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Combustion and Particulate Matter Emission Characteristics
for Diesel Engine Run by Partially-Premixed Low-
Temperature Combustion Mode
Bei Liu and Xiaobei Cheng
Huazhong University of Sci. and Tech.
Jialu Liu
DFM Commercial Vehicle Technology Center
Han Pu and Li Yi
Huazhong University of Sci. and Tech.
CITATION: Liu, B., Cheng, X., Liu, J., Pu, H. et al., "Combustion and Particulate Matter Emission Characteristics for Diesel Engine
Run by Partially-Premixed Low-Temperature Combustion Mode," SAE Technical Paper 2017-01-2398, 2017, doi:10.4271/2017-01-2398.
Copyright © 2017 SAE International
Abstract
Partially-premixed low-temperature combustion avoids the soot
and NOx generation area on the Ф-T diagram to reduce both
engine NOx and soot emissions. Compared with the HCCI
combustion mode, partially-premixed combustion (PPC) has better
combustion controllability. The purpose of controlling the
combustion phase can be achieved by adjusting injection timing
and strategy. Based on a 4 cylinder turbocharged diesel engine, this
paper aims at investigating the influence of injection strategy to the
engine combustion and emission formation under the condition of
single injection and split injection PPC strategy respectively, in
which the primary purpose focus on the emission characteristics of
particles. Results show that the early-injection PPC formed by
single injection can reduce the quantity, quality and geometric
mean diameter (GMD) of particles obviously. However, when the
injection timing is too early, the number of particles will rise to the
level as the traditional mode since the concentration of particulate
matter in the nucleation region increases dramatically. The pilot
injection strategy can reduce soot emission significantly, while at
the same time, the concentration of nucleation mode particles
remains stable, which differs from single early injection PPC.
However, if the timing of the pilot injection advanced to a certain
value, the quantity, quality and GMD of particles are almost
unchanged. Increasing the proportion of pilot injection fuel to form
a higher proportion of premixed combustion, both the quantity and
quality of particles will decrease, GMD will undergo an increase-
decrease process. CO and HC emissions are very low under the
early injection PPC. While in the pre-injection strategy, the fuel
burning rate is low and many intermediate products generate, so
the CO and HC emission will increase as the pre-injection fuel
ratio increases and pre-injection timing advances.
2017-01-2398
Published 10/08/2017
Introduction
Soot emitted by the engine is extremely damaging to the environment
and human health, so the new emission regulations on the quantity
and quality of particulate matter emissions have been more stringent
[1, 2, 3]. Moreover, as people pay more and more attention to
environmental pollution problems as well as the continuous
development of engine technology. The future of particulate
emissions regulations will become increasingly harsh. The "Euro VI"
emission regulations introduce the concept of particulate number
(PN) while limiting the quality and quantity of particles. From the
start of the decomposition of the fuel into the combustion exhaust
emissions, the particulate matter undergoes the following six
processes: pyrolysis, nucleation, surface growth, coalescence,
agglomeration and oxidation [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. The resulting
particles can generally be divided into nucleation mode (Dp < 50 nm)
and accumulation mode (50 nm < Dp <1000 nm) according to the
diameter of particles [11, 12]. Nucleation mode particles are mainly
composed of volatile organic compounds, sulphate, solid carbon and
metal compounds, where the concentration of solid particles is low.
Organic compounds and inorganic compounds can be adsorbed on
the particle surface, thereby forming particles of accumulation mode
[4, 5, 13]. By the formation of conditions, the particle size
distribution range is very broad. However, the most harmful to human
health are particles with diameters below 10 μm, including inhalable
particles (PM10, coarse particles with aerodynamic diameter between
2.5 microns and 10 microns), respirable particles (PM2.5, fine
particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter between 0.1 micron
and 2.5 microns) and UFPs (ultrafine particles with aerodynamic
diameter less than 0.1 micron) [14]. These particles can breathe into
the respiratory tract, even to the lungs, and deposited by diffusion.
Studies have shown that particles with a small particle size are more
harmful to the human body, on the one hand, because the smaller the
particle size, the easier it is to enter the body's lungs and the longer
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deposition time in lungs, which will significantly increase the toxic
substances in the body; on the other hand, because the smaller the
particle size, the more complex the structure of particles, the relative
surface area is larger, easier to adsorb toxic or radioactive substances
on the surface, increasing the toxicity of particles.
Conventional diesel engine combustion controlled by fuel injection
and fuel-air mixing is a conventional diffusion combustion, which
makes a trade-off relationship between NOx and soot emissions. To
be able to reduce engine NOx and soot emissions simultaneously, the
researchers proposed a low-temperature combustion (LTC) concept
model for diesel engines, including homogeneous charge
compression ignition (HCCI) and partially premixed combustion
(PPC). Compared with the existing conventional diesel engine
conceptual model, the LTC concept model avoids the soot and NOx
generation area on the Ф-T diagram by extending the ignition delay
period of mixing fuel, increasing the fuel penetration length,
promoting the mixing of fuel and air and reducing the combustion
temperature [15, 16]. PPC combustion mode will have lower
particulate emissions compared to conventional combustion mode.
And due to the stratification of the mixture, the PPC combustion
mode has better combustion controllability compared with the HCCI
combustion mode. This mixture stratification can be controlled by
injection strategy to achieve the purpose of controlling the
combustion phase [17, 18].
On the condition of single injection strategy, through the early-
injection PPC or late-injection PPC can achieve a high proportion of
premixed combustion to achieve a cleaner combustion and meet the
more stringent emission regulations. In the Early-injection PPC, the
fuel is injected into the cylinder in the middle and late stage of
compression stroke, while in the late-injection PPC close to the top
dead center or in the early stage of power stroke, which both have a
longer ignition delay period and provide enough time to fuel-air
pre-mixing[18, 19, 20]. Izadi Najafabadi et al. [21] studied the
influence of the fuel injection time on the in-cylinder flow. The
results show that the turbulence intensity in the cylinder increases by
2 to 4 times depending on the fuel injection timing and decreases
after the injection. Wang et al. [22] have shown that the process of
fuel-air mixing is mainly controlled by the fuel injection process and
affected by the flow process in the ignition delay period as well. The
fuel-air mixing process directly determines the ignition time and the
combustion duration. Hardy et al. [23] have shown that the early-
injection and late-injection PPC combustion strategies both have a
longer ignition delay period, which contributes to the formation of a
more homogeneous mixture and no diffusion combustion is observed
on the heat release curve. Yin et al. [24]in the multi-cylinder
