840 Ii

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 1
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Course: Educational Psychology
Code: 840
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Assignment: 02
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Final Date of
Submission: 15-04-2020
IMPLICATIONS OF MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS 2
Q.No.1 Discuss educational implications of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Also

differentiate between primary and secondary needs.
Answer: Abraham Maslow (1908 –1970) developed a theory of personality that has
influenced a number of different fields, including education. This wide influence is due in part to
the high level of practicality of Maslow's theory. This theory accurately describes many realities
of personal experiences.
The study of human behavior has always been an interesting field of study. The questions
of why people behave in certain ways have always been a mystery to us. Known as the Father of
Humanistic Psychology, Abraham Maslow has rejected the idea that human behavior is
controlled by only internal or external forces. Instead, Maslow’s motivation theory states that
man’s behavior is controlled by both internal and external factors. He also emphasizes that
humans have the unique ability to make choices and exercise free-will. His studies have led him
to believe that people have certain needs which are unchanging and genetic in origin. These
needs are also the same all cultures and are both physiological and psychological. Some even
noted that Maslow’s hierarchy follows the life cycle – from a newborn baby to an adult. Maslow
has introduced his Theory of Human Motivation which basically can be divided into two types,
the Basic needs and the Growth Needs. The Basic Needs includes the physiological needs and
the safety needs.
A Theory of Human Motivation
Further Characteristics of The Basic Needs:
There are certain conditions which are immediate prerequisites for the basic needs
satisfactions. Danger to these is reacted to almost as if it were a direct danger to the basic needs
themselves. Physiological needs are the biological needs of the human being for air, water, food,
shelter and so on. These are the needs that human being will seek for and satisfy before the other
needs in the growth needs will emerge. Physiological needs are the human instinct to survive.
For example, a hungry person will be satisfied with a hearty meal, but will also be thinking of the
next meal. A working person will not be satisfied with the present pay check. Instead, he will be
focusing on the next pay check in order to satisfy his needs to ensure his income. Human tends to
have the hoarding behavior such as eating or drinking too much because they are afraid that they
might not have another meal next time.
When all physiological needs are satisfied and no longer controlling thoughts and
behaviors, the needs for security can become active. Adults have little awareness of their needs
for security except in times of emergency or periods of disorganization in the social structure.
The feature of the needs for safety can be seen clearly in infants. In infants, we can see a much
more direct reaction to bodily illnesses of various kinds. Sometimes these illnesses seem to be
immediate and per se threatening and seem to make the child feel unsafe. Another indication of
the child’s needs for safety is his preference for some kind of undisrupted routine or rhythm. He
seems to want a predictable, orderly world. For instance, injustice, unfairness or inconsistency in
the parents seems to make the child feel anxious and unsafe. Confronting the average child with
new, unfamiliar stimuli or situations will too frequently elicit the danger or terror reaction, as for
example, getting lost or even separated from the parents for a short while, being confronted with
new faces, new situations or new tasks. Particularly at such times, the child’s frantic clinging to
his parents is eloquent testimony to their role as their protectors.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS:
Maslow’s great insight was to place actualization into a hierarchy of motivation. Maslow
also presents a hierarchy of needs which can be divided into growth needs. One must satisfy
lower basic needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs. One these needs
have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level called self-
actualization.
Physiological needs are biological needs. Human beings need for sleep and rest, food,
drink, shelter, sex and oxygen. A new born baby’s needs are almost entirely physiological. As
the baby grow, it needs safety, then love. Teenagers are anxious about social needs, young adults
are concerned with esteem and only more mature people transcend the first four levels to spend
much time self-actualizing.
One of the interesting things Maslow noticed while he worked with monkeys early in his
career, was that some needs take the precedence over other. He noted that in the physiological
needs that including sex needs, sex is powerful than any of these needs.
Every individual is capable, and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of
self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by failure to meet lower level needs.
Life experiences including divorce and loss of job may cause an individual to fluctuate between
levels of the hierarchy. Maslow noted that only one in ten individuals become fully self-
actualized because our society rewards motivation primarily based on esteem, love and other
social needs.
The second needs of Maslow hierarchy is safety needs which crucial for infants. This
need can achieve by affects perception, job talk, deprivation and pathology. Adults have little
awareness of their security needs excepts in times of emergency of periods of disorganization in
the social structure. Children often display the signs of insecurity and the need to be safe. Adults’
safety needs perhaps more efficiency by observation of infants and children, in whom these
needs are much more simple and obvious.
In infants we can also see a much more direct reaction to bodily illness of various kinds.
Sometimes these illness seem to make the child feel unsafe. Thus a child who because of some
bad food is taken ill may, for a day or two, develop fear, nightmares, and a need for protection
and reassurance never seem in him before his illness. Safety needs important for the children to
grow and the central role of parents and the normal family setup are indisputable.
