LABORATORY MANUAL

ECE -208

UNIFIED ELECTRONICS
LABORATORY-II
 COURSE CONTENTS

S.No. Description

1. Simulation using p-spice for zener diode used a a voltage

regulator.

2. Simulation using p-spice for operational amplifier as summer.

3. Simulation of network theorem using p-spice.

4. Design and analyse a differentiator circuit whose minimum

frequency is 100KHz

5. Design and analyse a integrator circuit whose maximum

frequency is 100KHz.

6. To analyze the characteristics of instrumentation amplifier using bread

board and PSpice.

7. To analyze the functionality of triangular wave generator using IC -741

8. To determine frequency response of cascade amplifier Darlington pair.

To determine the frequency response of two stage RC coupled amplifier

using complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier
9.

To analyze the functionality of Colpitt oscillator on output frequency using

10. bread board and PSPICE

11.

Implement phase shift oscillator using bread board and Pspice.

12.
To analyze the functionality of Hartley oscillator on output frequency using
bread board and PSPICE
 EXPERIMENT 1

Title:- Simulation using P-Spice for Zener diode used as voltage regulator.
Software Used- P-Spice

Learning Objective: Through this experiment the working of zener diode will be
proved.

Procedure: The circuit of fig. 1 will be drawn on schematic editor of the software.

1. Use the circuit elements from the components option in P-Spice software.
2. For making the connections between components use the wire option from
the tool bar.
3. Use the power supply from the power supply option.
4. Use the zener diode from circuit components.

Observation:

Sr. No. Input Voltage Resistance Output Voltage

Result: The voltage across the resistance R2 will be kept constant at the voltage of
5V through the use of zener diode.

Cautions: 1. All connection between the circuit elements must be proper.

 EXPERIMENT 2

Title- Simulation using PSpice for operational amplifier used as

summer. Software Used:- PSpice Software

Learning Objective: - How a operational amplifier can be used as a summer

of different signals.

Procedure: 1. Use the IC-741 . Pin number 3 is grounded .

2. Pin number 3 of IC-741 is connected through three voltage sources
through three resistances.
3. For making connection use the wire on the tool bar.
4. Connect a resistance of value R between pin 2 and pin 6.
5. Connect the CRO at the output pin 6 of IC-741 to see the result.

Circuit Diagram:

Draw the above circuit in schematic and run the program.

Results: The result of the above experiment will be the summation of the
three input voltages.

Vout = - (V1+V2+V3)

Cautions :
1) Make proper connections between all the circuit elements.
 EXPERIMENT 3

Title- Simulation of network theorems using PSpice

Software Used:- PSpice Software

Learning Objective: - Learning of superposition theorem through the use of PSpice

software

Procedure:

1) For getting the voltage across the R2 first we will find the voltage across the
R2 due to only supply voltage B1 . for this the circuit of fig.2 will be
drawn.In this circuit except the B1 supply voltage all other supply voltage
will be short circuited.
2) Then find the voltage across R2 due to only the B2 supply and draw
the circuit of fig.3 .In this circuit all supply voltages except the B2 will
be short circuited.
3) After finding the separate voltages due to supply voltage B1 and B2 we will
use the superposition theorem and add the two voltages. That will be the
final voltage across the R2.

Fig.2
 Fig. 3

Observation:-

Sr. No. Resistance Resistance Resistance Voltage Voltage Total

R1 R2 R3 due to B1 due to B2 voltage

The result: - The resulting voltage across R2 will be the total summation of
the voltages due to B1 and B2.

Cautions:
1. All connection must be proper.
 EXPERIMENT 4

Title: Design and analyse a differentiator circuit whose minimum frequency

is 100Hz.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Apparatus Specification Quantity Tolerence

1 Operational 01
amplifier
LM348
2 Resistor 1KΩ, 2KΩ 02 5%
3 Capacitor 0.1µF 03
4 Bread Board 01
5 Power Supply 01
6 Connecting As per
wires requirement