machine to study the PPC to achieve the conditions of high
efficiency, the results show that: most of the engine energy loss from
the heat-transfer energy and exhaust gas waste-energy; using the fuel
in the article, the PPC combustion can reach a higher indicated
efficiency when EGR rate is between 50% and 55% and the
equivalent ratio is close to 1.4. Klingbeil et al. [25] conducted an
experimental study on a heavy-duty diesel engine and found that in
the low-speed and low-load conditions, low NOx and soot emission
points occurred in the early injection or late injection and high EGR
rate conditions; in the high-speed and low-load conditions, low NOx
and soot emission points occurred in the early injection and high
EGR rate conditions. Kalghatgi, Manente et al. [26, 27] showed that
PPC combustion mode could achieve high efficiency and low
emissions at high load. Shen et al.[28] studied the PPC combustion
in a single-cylinder engine and the results show that the particulate
matter emissions decrease as the intake pressure increases and EGR
rate decreases. Price et al. [29] found that although the PPC
combustion mode can reduce the emission of particulate matter,
particles are mainly composed of accumulation mode, which makes
the particle problem of PPC combustion mode cannot be ignored.
Manente et al.[30] studied the pre-injection PPC combustion mode
by experiment and the results show that high EGR rate and the
earlier main-injection timing can effectively reduce the soot
emissions. Jain et al. [31] investigated the particulate matter
emissions of the pre-injection PPC combustion mode at a pressure of
40 MPa to 100 MPa. The results showed that the emission of
particles is the lowest when the injection pressure is 70 MPa.
In addition, the multiple-injection strategies can achieve the PPC
combustion mode by flexibly adjusting the injection timing and the
fuel ratio at each injection stage [32]. Fang et al. [33] studied the PPC
combustion mode based on multi-injection. It was found that the
mixture combustion belongs to premixed combustion when the first
injection timing is early and the injection fuel quality is low;
however, increase the fuel quality of the first injection stage and
delayed the first injection timing, the combustion mode changes from
premixed combustion to diffusion combustion. The study by Horiber
et al. [34] has shown that the two-stage combustion mode can
significantly improve engine emissions while maintaining a small
pressure rise rate by selecting the appropriate injection and EGR
conditions. Jeong et al. [35] have found that multi-injection can
significantly reduce NOx emissions compared to single injection.
Previous studies have found that the PPC combustion model can reduce
the soot emission of the diesel engine, but most of these studies
qualitatively examined the total amount of soot generated. There are still
no definite conclusions about the variation of GMD, particle number
size distribution, particle mass size distribution and so on in the PPC
combustion mode, but this kind of research is becoming more and more
important because of environmental problems and emission regulations.
In this paper, a 4-cylinder turbocharged intercooler diesel engine is used
to study the effects of different injection parameters on the combustion
heat release and emissions in the early-injection PPC and split-injection
PPC combustion mode, focusing on the impact of various parameters on
the particulate matter. Thus provide the basis for further reducing
emissions by optimizing the injection strategy, and specify the direction
to meet the increasingly stringent emission regulations.
Experimental Setup
As shown in Figure 1, the experiment was carried out on a 4-cylinder
turbocharged intercooler diesel engine. Table 1 lists the main
technical parameters of the test diesel engine. Fuel is supplied by
using a Bosch high-pressure common-rail fuel injection system,
where the fuel rail pressure, the start of injection and the injection
pulse width could be changed flexibly. the common-rail injection
system has a rail pressure capability up to 1800 bar. The engine has a
variable-geometry turbine which makes it possible to adjust the boost
pressure. The emission data recorded in the experiment included the
gaseous and particulate emissions. The gaseous emissions, including
NOx, HC and carbon dioxide (CO2), were measured by an AVL-
AMA160 gas analyzer. Fuel consumption was measured by an AVL
735S Fuel Mass Flow Meter (AVL, Graz, Austria).
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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental engine set-up
In this study, PM emissions were investigated by DMS500 MKII fast
particulate spectrometer (Cambustion Ltd.) in terms of particle-size
distribution (PSD), particle mass distribution (PMD) and the
geometric mean diameter (GMD) of particles. PM samples were
collected from the exhaust manifold. The spectrometer classified the
particles by the electrical mobility diameter from 5 to 1000 nm in 22
size classes with high time resolution. Measurement of the aerosol
size spectrum from 5nm to 1000nm includes both solid particles and
liquid droplets. It has a fully integrated two-stage dilution system.
The first diluter works at the sampling point to prevent condensation
and agglomeration issues. A rotating disc type offers a high-ratio
second dilution to allow the aerosol sampling in a very wide scope of
contents. The detected particle concentration is auto-corrected for the
dilution applied. The primary dilution was set to 5 during the engine
operation and the secondary dilution factor was chosen based on the
spectrometer user interface to ensure the particle concentration is
within the operation range of DMS500.
Table 1. Specifications of the engine used for these experiments
Figure 2 is a schematic diagram and shows the relationship between
the electrical signal of the injector used in the experiment and the
injection rate. In this paper, the pre-injection and main-injection
timing correspond to the start time of the pre-injection and main-
injection excitation signal (SOIpil, SOImain in the figure). There is a
certain interval between the actual injection rate and the excitation
signal, which is mainly due to the inertia of the system. In the
experiment, it was found that the injection lag angle between the
pre-injection and main-injection was approximately equal at the same
injection pressure, which was nearly 3 °CA under experimental
conditions of present work.
In order to study the effect of various operating parameters on
particles, NOx, fuel consumption, HC and CO in PPC combustion
mode. PPC combustion was achieved by early-injection strategy and
split-injection strategy. In the early-injection strategy, the influence of
injection pressure was studied as well. The engine speed was set to
1500 r/min and the mean effective pressure(MEP) was 0.73 MPa. In
the split-injection strategy, the main injection timing was determined
first and then in-cylinder combustion process and pollutant emissions
data under different pre-injection fuel ratio and pre-injection timing
were obtained by adjusting the excitation current pulse width of the
pre-injection, which changes the angle between the pre-injection and
the main-injection. To reduce the impact of other factors, the water
temperature of engine cooling system, intake temperature and intake
pressure were kept constant as possible during the experiment. In
addition, the ignition delay period in this paper was defined as the
duration between CA10 (the crank angle where 10% of the fuel has
been burned which are post-reconstructed from in-cylinder pressure
measurements) and the injection start time.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the relationship between the excitation current
