
malleability, ductileness and hardness of a metal.
 A pure metal is composed of layers of atoms which are arranged in an even, orderly and
close manner at fixed positions (see Figure 9.8). Each atom is surrounded by 8-12 atoms.

 This arrangement of atoms causes the metal to be very dense with high melting and
boiling points. The strong forces of attraction between atoms require a great amount of
heat to overcome.
 However, in spite of strong forces of attraction between atoms, the metal is not hard. If a
force is applied on the metal, the layers of atoms can glide and slide on top of each other,
causing them to move to new positions. This allows the metal to be drawn into wires
(ductile). (See Figure 9.9.)
 The spaces left naturally between layers of metal atoms also make it easy to be beaten
into sheets (malleable).
 The formation of alloys occurs when these empty spaces between metal atoms are filled
with atoms of another metal, which may be higher or smaller than the original metal
atoms. (Figure 9.10)
 The foreign atoms are usually another metal but sometimes a non-metal, like a carbon or
silicon is used.
 The foreign atoms filling up the spaces between the atoms of the pure metal help to
prevent the slipping and sliding of atom layers, thus making the metal harder, and less
malleable and ductile.

Purpose of Making Alloys

 Alloys are made to

1. increase the hardness of metals.

2. prevent the corrosion of metals.
3. improve the beauty and lustre of metals.

Hardness of metals:
  Alloys improve the strength of metal.
 Carbon is added to iron to obtain steel to make it stronger and harder than pure iron.
Other metals like manganese, chromium and tungsten are also added to add to the
hardness.
 Magnalium is made from aluminium and magnesium to improve the hardness of the pure
metals but at the same time, maintaining their lightness.

To prevent corrosion of metals:

 Tin and iron are used vastly in building but they rust easily, thereby causing economical
loss. Adding other metals or non-metals to them can prevent rusting.
 Stainless steel is made by adding carbon, chromium and nickel to iron.
 Adding phosphorus to bronze also improves the lustre and prevents corrosion of bronze.

polymers
 Polymer is a large molecule that is in the form of a long chain with a high relative
molecular mass (RMM).
 It is made up of many smaller units called monomers, which are joined together through
a process called polymerisation. Thus the monomer is actually the repititive unit of a long
polymer chain.

picture

 There are two types of polymers:

1. Natural polymers
2. Synthetic polymers

Natural Polymers
 These occur naturally in living things. Some examples of natural polymers are:

1. Natural rubber
2. Protein in meat, leather, silk, hair and fur
3. Carbohydrates in cellulose, starch and sugar

 Natural polymers are made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen.

 Natural rubber comprises the molecules of the monomer 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene, also
called isopropene, joined together to form a long chain, as in:

picture

 Protein is obtained by the combination of amino acid molecules which represent the
monomer units.
picture

 Carbohydrates are formed through the combination of glucose molecule which act as the
monomer.

picture

Synthetic Polymers
 Synthetic polymer is a polymer that is manufactured in industry from chemical
substances through the polymerisation process. Through research, scientists are now able
to copy the structure of natural polymers to produce synthetic polymers.
 Plastics, synthetic fibres and elastomers are examples of synthetic polymers.
 The raw materials for the manufacture of synthetic polymers are distillates of petroleum.
 The two types of polymerisation are:

1. polymerisation by addition
2. polymerisation by condensation

 Polymerisation by addition involves monomers with >C = C< bonding, where the
monomers join together to make a long chain without losing any simple molecules from
it. Examples of polymers produced through this process are polythene, PVC perspex and
other plastics.
Uses of Glass and Ceramics

 The raw materials used in the making of glass and ceramic materials are obtained from
the earth's crust. Silica or silicon(IV) dioxide, SiO2, form the most important component
of glass and ceramics.
 In the SiO2 molecule, each silicon atom is held in a tetrahedral structure by four oxygen
atoms.
 Each oxygen atom is held by two silicon atoms. This is repeated until a giant three-
dimensional molecule results.