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Rin= 1KΩ, RF= 2KΩ

Procedure

1. Using power supply voltages of ±15 VDC for the op-amp, construct an inverting
amplifier circuit with a gain of -3.9 using an input resistor of 1 K Ohms. Install the
0.1 µF capacitor in parallel with the feedback resistor as seen in Fig. 1. Calculate
the cutoff frequency (fc) for the circuit using the measured values of the
components. It should be around 400 Hz. Add two extra 0.1 µF capacitors to the
circuit. One should be connected between the + DC supply(pin 4) and ground the
other should be connected between the - DC supply(pin 11) and ground. These
capacitors are to help prevent oscillation in the amplifier circuit due to interaction
between the circuit and the power supply. They should be placed as close to the
Op-Amp itself as physically possible. Make sure that the circuit is correctly
connected before turning on the power supply voltages. Failure to do so may cause
the op-amp to saturate and in some cases cause permanent damage to the op-amp.
2. Set the signal input, vin, to zero. That is replace the signal source, vin, with a
short circuit to ground. Carefully measure the DC output voltage. Make sure you
record the proper sign, It should be between +50 mV and -50 mV, usually very
small. This output with no input is called the output offset voltage. It is an error in
the output of the circuit. It can be treated as an equivalent input offset voltage
applied to the non-inverting input of the op-amp. The equivalent input offset is
calculated by dividing the measured output offset by the gain of the amplifier from
the non-inverting input, Av = (1 + Rf /Rin). This offset has no effect on the ac
operation of the circuit, but can cause errors in dc measurements of small voltages.

3. Use a signal input voltage, vin, of 0.1 VDC and connect it to the amplifier signal
input as Vin. Using a digital Multi-meter, measure and record both Vin and Vout as
accurately as possible. Calculate the DC voltage gain both with and without
correcting the output voltage by subtracting the output offset voltage measured in
step 2 from the measured output voltage. Be sure to use the correct sign on the
offset voltage. Repeat this measurement and calculation with Vin = 1.0 VDC.
4. With an oscilloscope connected to both the signal input and the output, apply an
A.C. signal such that the output voltage has amplitude between 5V and 10V. Then
measure Vin, Vout, T, and t(for phase measurement) at your calculated cutoff
frequency and at each of the following frequencies: 20Hz, 50Hz, 100Hz, 200Hz,
500Hz, 1kHz, 2kHz, 5kHz and 10kHz, 20kHz, 50kHz. Print a copy of the
waveforms at 20 Hz and 10 kHz, and at your calculated cutoff frequency. As the
gain starts to drop increase the input voltage trying to keep the output voltage
amplitude between 5V and 10V until you reach the maximum output of the signal
generator. Also take these measurements at your calculated cutoff frequency. If the
output waveform starts to look like a triangular wave instead of a sine wave your
amplifier has reached the slew rate limit and you will have to reduce the input
voltage until this effect is eliminated to get accurate gain measurements

5. Calculate the AC voltage gain and phase shift of the circuit at each frequency.

6. Set your signal generator to square wave output at 100 Hz with amplitude of 1
V. With this input observe and record the output waveform. Repeat at a frequency
of 500 Hz.

CALCULATIONS / GRAPHS:

Gain(dB) = 20 log (Vo/Vi)

OBSERVATION TABLE

S.No. Frequency(Hz) Vi(V) Vo(V) Gain(dB)

OBSERVATION TABLE CONSIDERING ERRORS DUE TO MEASURING
EQUIPMENTS: (CRO)

S.No Freq.(Hz Freq.(Hz Vo( Vo( Vi(V Gain(dB)m Gain(dB)m

. )+2% ) -2% V) V) - ) in ax
+2% 2%

Calculations considering component errors:

2) Calculate RFmax=RF±10%, R1min= R1±10%.
3) Calculate Vo min and Vo max
Vo min = - (RFmin / R1min)Vi min
Vo max = (1+ RFmax / R1max) V i max
4) Find theoretical avg. gain and practical average gain.
5) Then find %age error = (theoretical gain – practical gain)/theoretical gain.

Plot the graph between

1) Min. frequency and min gain

2) Min. frequency and max. gain
3) Max. frequency and min. gain
4) Max. frequency and max. gain

Conclusion:-Drawn from the results of the experiment.