and the injection rate
The PSD is presented by dN/dlogDp, where N is the particle number
concentration and Dp is the particle diameter. The PMD can be
calculated as follows:
(1)
where M is the particle mass concentration. And ρp is the particle
density, S is a shape factor and df is the particulate fractal dimension.
Those values were assumed to be 1.2 g/cm3, 0.524 and 3.19,
respectively [36]. The soot mass concentration measured by DMS
was calculated from a soot density of 1.2 g/cm3 as follows:
(2)
GMD is an important parameter to characterize the particle size in the
exhaust. GMD can be calculated as follows and the size range of Dp
in this equation is 5 to 1000 nm:
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(3)
Results and Discussion
Combustion and Heat Release Analysis
In the premixed combustion mode, fuel burn rate is very fast and the
combustion process is rough at high loads as well, which will cause
serious vibration and knock, so it is necessary to limit the engine
speed and load range. Therefore, this paper performed the test at the
condition of 1500 r/min and BMEP of 0.73 MPa. Figure 3 shows the
cylinder pressure and HRR under different injection timing at the
single injection strategy. The conditions were performed under the
injection pressure of 100 MPa. With the delay of the injection, the
peak pressure of the combustion gradually decreases and the peak of
the HRR decreases first and then rises. The minimum value of these
operating conditions occurs at -8 °CA ATDC. In the conventional
injection mode, the ignition delay period is very short. Because the
ignition timing (CA10) occurs before or just after the injection is
completed, premixed combustion duration is short and diffusion
combustion dominates the fuel combustion process. The combustion
reaction rate and the combustion duration depend on the physical
processes, such as transfer of heat and mass, diffusion and mixing of
the reactants. It can be seen from the heat release curve in the figure
that the diffusion combustion dominates the combustion. In the
early-injection mode, the pre-mixing period (defined as the crank
angle duration between the end of the injection and the crank angle
where 10% of the fuel has been burned) during the combustion
process is significantly longer. The long pre-mixing period favors the
uniform mixing of the premixed gas so that a relatively uniform
mixture has been formed in the cylinder before ignition, which
makes the combustion in this condition completely different from the
combustion at traditional injection timing. In this condition, the
combustion is the partially premixed combustion and the combustion
process occurs near the top dead center. The cylinder pressure and
temperature rise sharply when the mixture flow most intensely.
These promote the premixed combustion process and also lead to the
proportion of diffusion combustion process decreased. As shown in
the figure, because the combustion reaction rate is high, combustion
duration significantly reduced. In the late-injection mode (0 °CA
ATDC, 2 °CA ATDC), the mixing process is carried out at the
expansion stroke, when the pressure and temperature in the cylinder
begin to decrease, which weak the activation conditions of the
ignition reaction. In the late-injection mode, the combustion process
tends to have a longer ignition delay period, so fuel and air mix more
uniform, leading to a thinner mixture in the cylinder. This type of
late-injection combustion mode is premixed combustion and the
proportion of diffused combustion is small as well, which the peak
value of combustion pressure is much lower than that of
conventional combustion mode. Because the start of the late-
injection mode occurs during the expansion stroke of the piston, the
volumetric expansion effect and the convective heat dissipation of
the cylinder wall play a major role and the combustion phase is
generally delayed, resulting in a low combustion temperature and
pressure. But the peak value of the HRR is significantly higher than
the traditional conditions, this is mainly because the premixed
combustion mode is controlled by the chemical reaction. This kind
of premixed combustion is very rapid, resulting in higher burning
rate and HRR, the short combustion duration and decreasing of the
maximum pressure rise rate[37]. However, the over-delayed fuel
injection timing causes the fluctuation of SOC (the start of
combustion) and expansion effect causes flame quenching in local
cold-zone, resulting in misfire in those areas [38, 39], which
aggravates the SOC and the IMEP fluctuations, so the control of the
combustion phase becomes more difficult. The partially premixed
combustion mode, whose mixture concentration is control by the
timing of early or late-injections, does not occur the two-stage
combustion feature in the HCCI combustion mode [40]. In the
premixed combustion mode, low-temperature chemical reaction
duration of the first stage heat release of is very short and quickly
enters the primary combustion duration of the multi-point ignition.
Although PPC can be considered as premixed combustion in some
regions, the mixture of PPC combustion mode is far from
homogeneous in comparison with the HCCI combustion mode.
Figure 3. In-cylinder pressure and HRR under different injection timing in the
single injection mode (Injection pressure: 100 MPa, EGR rate: 30%)
The multi-injection strategies can achieve the PPC combustion mode
by adjusting the injection timing flexibly and the fuel ratio of each
injection stage. As shown in Figure 4, when the pre-injection timing
changes from -35 °CA ATDC to -75 °CA ATDC, the phase change of
the first and second stage ignition reaction in the pre-injection
combustion reaction is very small, because the fuel injected into the
cylinder under these operating conditions is mainly controlled by the
chemical reaction. When the pre-injection is delayed, the ignition of
the pre-injection mixture is primarily affected by the factors such as
the temperature of the cylinder and the distribution of the fuel. When
the pre-injection is more close to the TDC, the local equivalent ratio
of the fuel is increased which is beneficial to the ignition of the
mixture, so that the ignition delay of the pre-injection combustion
becomes shorter [41]. And if the pre-injection timing is too close to
the top dead center (as in Figure 4 when the pre-injection is -25 °CA
ATDC), heat release curve in the pre-injection phase only has a peak,
and the peak appears late compared with pre-injection at -35 °CA
ATDC ∼ -75 °CA ATDC. It was found that the effect of pre-injection
timing on the heat release process of pre-injection was less when the
pre-injection is earlier than -35 °CA ATDC. And the effect is
significantly enhanced when the pre-injection is late. The HRR
gradually changes from two peaks to only one peak when the cylinder
temperature is higher than 700K at the beginning of the injection. It
can be seen that the average temperature in the cylinder plays a
crucial role in the whole pre-injection combustion process [42]. In
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addition, when the pre-injection fuel ratio is same, the start of the
main combustion and the peak value of the heat release are not
substantially changed when the pre-injection timing is changed.
cumulative heat release in this stage also increases. Because the
pre-injection combustion can improve the temperature and pressure
of cylinder, the ignition of the main injection compared with the
single-injection will be corresponding ahead. In addition, the
combustion peak of the main injection decreases with the increase of
pre-injection fuel ratio and the peak of high heat dissipation rate
appears relatively backward.