The healthy, normal, fortunate adult in our culture is largely satisfied in his safety needs.
The peaceful, smoothly running, good society ordinary makes its members feel safe enough from
wild animals, extremes of temperature, criminals, assault and murder and tyranny. Therefore, in
a very no longer feels sense, he no longer has any safety needs as active motivators.
Maslow’s hierarchy in Growth needs includes the need for love and belonging, esteem,
understanding and knowledge, aesthetics and self-actualization. In the levels of these five needs,
the person does not feel the second need until the demands of the first have been satisfied or the
third until the second has been satisfied, and so on.
When the needs for safety and physiological well-being are satisfied, the next class of
needs for love, affection, and belongingness can emerge. Maslow states that people seek to
overcome feelings of loneliness and alienation. This involves both giving and receiving love,
affection and the sense of belonging. For example, a person will seek for the sense of love and
belongingness in relationships. Human beings need for friends, a sweetheart, children,
affectionate relationships in general, even a sense of community. For example, in our day to day
life, we exhibit these needs in our desires to marry, have a family and be a part of community.
When the basic needs and the needs for love and belongingness are fulfilled, the needs
for esteem can become dominant. There are two components in this need for esteem. These
involve self respect, which includes the desire for confidence, competence, adequacy, and
achievements. The second would be the need to respect of others which includes the desire for
acceptance, reputation, appreciation, status, and prestige.
Humans have a need for a stable, firmly based, high-level of self-respect, and respect
from others. When these needs are satisfied, the person feels self-confident and valuable as a
person in the world. When these needs are frustrated, the person feels inferior, weak, helpless
and worthless.
The next need in the hierarchy is the need for understanding and knowledge. A person
will want to satisfy his curiosity, to explore, discover, find solutions, and look for relationships
and meaning and to seek intellectual challenges. This is a need which can be seen in good
students or employees. Human will seek to improve themselves if they have satisfied their other
more basic needs. Also freedom oaf inquiry and expression have been discussed as preconditions
of satisfactions of the basic needs. Thus to improve, the need for understanding and knowledge
will emerge. This postulation, however, is not enough. Even after we know, we are impelled to
know more and more minutely and microscopically on the one hand, and on the other, more and
more extensively in the direction of a world philosophy and religion.
Another need which will emerge is the need for aesthetics. This is a need for beauty in a
person’s surrounding. For example, a person who has achieved his other needs can be said to
have led a comfortable life. Thus he will require for more beautiful things in life such as a
beautiful house and garden. Peoples need for beauty, order and symmetry in art, music and
literature. We might even loud rock music to be annoying.
The last and the highest level in the Maslow’s hierarchy is the need for self-actualization.
When all the foregoing needs are satisfied, then and only then there are the needs for self-
actualization activated. Maslow describes self-actualization as a person’s needs to be and do
things which the person is ‘born to do’. For example, a musician must make music, an artist must
paint, and a poet must write. These needs make themselves feel the signs of restlessness. The
person feels on edge, tense, lacking something, in short, restless. If a person is hungry, unsafe,
not loved or accepted, or lacking self-esteem, it is very easy to know what the person is restless
about. However, it is not always clear what a person wants when there is a need for self-
actualization. In short, the needs for self-actualization are the need for growth, development and
utilization of potential, to become all that one can be and self-fulfillment.
Maslow points out that the hierarchy is dynamic; the dominant need is always shifting.
He notes that a satisfied need no longer motivates. This highly popular theory strikes most
people as intuitively right.
The hierarchy theory is often represented as a pyramid, with larger, lower levels
representing the lower needs, and the upper point representing the need for self-actualization.
The hierarchy does not exist by itself, but is affected by the situation and the general culture.
Maslow believes that the only reason that people would not move well in the direction of self-
actualization is because of hindrances placed in their way by the society. He states that education
is one of these hindrances. He recommends ways education can switch from its usual person
stunting tactics to person-growing approaches. Maslow states that educators should respond to
the potential an individual has for growing into a self-actualizing person of his/her kind.
IMPORTANCE OF THE THEORY
1. Teachers’ Role
2. Importance for Students
Maslow’s theory explains that individuals are driven by needs like safety, respect, and
esteem. They construct individual value systems that relate to these needs. As needs are met,
individual can explore higher levels of gratification and values change of clarify. Adults pass
values on to children. If no adults present, children learn from other children.
Knowledge should include acquiring skills related to dealing with realities of life. It’s
important for children or adults to learn how to learn, rather than absorbing facts. Knowledge is
continuous, flowing, changing and needs to account for individual needs and development.