Cautions:
1. All connection must be proper.
2. All connections must be tight.
3. Use the correct IC.
 EXPERIMENT NO – 5

Title: Design and analyse a integrator circuit whose maximum frequency is

100KHz.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Apparatus Specification Quantity Tolerence

1 Operational 01
amplifier
LM348
2 Resistor 1KΩ, 2KΩ 02 5%
3 Capacitor 0.1µF 03
4 Bread Board 01
5 Power Supply 01
6 Connecting As per
wires requirement

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Rin= 1KΩ, RF= 2KΩ

Procedure

1. Using power supply voltages of ±15 VDC for the op-amp, construct an inverting
amplifier circuit with a gain of -3.9 using an input resistor of 1 K Ohms. Install the
0.1 µF capacitor in parallel with the feedback resistor as seen in Fig. 1. Calculate
the cutoff frequency (fc) for the circuit using the measured values of the
components. It should be around 400 Hz. Add two extra 0.1 µF capacitors to the
circuit. One should be connected between the + DC supply(pin 4) and ground the
other should be connected between the - DC supply(pin 11) and ground. These
capacitors are to help prevent oscillation in the amplifier circuit due to interaction
between the circuit and the power supply. They should be placed as close to the
Op-Amp itself as physically possible. Make sure that the circuit is correctly
connected before turning on the power supply voltages. Failure to do so may cause
the op-amp to saturate and in some cases cause permanent damage to the op-amp.

2. Set the signal input, vin, to zero. That is replace the signal source, vin, with a
short circuit to ground. Carefully measure the DC output voltage. Make sure you
record the proper sign, It should be between +50 mV and -50 mV, usually very
small. This output with no input is called the output offset voltage. It is an error in
the output of the circuit. It can be treated as an equivalent input offset voltage
applied to the non-inverting input of the op-amp. The equivalent input offset is
calculated by dividing the measured output offset by the gain of the amplifier from
the non-inverting input, Av = (1 + Rf /Rin). This offset has no effect on the ac
operation of the circuit, but can cause errors in dc measurements of small voltages.

3. Use a signal input voltage, vin, of 0.1 VDC and connect it to the amplifier signal
input as Vin. Using a digital Multi-meter, measure and record both Vin and Vout as
accurately as possible. Calculate the DC voltage gain both with and without
correcting the output voltage by subtracting the output offset voltage measured in
step 2 from the measured output voltage. Be sure to use the correct sign on the
offset voltage. Repeat this measurement and calculation with Vin = 1.0 VDC.
4. With an oscilloscope connected to both the signal input and the output, apply an
A.C. signal such that the output voltage has amplitude between 5V and 10V. Then
measure Vin, Vout, T, and t(for phase measurement) at your calculated cutoff
frequency and at each of the following frequencies: 20Hz, 50Hz, 100Hz, 200Hz,
500Hz, 1kHz, 2kHz, 5kHz and 10kHz, 20kHz, 50kHz. Print a copy of the
waveforms at 20 Hz and 10 kHz, and at your calculated cutoff frequency. As the
gain starts to drop increase the input voltage trying to keep the output voltage
amplitude between 5V and 10V until you reach the maximum output of the signal
generator. Also take these measurements at your calculated cutoff frequency. If the
output waveform starts to look like a triangular wave instead of a sine wave your
amplifier has reached the slew rate limit and you will have to reduce the input
voltage until this effect is eliminated to get accurate gain measurements

5. Calculate the AC voltage gain and phase shift of the circuit at each frequency.

6. Set your signal generator to square wave output at 100 Hz with amplitude of 1
V. With this input observe and record the output waveform. Repeat at a frequency
of 500 Hz.

CALCULATIONS / GRAPHS:

Gain(dB) = 20 log (Vo/Vi)

OBSERVATION TABLE

S.No. Frequency(Hz) Vi(V) Vo(V) Gain(dB)

OBSERVATION TABLE CONSIDERING ERRORS DUE TO MEASURING
EQUIPMENTS: (CRO)

S.No Freq.(Hz Freq.(Hz Vo( Vo( Vi(V Gain(dB)m Gain(dB)m

. )+2% ) -2% V) V) - ) in ax
+2% 2%

Calculations considering component errors:

6) Calculate RFmax=RF±10%, R1min= R1±10%.
7) Calculate Vo min and Vo max
Vo min = - (RFmin / R1min)Vi min
Vo max = (1+ RFmax / R1max) V i max
8) Find theoretical avg. gain and practical average gain.
9) Then find %age error = (theoretical gain – practical gain)/theoretical gain.