a. In-cylinder Pressure and HRR

a. pre-injection timing: -45 °CA ATDC

b. In-cylinder Temperature

Figure 4. In-cylinder pressure, temperature and HRR under different

pre-injection timing (injection pressure:100 MPa, pre-injection fuel ratio:0.5,
EGR rate:30%)
b. pre-injection timing: -25 °CA ATDC
Figure 5 shows the cylinder pressure and the HRR of pre-injection
timing of -45 °CA ATDC and -25 °CA ATDC, respectively, under Figure 5. In-cylinder pressure and HRR under different pre-injection fuel ratio
different pre-injection fuel ratio at. The increase of pre-injection can (injection pressure:100 MPa, EGR rate:30%)
shorten the duration of the main injection, thus reducing the
When the pre-injection timing is -25 °CA ATDC, the HRR curve of
proportion of diffusion combustion. And pre-injection combustion
pre-injection has only one peak due to the fact that the in-cylinder
provides a better thermal atmosphere and enhances cylinder airflow
temperature is above 700K when injection. In addition, the peak
disturbance for the primary combustion, thereby promotes the main
value of HRR increases with the increase of pre-injection fuel ratio,
combustion. When the pre-injection timing is -45 °CA ATDC, the
but the changed degree of peak position is less than that of -45 °CA
two-stage ignition phenomenon is obvious and the first stage
ATDC. Under the same pre-injection fuel ratio, the in-cylinder
exothermic peak in pre-injection is near the -20 °CA ATDC.
pressure is higher when the pre-injection timing is -25 °CA ATDC.
Meanwhile, the position of the peak will not change with the
modification of pre-injection. Similarly, the position will not change
The peak cylinder pressure of two different pre-injection timing both
with the change of pre-injection fuel quantity. The phenomenon of
increases with the increase of pre-injection fuel ratio. However, the
heat release is called “cool-flame reaction”. When the temperature
peak pressure phase is almost constant and near the top dead center.
rises to about 700K, the cold-flame reaction began to occur [43, 44,
The maximum cylinder pressure difference (compared the maximum
45]. In the case where the operating conditions of the engine are
cylinder pressure peak between -25 °CA ATDC and -45 °CA ATDC
substantially the same, the temperature and pressure in the cylinder
under the same pre-injection fuel ratio) also increased. Because the
are substantially the same before inject, so that the position of the
pre-injection combustion determines the peak pressure in the
first stage of the combustion of the pre-injection combustion does not
cylinder, the overall combustion heat dissipation phase of the
change with the change of pre-injection fuel. The peak of the HRR at
pre-injection combustion process is closer to the top dead center
this stage increases slightly with the increase of pre-injection fuel
when the pre-injection is -25 °CA ATDC. Resulting in a higher
ratio. When pre-injection fuel ratio increases, the HRR’s peak of the
cylinder pressure and causing a stronger engine vibration.
second stage of the pre-injection combustion increases and the crank
angle of the peak appears correspondingly ahead as well. The
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Analysis of Particulate Matter Emissions