Maslow theory also explains that learning can only take place when basic needs have
been met. Learner perceive education in more accurate terms when needs are met and learning
becomes the priority. How students emotionally view the world will sets the foundation for
learning. Educators should strive for excellence because teaching is an art of transmitting a
purpose and mission. Student leadership development, and development of whole person should
be the role of teachers to make the education affective and cognitive.
The most important of Maslow theory in educational goal is for students to learn.
Another point goal is to make this newly gained knowledge and information purposeful and
meaningful to the students so that it may be retained and useful throughout their life. An
essential factor involved in meeting these goals is motivation. If the students are unmotivated in
one way or another, it is likely that little learning will take place, or if by chance some learning
should take place, it is probable that it will not be retained.
This theory has great impact on educational structure. In his later years, Maslow realized
that an environmental precondition of stimulation, or challenge, was needed to motivate
individuals. Therefore it is also the teacher’s responsibility to include a means of stimulation in
their programs to catch students’ interest. (Global, 1972) In order to maximize on the
effectiveness of school-wide and individual classroom teaching programs, administrators and
teachers must consider students’ needs and their hierarchical order. This must be a top priority in
the development of these programs so that the students have the capability of reaching their
highest levels of potential. For instance, a student who has not had her breakfast before she
comes to school, she will not be paying attention on learning; she will be preoccupied with the
need for food. Because there are many children who come to school without a proper breakfast,
school systems must meet this need by providing breakfast programs so that these children will
be more likely to learn effectively.
Each level of the hierarchy of needs by Maslow can be applied to the benefits of better
education to the students. We will look at some of the suggestions for application of Maslow’s
theory to education.
The physiological and safety needs in students are basically their needs to have
comfortable and safe environment for their study. The management can reduce the cost or
provide free lunch programs. Big, airy and comfortable classrooms can also help the students to
be able to learn in a more conducive environment. Well planned lesson which are carried out in
an orderly fashion is also a must for the teachers to provide a predictable and routine for the
students. Emergency procedures such as fire exits should also be well planned discussed and
practiced to ensure the safety of the students. Consistent expectations and the accepting and non-
judgmental attitude of the teachers can also produce students who feel secured and confident in
their teachers.
The need for the sense of love and belonging in students are important either in the
teacher-student relationships or in the student-student relationships. A teacher’s personality
should be empathetic, considerate and interested in the individuals, patient, fair, able to self-
disclose, having positive attitude and a good listener. Teachers who have these characteristics
will provide the students with more confidence and thus they will be able to learn and improve
better in their studies.
With regard to the student to student relationships, the school management or the teachers
can help to provide suitable situations for the students to form better relationships.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONALITY 8
For example, organizing class meetings and discussions or encouraging peer tutoring.
The teachers can also provide situations that require mutual trust among the students or the
opportunity of sharing their problems or daily activities. By having good relationships with
teachers and peers, students will have fulfilled their need to belong, and the feeling of being
cared and loved.
When the students have satisfied their needs for love and belongingness, the need for
esteem will emerge. The students will feel the need of self-respect and to be respected by the
others. Teachers should then develop new knowledge based on the background knowledge so as
to help ensure success (scaffolding) and to pace instructions to fit individual needs. They should
also focus on the individual’s strengths and assets when planning lessons and carrying them out.
By involving the students in classroom participations and responsibility, the students will feel
important and accepted.
Teachers can also help develop a classroom environment where students are positive and
judgmental. By providing activities involving the students, they will be able to develop
cooperation between the students and from respect to each other.
To satisfy the next need of understanding and knowledge, the teachers should allow the
students time to explore areas of curiosity and to provide lessons that are intellectually
challenging. By using the discovery approach topics, the students can learn to be independent
and learn from various angles. By getting involved intellectually, the students can satisfy their
need to fulfill their need to explore, discover and solve new things.
The need for aesthetic is also very important for the students. By organizing classroom
materials in a neat and appealing way, the students will be attracted to learn about the things
related to the materials. Pleasing, well maintained and fresh smelling classrooms with attractive
wall hangings can create stability in the students who will feel comfortable to study in such
surrounding.
The highest need in the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is the need for self-actualization.
Teachers expecting the students to do their best will push the students to utilize their own
potential and at the same time to satisfy their own need of self-fulfillment. By giving the students
freedom to explore and discover on their own, the teachers are able to make learning more
meaningful for the students. Lesson plans that involve Meta cognitive activities are able to get
the students to be involved in self expressive projects.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONALITY 9
REFERENCES:
AIOU Course Team. (2009). Educational Psychology. Islamabad. Allama Iqbal Open
University Islamabad.
Maslow, A. (1954). “Motivation and Personality”. New York: Harper.
Wahba, A, & Bridewel, L. (1976). “Maslow Reconsidered. A review of research on the

need hierarchy theory”. Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, 15, 212-240.
Allport,G. (1960). “Personality and Social encounter: Selected essays. New York:
Beacon Press.