Plot the graph between

5) Min. frequency and min gain

6) Min. frequency and max. gain
7) Max. frequency and min. gain
8) Max. frequency and max. gain

Conclusion:-Drawn from the results of the experiment.

Cautions:
1. All connection must be proper.
2. All connections must be tight.
3. Use the correct IC.
 Experiment 6

Title: To analyze the characteristics of instrumentation amplifier using bread

board and PSpice..

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Apparatus Specification Quantity Tolerence

1 Op amps 741 03
2 Resistor 1KΩ, 2KΩ 08 5%
3 Bread Board 01
4 Power Supply 01
5 Connecting wires As per
requirement

Theory:

An instrumentation (or instrumentational) amplifier is a type of differential amplifier that has been
outfitted with input buffers, which eliminate the need for input impedance matching and thus make the
amplifier particularly suitable for use in measurement and test equipment. Additional characteristics
include very low DC offset, low drift, low noise, very high open-loop gain, very high common-mode
rejection ratio, and very high input impedances. Instrumentation amplifiers are used where
great accuracy and stability of the circuit both short- and long-term are required.

Circuit Diagram
Frequency Input voltage Input Ooutput 20log(vo/vi )
1 K Hz (v1) voltage voltage
(v2 ) Vo

EXPERIMENT 7

Title- To analyse the functionality of triangular wave generator using IC

741

Equipments Used :

S.No. Apparatus Specification Quantity Tolerence

1 Operational 02
amplifier
LM348
2 Resistor 1KΩ, 2KΩ 03 5%
3 Capacitor 0.1µF 01
4 Bread Board 01
5 Power Supply 01
6 Connecting As per
wires requirement

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure: 1) connect the pin 2 of the operational amplifier

nd
IC 741 (i) with a
resistance r1 and pin 6 of the operational amplifier IC 2 .
st.
2) Connect a capacitor C1 between pin 2 and pin 6 of the op-amp IC 1
st nd
3) Connect the pin 6 of op-amp 1 to the oin 2 of op-amp 2 through a
resistance R2.
st nd
4) Connect a resistance R3 between pin 2 of op-amp 1 and pin 6 of op-amp 2 .
st
5) Connect the pin 3 of op-amp IC 1 to ground.
nd
6) Connect the pin 3 of op-amp IC 2 to ground.
 st
7) The output pin 6 of op-amp 1 will generate the triangular wave.

Observation:

Sr. No. R1 C1 Time Constant

Result: - The output of the first op-amp will be triangular wave .

Precautions:
4. All connections must be correct.
5. Use correct IC .
 Experiment 8

Title: To determine the frequency response of cascade amplifier Darlington

pair using bread board and PSPICE

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Apparatus Specification Quantity Tolerence

1 Transistor 04
2 Resistor Ckt Reqt 5%
3 Capacitor 40µF 02
4 Bread Board 01
5 Power Supply 20V 01
6 Connecting wires

Theory:

In electronics, the Darlington transistor (often called a Darlington pair) is a compound structure consisting
of two bipolar transistors (either integrated or separated devices) connected in such a way that the
current amplified by the first transistor is amplified further by the second one. This configuration gives a
much higher current gain than each transistor taken separately and, in the case of integrated devices, can
take less space than two individual transistors because they can use a shared collector. Integrated
Darlington pairs come packaged singly in transistor-like packages or as an array of devices (usually eight)
in an integrated circuit.

Circuit Diagram:
OBSERVATION TABLE

Frequency Output voltage Input voltage Gain 20log(vo/vi )

(f) kHz (vo) (vi ) (vo/vi )

Result and Conclusion:-Draw the frequency response.