As can be seen from Figure 6a, when the injection timing is -8 to -2
°CA ATDC in the conventional injection mode, the total amount of
particulate matter is higher. This is due to the fact that the fuel is
rapidly vaporized by the high-temperature and high-pressure
environment in the cylinder when the fuel is injected, resulting in a
shorter ignition delay period and the subsequent premixed
combustion phase is very short as well. Most of the fuel does not
have enough time to pre-mix, which makes a large amount of soot
during the diffusion combustion phase. The total amount of
particulate matter is at a high level [39, 46, 47, 48, 49]. At an
injection time of -5 °CA ATDC, the total number of particles reaches
2.5×107 N/cc, which is the maximum value for the all test groups. In
previous studies, it was found that early or delayed injection will a. Total number and Total mass
form partially premixed combustion, which would drastically
decrease the soot opacity, due to the fact that the SOC begins after the
entire injection and the fuel has a long time to pre-mix. In the
early-injection or late-injection PPC mode, the initial decomposition
reaction of premixed combustion is carried out very slowly, so that
the fuel can be further mixed during the reaction in the first ignition
stage. Under these conditions, the mixing of fuel and air is more
uniform and the fuel-rich areas are smaller, which are usually
sensitive regions for the formation of soot precursors, so the opacity
in the PPC mode is obviously reduced [39, 50, 51, 52]. However, it is
clear that opacity can only qualitatively describe the law of
particulate matter emissions and can not specify the distribution of
particle number and mass in the emissions.
b. Particle number size distributions
When the injection timing is later than -2 °CA ATDC, the total
amount of particulate matter decreases rapidly with the injection
timing. When the injection timing is 0 °CA ATDC, the total number is
5.7×106 N/cc, which is the lowest value of the all test groups. Starting
from -5 °CA ATDC, there will be a significant decrease of the total
concentration of the injection timing. The total injection
concentration is 7.1 × 106 N/cc when the injection timing is -13 °CA
ATDC. After that, if the fuel injection timing is further advanced, the
total amount of particulate matter begins to rise again. It can be seen
from the Figure that the total amount of particulate matter
concentration increases abruptly and even closes to the total
concentration value of the traditional injection timing when the
injection timing is -20 °CA ATDC.
c. GMD
The total mass concentration of the particle size is generally the same
as the change trend of the injection timing and the total amount
concentration. In the conventional injection mode (injection timing is
-8 ∼ -2 °CA ATDC), the total mass of the particles concentration is at
a high level. At the injection timing of -5 °CA ATDC, the total mass
concentration of the particulates reaches 0.0143 μg/cc, which is the
highest total mass concentration for the all test groups. When the
injection timing is advanced or the injection timing is delayed, the
total mass concentration decreases rapidly. The total mass
concentration reaches a minimum level of 0.0027 μg/cc, when the
injection timing is 0 °CA ATDC. However, before the injection
timing is advanced to -13 °CA ATDC, the mass concentration does
not appear as a process of recovery in the number concentration, but
rather a slightly lower trend.
d. Particle mass size distributions

Figure 6. Emission Characteristics of Particulate Matter at Different Injection

Timing under Single Injection Strategy (injection pressure: 100 MPa; EGR
rate: 30%)
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It can be seen from the particle size distribution of the particles at
different injection times in Figure 6b. The morphological similarity of
-13 °CA ATDC-0 °CA ATDC size distribution curve is high and these
the extreme points of the distribution of operating conditions appear
in accumulation mode (Dp is about 90 nm). However, when the
injection timing is further advanced, it is found that the extreme
points of the quantitative concentration distribution appear in the
nucleation region (Dp is about 25 nm), indicating that the particulate
matter is finer. In the normal injection mode (-8 ∼ -2 °CA ATDC), the
concentration of Dp < 40 nm in the nucleation region is basically
unchanged. The concentration of particulate matter in the nucleation
region will decrease significantly after slightly advance or delay the
injection timing (at -13 °CA ATDC and 0 °CA ATDC, respectively).
However, if the injection timing is further advanced to -16 °CA
ATDC or even -20 °CA ATDC, the concentration of particulate matter
in the nucleation region will increase drastically. In the nucleation
region, the peak concentration is not obvious. In the agglomerated
region, the maximum concentration of particles at the conventional
injection timing (-5 °CA ATDC) is 4.2 × 107 N / cc, which is the
highest value for the all test groups. The concentration of particulate
matter in the agglomerated area rapidly decreases with the injection
timing (-20 °CA ATDC ∼ -8 °CA ATDC) or delayed (0 °CA ATDC ∼
-2 °CA ATDC). However, the concentration distribution curve of the
particles in the accumulation mode moves clearly to the right (the
peak concentration of the accumulation mode moves to the right) in
the early-injection PPC (-13 to -20 °CA ATDC). The number of
accumulation mode particles is smaller in the early injection model,
but the average particle size is getting bigger.
Figure 6c shows the effect of injection timing on the particle size. It
can be seen that GMD has always been at a high level and a slow
decreased tendency with the delay of injection timing when injection
timing is between -13∼ 0 °CA ATDC. However, when injection
timing advances to -20 ∼ 16 °CA ATDC, GMD rapidly reduces to
around 30 nm and has a tendency to continue to decline with the
advance of injection timing, which indicates that the early-injection
PPC mode can miniaturize the emission particles. Generally, the
accumulation mode particles are composed of carbonaceous
agglomerates formed by adsorption, condensation and coalescence of
the primary particles. And this kind of substance is normally
generated in the local fuel-rich region at diffusion combustion phase.
With the advance of injection timing, ignition delay period is
lengthened and premixed combustion is enhanced as well. Meanwhile
the combustion speed is accelerated. This favors the oxidation of soot
particles and inhibits the surface growth of the particles. And the fine
particle distribution is sparser, reducing particle collision
condensation and PAH deposition. Therefore, when injection timing
is in this range, the soot particles are mainly in nucleation mode. In
addition, when the injection timing is advanced too early, the
in-cylinder pressure and temperature would be relatively lower.
Under this condition, the injection resistance is smaller, the crushing
capacity of oil droplets decreases and the amount of oil that hits the
cylinder wall relatively increases. Meanwhile, the ignition delay
becomes longer which lead to more unburned fuel escaping to the
boundary layer. All of these are the important factors that result in the
significant increase of nucleation mode particles.
Figure 6d is the particle mass concentration-size distribution at
different injection timing, which shows that the mass concentration
curve is double peak form and the first peaks are at the range of
40∼300 nm while the second peaks are at around 1000 nm. When the
injection timing changes from -20 °CA ATDC to 0 °CA ATDC, the
position of the first peak moves to the left (from 205 nm to 115 nm).
And in the range of 40∼300 nm, when the injection timing is -5 °CA
ATDC, the whole curve is at the highest position. If the injection
timing is advanced or delayed, the curve would rapidly decline.
Under this operating conditions group, the mass concentrations of
particles whose size are between 0 ∼ 40 nm and 300 ∼ 400 nm in the
emission are close to 0.
As can be seen from Figure 7a, under the same pre-injection fuel
ratio, the change trend of particles number concentration along with
the change of injection timing is similar. The largest total number
concentration of particles appears when the pre-injection timing is
- 25 °CA ATDC. The concentration decreases gradually with the
advance of the timing, but the decrease is slight. When the pre-
injection timing is -45 °CA ATDC, if the timing is advanced
continually, the total number concentration of particles almost
unchanged. And it decreased by 25% compared with -25 °CA ATDC.
When the pre-injection timing is constant, the total number
concentration of particles is affected obviously with the fuel ratio
changed. With the increase of the pre-injection fuel ratio, the particle
total number concentration is decreased significantly. When the fuel
ratio is 0, which is no pre-injection, the total mass concentration
ranges between the fuel ratio of 0.2 to 0.3. This is due to the fact that
the cold flame reaction stage in pre-injection will make the cylinder
temperature and pressure both add before the main injection. When
the main injection fuel is injected into the cylinder, because of the
ignition effect of the pre-injection, it can be ignited in a shorter
ignition delay period and shorten the ignition delay period of the
main injection, which can reduce the combustion temperature and
make the main injection combustion soft. It is also conducive to fuel
atomization uniformity and can reduce the emissions of particles.
When the pre-injection fuel ratio is smaller, the ignition effect of the
pre-injection is insufficient to make up for the particles produced
formed by itself, so that the total number concentration of particles
will increase. When the pre-injection fuel ratio reaches a certain
value, the effect of the pre-injection effect can make up for pre-
injection fuel production. Continuing to increase pre-injection fuel
ratio, particle emissions is significantly reduced and achieve the effect
of emission reduction.
It can be seen from Figure 7b that the change tendency of the total
mass concentration of the particles with the variation of the injection
timing is the same as that of the change of the number concentration.
They both get the largest value at the pre-injection timing of -25 °CA
ATDC and gradually decrease with the advance of the pre-injection,
but the magnitude of decrease is not significant. When the pre-
injection timing reaches -45 °CA ATDC, the mass concentration of
the particles almost unchanged if the pre-injection timing is further
advances. When the pre-injection timing is constant, with the increase
of the pre-injection fuel ratio, the total mass concentration of the
particles will have a slightly decrease. the maximum value appears in
the pre-injection fuel ratio of 0.2. When the pre-injection fuel ratio is
increased to 0.5, the total mass concentration will reduce to a very
low level. When the pre-injection fuel ratio is 0, the total mass
concentration of the particulate matter is lower than the majority of
test conditions.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, August 02, 2018