Properties of glass and ceramic:

 Both have the following properties:

1. Hard and brittle

2. Do not conduct heat electricity
3. Inactive towards chemical reactions
4. Weak when pressure is applied
5. Can be cleaned easily

Glass
 It is a mixture of two or more types of metallic silicates but the main component is
silicon(IV) dioxide.
 Glass has the following properties:

1. Transparent and not porous

2. Inactive chemically
3. Can be cleaned easily
4. Good insulators of heat and electricity
5. Hard but brittle
6. Can withstand compression but not pressure

 Due to the above reasons and the low cost involved to produce glass, it is used in industry
to make bottles, cooking utensils, plates and bowls, laboratory apparatus (such as conical
flask, beakers and test tubes), window panes, bulbs and others.
 Different types of glass can be obtained depending on the composition of substances in it.

Soda lime glass:

 This is obtained when limestone (CaCO3) and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) are mixed
with molten silica and cooled down.
 It is also known as soft glass as it has a low melting point.
 Most glass produced is soda lime glass. But it breaks easily, thus it is mainly used to
make kitchen utensils.
Lead glass:

 This is formed when a mixture of lead(II) oxide, sodium oxide and silica is heated
together.
 Lead glass of better quality contains a higher percentage of PbO.
 Its refractive index and density being high, it has a glittering and attractive surface, thus it
is also called crystal glass.

Borosilicate glass:

 Boron oxide (B2O3) and sodium carbonate is added to molten silica to obtain borosilicate
glass or pyrex..
 The presence of B2O3 makes the glass able to withstand high temperatures and chemical
reaction. It does not break easily, thus it is used to make laboratory apparatus and
cooking utensils.

Fused silicate glass:

 Sand (silica) is heated until it melts at 1700°C, and the viscous liquid is cooled
immediately. This produces a transparent solid with an uneven arrangement of atoms,
called fused silicate glass.
 This glass cannot expand or contract easily when there are temperature changes. But it
cannot become misshapen because of its high melting point.
 It is known as quartz glass.

Uses of Composite Materials

Reinforced concrete

concrete (cement, sand, stones), steel

 Ordinary concrete is strong but heavy. Concrete pillars must be big to support the weight.
They take up space and cannot withstand stress for example from earthquakes.
 Steel pillars are too expensive and can rust.
 Reinforced concrete, containing steel rods in the concrete pillars, can make them stronger
and able to support larger loads. It also does not rust.

Optical fibre

SiO2, Na2CO3, CaO

 This is a fine transparent glass tube that is made of molten glass. Glass cannot conduct
electricity or electronic data in the form of electrons. But optical fibre allows light to be
transmitted through the tube so that data is transmitted at a faster rate.
 In telecommunications, light has replaced electrons as the transmitter of signals. This
light transmits signals through optical fibre and the field is called optoelectronics.
 Optical fibre is also used in the medical field as
 1. laser to do operation
2. endoscope to examine the internal organs of patients

Photochromic glass

glass, AgCl (or AgBr

 Glass is transparent and not sensitive towards light.

 Photochromic glass contains AgCI or AgBr which causes the glass to darken in sunlight
and lighten in the absence of sunlight. (See 9.5.)
 It is used to make photochromic lenses of spectacles and protects our eyes from extreme
sunlight.

Plastic reinforced with glass

fibreglass and polyster resin

 While plastic is light and hard, it is brittle. Glass is harder than plastic but breaks easily.
Thus fibre glass is obtained by adding a polyster resin to molten glass. It cannot be
compressed easily and is more tensile than the original materials.
 Fibre glass is light, withstands corrosion, can be cast into different shapes, is impervious
to water, not very flammable, not brittle and stronger than even steel.
 It is used to make racquets, construction panels, electrical appliances, pipes, and water
tanks.

Superconductor

Itrium oxide (Y203), BaCO3, CuO

 It is a substance with almost nil resistance. Thus it saves electricity.

 Copper shows superconductor properties only at -270°C. Thus the superconductor, a
mixture of CuO, Y203, and BaO, results in a ceramic called perovskite or YBCO. All the
materials used to make this composite substance are not electrical conductors in their
original forms, but as a superconductor, it conducts electricity without loss of energy.
(See 9.5.)

Composite Materials to Fulfill Specific Needs

 Composite materials are needed in various fields, for example:

1. In the medical field: to replace organs in the form of plastic composite organs.
2. Car parts now use composite materials instead of iron and steel. This increases the speed
of the car (car is lighter) and saves on fuel consumption.
3. Stronger buildings are built by using reinforced concrete.