 EXPERIMENT NO. 9

Title: To determine the frequency response of two stage RC coupled amplifier

using complementary symmetry push pull amplifier

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Apparatus Specification Quantity Tolerance

1 Transistor 05
2 Diodes 02
3 Resistor 1KΩ, 2KΩ 08 5%
4 Capacitor 0.1µF 02
5 Bread Board 01
6 Power Supply 01
7 Connecting wires As per
requirement

Circuit Diagram:

OBSERVATION TABLE

Frequency Output voltage Input voltage Gain 20log(vo/vi )

(f) (vo) (vi ) (vo/vi )

Result and Conclusion:-Draw the frequency response.

The expected frequency response will be

Cautions:
1. All connection must be proper.
2. All connections must be tight.
3. Use the correct IC.
 Experiment 10

Title: To implement phase shift oscillator using bread board and PSPICE

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Apparatus Specification Quantity Tolerence

1 Transistor 01
2 Resistor 1KΩ, 2KΩ 07 5%
3 Capacitor 0.1µF 04
4 Bread Board 01
5 Power Supply 01
6 Connecting wires As per
requirement

Theory:

A phase-shift oscillator is a simple electronic oscillator. It contains an inverting amplifier, and

a feedback filter which 'shifts' the phase of the amplifier output by 180 degrees at a specific
oscillation frequency.The filter produces a phase shift that increases with frequency. It must
have a maximum phase shift of considerably greater than 180° at high frequencies, so that the
phase shift at the desired oscillation frequency is 180°.The most common way of achieving this
kind of filter is using three identical cascaded resistor-capacitor filters, which together produce a
phase shift of zero at low frequencies, and 270 degrees at high frequencies. At the oscillation
frequency each filter produces a phase shift of 60 degrees and the whole filter circuit produces a
phase shift of 180 degrees.

Circuit Diagram:
OBSERVATION TABLE

Change the value Value of C is Frequency Frequency % error in

of R constant Calculated Observed frequenfy

Change the value Value of R is Frequency Frequency % error in

of C constant Calculated Observed frequenfy
 Experiment 11

Title: To analyze the functionality of Hartley oscillator on output frequency using

bread board and PSPICE
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Apparatus Specification Quantity Tolerence

1 Transistor 01
2 Inductance 02
3 Resistor 1KΩ, 2KΩ 03 5%
4 Capacitor 0.1µF 04
5 Bread Board 01
6 Power Supply 01
7 Connecting wires As per
requirement

Theory:

The Hartley oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses an inductor and a capacitor in
parallel to determine the frequency. Invented in 1915 by American engineer Ralph Hartley, the
distinguishing feature of the Hartley circuit is that the feedback needed for oscillation is taken
from a tap on the coil, or the junction of two coils in series. A Hartley oscillator is essentially any
configuration that uses two series-connected coils and a single capacitor. Although there is no
requirement for there to be mutual coupling between the two coil segments

Circuit Diagram:
OBSERVATION TABLE

Change the value Value of L2 is Frequency Frequency % error in

of L1 constant Calculated Observed frequenfy

Change the value Value of L1 is Frequency Frequency % error in

of L2 constant Calculated Observed frequenfy
 Experiment 12

Title: To analyze the functionality of Colpitt oscillator on output frequency using

bread board and PSPICE

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Apparatus Specification Quantity Tolerence

1 Transistor 05
2 Diodes 02
3 Resistor 1KΩ, 2KΩ 08 5%
4 Capacitor 0.1µF 02
5 Bread Board 01
6 Power Supply 01
7 Connecting wires As per
requirement

Theory:

A Colpitts oscillator, invented in 1920 by American engineer Edwin H. Colpitts, is one of a number of
designs for electronic oscillator circuits using the combination of an inductance (L) with a capacitor (C) for
frequency determination, thus also called LC oscillator. The distinguishing feature of the Colpitts circuit is
that the feedback signal is taken from a voltage divider made by two capacitors in series. One of the
advantages of this circuit is its simplicity; it needs only a single inductor.

Circuit Diagram
OBSERVATION TABLE

Change the value Value of C2 is Frequency Frequency % error in

of C1 constant Calculated Observed frequenfy

Change the value Value of C1 is Frequency Frequency % error in

of C2 constant Calculated Observed frequenfy