a. Total number a. Particle number size distributions

b. Total mass b. GMD

Figure 7. Emission characteristics of particulate matter under different

pre-injection and pre-injection fuel ratios

It can be found that the number concentrations under no pre-injection

mode is more than that of the most pre-injection conditions, but the
mass concentration is smaller. After comparing the total number
concentration and total mass concentration of particles, we can
conclude that the pre-injection strategy will increase the diameter of
particles. It is also found that the number concentration and the mass
concentration in the test conditions can simultaneously achieve a
lower level when the pre-injection fuel ratio is 0.5.

It can be seen from Figure 8a that the shape of the particle size
distribution curve is similar. Under different conditions, the
number concentration of the particles is almost the same in the
nucleation state, while the peak values appear in the accumulation
region. When the pre-injection timing is -25 °CA ATDC, the peak
value of the peak is 1.8 × 107 N / cc, which is the highest for all the
test groups. When the pre-injection is advanced to -35 °CA ATDC,
the number of peak concentration will significantly decrease to
1.2x107 N/cc. And then pre-injection continues to be advanced, the
peak of number concentration almost unchanged. In addition, when
the pre-injection is -25 °CA ATDC, the peak position appears at
100 nm. The peak position falls to around 87 nm if the injection
timing continued to be advanced. This also determines the GMD
variation in Figure 8b. When the pre-injection timing is -25 °CA
ATDC, GMD gets the maximum value of 82 nm for all the test
groups. When pre-injection is advanced to -35 °CA ATDC, GMD
reduces to 72 nm. If the pre-injection is further advanced, GMD
almost unchanged.
c. Particle mass size distributions
Figure 8. Emission characteristics of particulate matter with different
pre-injection timing (pre-injection timing: -2 °CA ATDC; pre-injection fuel
ratio: 0.5; EGR rate: 30%)
As can be seen from Figure 8c, the mass distribution of the particles
at each injection timing is mainly concentrated in the range of 60 nm
to 300 nm and the proportion of other ranges is small. The regularity
of peak value of mass concentration with the variation of pre-
injection timing is basically the same as that of the number
concentration and they both get the largest value at -25 °CA ATDC,
reaching 0.0325 μg/cc. The pre-injection is advanced to -35 °CA
ATDC and earlier, the mass concentration is maintained at about
0.0175 μg/cc. This is due to the fact that the pre-injection has little
effect on the particle size distribution. From the above, we can see
that when the main injection and pre-injection interval angle is small,
the ignition effect of pre-injection is not very obvious, meanwhile, the
main combustion stage of the particulate matter oxidation and surface
growth inhibition is not enough, resulting in a larger number of
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, August 02, 2018
particles. The effect of the pre-injection interval on the oxidation and
surface growth of the particles will be substantially enhanced and the
number of particles will be significantly less when the interval angle
increases. However, for a particular value and then continue to
increase the interval angle, the number of particles will keep a less
level but remain in a certain range.
a. Particle number size distributions
b. GMD
c. Particle mass size distributions
Figure 9. Emission characteristics of particulate matter with different
pre-injection fuel ratio (pre-injection timing: -2 °CA ATDC; pre-injection
timing: -25 °CA ATDC; EGR rate: 30%)
It can be seen from Figure 9a that the distribution of the number
concentration of particles under different pre-injection fuel ratio is
similar and the mass concentration of the particles under different
working conditions in the nucleation state are roughly the same,
keeping in a low level. The peaks of particle size distribution appear
in the accumulation mode region. The maximum peak value of
number concentration is 5.5×107 N/cc, when the pre-injection fuel
ratio is 0.1. The peak value decreases rapidly as the pre-injection
fuel ratio increases, when the pre-injection fuel ratio is 0.5, it is 1.8
× 107 N / cc. In addition, the peak position changes with the
increase of pre-injection fuel ratio, which is basically maintained at
around 100 nm. The number concentration distribution directly
determines the change rule of GMD in Figure 9b. GMD gets the
large value at pre-injection fuel ratio of 0.2 and 0.3, which is about
95 nm. GMD both decreases when pre-injection fuel ratio increases
or decreases. The increase or decrease in the fuel ratio of the pilot
injection, GMD will reduce. For the decrease due to reducing the
fuel ratio of the pilot injection, the reason is that the peak value of
the number concentration shifts towards the small particle size,
while the reason for the decrease caused by the increase in the fuel
ratio of the pilot injection is the relatively lower peak value of the
number concentration.
As can be seen from Figure 9c, the mass distribution of different
pre-injection fuel ratios is concentrated in the region of 60-300 nm
and the peak of mass concentration appears to shift to the right with
the increase of the pre-injection fuel ratio. The peak of mass
concentration is 177 nm under the pre-injection fuel ratio of 0.1 and
205 nm under 0.5. The peak value of the mass concentration first rise
and fall down with the rising of the pre-injection fuel ratio and the
maximum value is 0.08 μg/cc when the pre-injection fuel ratio is 0.2.
According to the analysis above, it can be seen that the effect of
pre-injection fuel ratio on the amount of particulate matter is more
significant with a pre-injection timing of -25 °CA ATDC and a main
injection timing of -2 °CA ATDC. The number of particles decreases
obviously with the increase of pre-injection fuel ratio. This is due to
the fact that, with a high pre-injection fuel ratio, the ignition effect of
the pre-injection is more significant and the duration of the main
injection is shortened, so that the fuel and air mix more uniform and
the proportion of diffusion combustion reduces, resulting in the soot
emissions reduction.
NOx Emissions Analysis
Figure 10. NOx emission characteristic according to pre-injection timing and
fuel ratio (The dotted line represents the single injection mode, and the solid
line represents the split-injection mode; pre-injection timing: -2 °CA ATDC,
injection pressure:100 MPa, EGR rate: 30%)
NOx generated inside the engine is generally thermal NO, which is
mainly formed through the extended Zeldovich mechanism reaction of
O2, O radical, OH radical on the flame front and N2 in the gas. And
Its generation path generally needs the temperature higher than
1850K. Although the quality of the particulate matter emissions in the
early-injection PPC mode is very low, the maximum average
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, August 02, 2018

combustion temperature in the early-injection PPC mode is

significantly increased due to the excessive release of fuel heat in the
compression stroke caused by the excessively advanced entire fuel
injection process. So in the early-injection PPC mode, the NOx
generation rate is higher than the conventional injection mode with the
same EGR rate (thermal NO generation rate increases exponentially
with temperature [40]). In addition, the high-temperature residence
time of the combustion mixture will be longer, so that the effective
generation time of the early-injection PPC mode is about three times
that of the conventional injection mode [53, 54, 55, 56]. So the NOx
emissions are significantly increased as the fuel injection timing is
advanced. It is mean that the early-injection PPC mode is only a rough
implementation of the premixed combustion in the paper. In order to
solve the problem of high NOx emissions in the early-injection PPC a. HC
mode, it is necessary to further increase the EGR rate by more than
50%[57, 58], which will inevitably cause the combustion deterioration
and further increase the fuel consumption rate.

By contrast, the use of pre-injection method can reduce the soot

emission and control the formation of NOx emission at the same time.
As can be seen from Figure 10, NOx emissions in the pre-injection
method are at a low level, which is quite equal to that in a single
injection strategy under the injection timing of -2 °CA ATDC. In the
conditions of earlier pre-injection timing, NOx emissions are even lower
than the single injection. At the same pre-injection fuel ratio, the NOx
emissions decreases significantly when the pre-injection timing changes
from -25 °CA ATDC to -35 °CA ATDC, When the pre-injection timing
is further advanced, the rate of decline becomes slow. At the same
pre-injection timing, the NOx emissions rises with the increase of
pre-injection fuel ratio. When the pre-injection timing is too forward,
changing the pre-injection fuel ratio and pre-injection timing will affect
the main combustion temperature and the fuel space distribution, but
NOx emissions is small. When the pre-injection timing is earlier than
-50 °CA ATDC, it can be found that NOx emissions under different
pre-injection fuel ratios tends to have a constant value that is very close
to the emission value of single injection. It can be seen that the effect of
pre-injection premixed combustion on the generation of soot is greater
than that of NOx. The NOx mainly depends on the high-temperature
turbulent combustion of the main injection. Therefore, the NOx
reduction can be further restricted by increasing the EGR rate.
HC and CO Emission Analysis
On the condition of single injection strategy, CO emissions are very
low under the early injection PPC. This is mainly due to the higher
average combustion temperature and faster oxidation rate in the early
injection PPC [59]. As can be seen from Figure 11, when using
split-injection strategies, a large number of intermediate products
(including HC, CO) are formed in the pre-injection stage due to the fact
that the cylinder temperature is low. Most of the intermediate products
are further oxidized in the main combustion stage. When pre-injection
timing is advanced, the CO emissions significantly increases. The CO
emissions increased by about 10 times when pre-injection timing
changes from -25 °CA ATDC to -75 °CA ATDC. When pre-injection
timing remains the same, CO emissions decrease as pre-injection fuel
ratio increases. The trend of HC emissions is roughly the same, only
when pre-injection timing is earlier than -30 °CA ATDC, HC emissions
increase as the pre-injection fuel ratio increases.
b. CO
Figure 11. HC and CO emission characteristic according to pre-injection
timing and fuel ratio (The dotted line represents the single injection mode, and
the solid line represents the split-injection mode; pre-injection timing: -2 °CA
ATDC, injection pressure:100MPa, EGR rate: 30%)
HC and CO emissions are mainly due to the incomplete
combustion of fuel and there are many reasons for the phenomenon
of incomplete combustion. Advancing the pre-injection timing can
strengthen the mixing effect of pre-injection fuel, promoting the
uniformity of the mixture in pre-injection stage further enhance. As
a result, the flame temperature is low in pre-injection stage. A large
number of intermediate products cannot be burnt out. These
intermediates come into the clearance volume or in the vicinity of
cold wall, then the combustion quenching phenomenon is hard to
avoid. In addition, the temperature and pressure are low in the
cylinder when the pre-injection timing is advanced. So the fuel
penetration length is long, which will exacerbate the phenomenon
of fuel hit the wall and form the so-called " fuel wall films "[47].
This will also aggravate the generation of HC. As a result, HC and
CO emissions will increase at the same time when advancing the
pre-injection timing. And at the same pre-injection timing,
increasing the pre-injection fuel ratio can increase the equivalent
ratio of the mixture in the pre-injection stage, which can enhance
the oxidation of the carbonated intermediate species, which also
determines CO emissions. In addition, the average combustion
temperature in the cylinder plays a key role in the oxidation of CO
and HC.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, August 02, 2018
Economic Analysis
Figure 12. Fuel consumption rate characteristic according to pre-injection
timing and fuel ratio (The dotted line represents the single injection mode, and
the solid line represents the split-injection mode; pre-injection timing: -2 °CA
ATDC, injection pressure:100MPa, EGR rate: 30%)
The fuel consumption rate is affected by many factors, such as
combustion efficiency, effective expansion ratio [60], crank angle
corresponding to the maximum burst pressure, CA50(the crank angle
corresponding to the cumulative heat release of 50%) [61], burning
and radiating rate. And these factors are also interrelated. Changing
the pre-injection timing and pre-injection fuel ratio usual will make
the above factors change. It was found that when the single injection
strategy is used, the fuel consumption rate decreases first rise and fall
down when fuel injection timing changes from -20∼0 °CA ATDC.
When the injection timing is -13 °CA ATDC, the fuel consumption
rate reaches the minimum value. In the case of a single injection
strategy, the CA50 generally determines the effective expansion ratio
when the instantaneous exothermic rate is similar. So the location of
the CA50 can greatly affect the fuel economy of engine. When CA50
appears at the earlier position before the top dead center, the fuel
consumption will greatly increase due to the increase in the
compression phase of the work. With a single injection, the fuel
economy is the best when the injection timing is -13 °CA ATDC,
where CA50 appears at 3 °CA ATDC.
Figure 12 shows the change of fuel consumption with the pre-injection
timing at different pre-injection fuel ratios. It can be seen from the
Figure that when the pre-injection timing is -25 °CA ATDC, the fuel
consumption rate decreases compared with the single injection and as
the pre-injection ratio increases, the rate of decline increases. When
the pre-injection is -25 °CA ATDC, the pre-injection combustion is
near the top dead center and the temperature inside the cylinder
significantly increases after pre-injection, which also causes the main
combustion to be advanced, so that the overall combustion phase is
closer to the top dead center, which improves the limited expansion
ratio. So the fuel consumption rate will decline. However, if the
pre-injection is continued advancing, the pre-injection phase will be
further away from the top dead center, which will significantly
increase the negative load in the compression phase, resulting in the
increase of the fuel consumption rate. Moreover, the overall
combustion phase is continued advancing as the pre-fuel ratio
increases, so the fuel consumption rate will also increase significantly.
However, when the pre-injection timing is earlier than -35 °CA ATDC,
the change in the pre-injection phase is not obvious after the pre-
injection timing is changed. Therefore, when the pre-injection fuel
ratio is the same, the change of fuel consumption rate is not apparent
when the pre-injection timing is continued advancing.
Conclusions
1. Pre-injection combustion generally has two-stage ignition
phenomenon, in which the first stage is the cold-flame reaction.
The HRR peak position at this stage does not change with
the variation of the fuel injection ratio. Moreover, when the
pre-injection timing is advanced to a fixed crank angle, the
pre-injection timing has little effect on the first ignition. If the
in-cylinder temperature is higher than 700K at the beginning
of the pre-injection, the heat release rate curve of pre-injection
changed from double peaks to single one. The second stage
ignition increases with the increase of the pre-injection fuel
ratio. The change of the pre-injection fuel ratio and timing have
little influence on the start of the main combustion.
2. Under the traditional injection timing in the single injection
strategy, the total mass concentration and number concentration
are relatively high. The particles are mainly accumulation
mode, so the GMD is at a high level. Advancing or delaying the
injection timing in a certain range, the total number concentration
will decrease. But if the injection timing is further advanced, the
total number concentration will obviously rise and the maximum
value of the particle size distribution appears the nucleation mode
region, which indicates that the particles become finer.
3. When the pre-injection fuel ratio is the same, the maximum
value of the total number and mass concentration of the particles
both appears at the pre-injection timing of -25 °CA ATDC.
With the advance of the pre-injection timing, the concentration
decreased slightly. With the increase of the pre-injection fuel
ratio, the total number concentration of particulate matter
decreased obviously, while the total mass concentration
increased slightly and then decreased significantly. And the
maximum value appears when the pre-injection fuel ratio
is 0.2. The split-injection strategy will shift the particle size
distribution to the right and the GMD becomes larger as well.
4. The maximum number concentration and mass concentration
in the split injection strategy are both in the accumulation
mode region. With the advance of the pre-injection timing, the
peak value of the particle-size distribution decreases. With the
increase of the pre-injection fuel ratio, the peak value of number
concentration decreases rapidly, while the peak value of mass
concentration increases first and then decreases.
5. The NOx emission is higher in the early-injection PPC mode
under the single injection strategy. By contrast, the split strategy
can control PM and NOx emissions simultaneously. The CO and
HC emissions are lower in the early-injection PPC mode, while
the HC and CO emissions increase with the advance of the
pre-injection timing in the split strategy. The fuel consumption
rate increases sharply due to the increase of negative work of
the compression stroke in the early-injection PPC mode. And
the fuel consumption rate increases slightly with the advance of
pre-injection timing and the pre-injection fuel ratio.
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Acknowledgments
This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (NO. 51576083).

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