THORNDIKE'S LAWS OF LEARNING 10
Q.No.2 Discuss the educational implications of Thorndike's laws of learning. How you
will apply these laws to enhance students' learning?
Answer:
Learning is a complex process. All the same, it can be understood by making
abroad application of some laws. Generally speaking, some laws have been discovered and
explained by Thorndike. His laws, namely Law of Exercise, Law of Readiness and Law of
Effect, have been accepted by all. We may discuss here some of common major laws
propounded by Thorndike and other psychologists.
Law of Exercise, Primary Laws of Learning:
This law is also called ‘Law of Use and Disuse’.
(i) Law of Use:
When a modifiable connection is made between a situation and a response, that
connection’s strength is other things being equal, increased’.
(ii) Law of Disuse:
When a modifiable connection is not made between a situation and a response over a
length of time, that connection’s strength, other things being equal, decrease.
In brief, we may say that repetition and drill helps learning, and its absence causes
forgetfulness. We also believe in the common proverb, practice makes a man perfect’. Drill is
based on the principle that repetition fixes the facts to be learnt. That is the reason why the pupils
have to repeat arithmetical tables, formulae, spelling lists and definitions in order to establish
these.
In all skill lessons, say handwriting, dance, music, craft and drawing repetition is necessary.
Lack of practice or exercise causes the memory of the learned material to weaken. Lack of
practice causes forgetfulness. We forget because subsequent experiences tend to rule out what
has been learnt.
Educational Implication of Law of Exercise:
(i) We should devote much of our learning time to acquiring all these facts, abilities, arts
and skills, which we shall find useful.
(ii) We should have constant practice in what has once been learnt.
(iii) Much time should not elapse between one practice and the subsequent one. Delayed use or
long disuse may cause forgetfulness.
(iv) Law of exercise cannot be applied quantitatively, because other factors also come in.
So learning is not directly proportional to the amount of exercise. Interest and purpose coupled
with repetition make repetition more effective. Thorndike himself revised his views on ‘Law of
Disuse’. He finds that disuse may play an important part as dissatisfaction with a particular job.
It is interest and satisfaction that comes in the success and repetition of successful response
which help in the selection of desired response.
Law of Effect:
Thorndike defines it as follows:
“When a modifiable connection between a situation and response is made and is
accompanied or followed by a satisfying state of affairs that connection’s strength is increased,
but when made and accompanied by an annoying state of affairs its strength is decreased”.
In simpler words, it means that a response which gives achievement of the goal and thus
provides satisfaction, will be stamped in, while those which are accompanied by dissatisfaction
will be stamped out. In short, the feeling or the emotional state affects learning.
For instance, when the child solve, questions correctly he feels encouraged to do more. But if he
fails repeatedly, he does not make subsequent attempt. Some students fail one or two times in the
Matriculation Examination.
The stagnate and do not succeed at all. It is commonly said, ‘nothing succeeds like
successes. The boy who stands for school council election and succeeds, gets motivated to stand
again and again. Another pupil failing in the elections twice may not stand again. This success
and failure condition the learner to a large degree.
Educational Implication:
(i) As a failure is accompanied by a discouraging emotional state, it should be avoided.
The evaluation system should be so modified that nobody is called ‘a failure’. A student may
pass in 4 subjects out of 7. He should be given a certificate to that effect, and encouraged to
appear again in the other three subjects.
(ii) Reward and recognition play a great role in encouraging the pupil. Due recognition
should be given to good achievement, so that the pupil is cheered up to march forward.
(iii) Educational guidance should be provided to all the pupils, so that no pupil become a misfit
in any subject or educational course.
It is desirable to enable everyone to experience success by guiding him to pursue the course suits
him. It should be possible to adjust the pupils and their work so that they will experience an
optimum of amount of success.
(iv) Punishments should be avoided as far as possible. Punishment produces a negative
effect, and it causes discouragement and it eliminates the response in due course. The most
effective and healthful way of establishing desirable behaviour is to reinforce it with a feeling of
satisfaction and encouragement.
(v) Interest is directly connected, with law of effect. Pupils get satisfaction in things
which interest them. Interest causes satisfaction, satisfaction promotes learning, better learning
gives higher satisfaction and thus the cycle goes on. Pupils prefer that which is pleasant and
interesting to them, while selecting books, subjects, activities, mates, games, food and clothing.
Thus the behaviour is controlled by interest and satisfaction.
(vi) Memory is also directly related to this law. Pleasant things are remembered better
than unpleasant things. What interests most, which is vital for us, what gives us great
satisfaction, is remembered the most. The pupil forgets the home-task because it is unpleasant
job for him.
Limitations of the Law:
In certain cases the law fails. We sometimes remember the most unpleasant incidents of
our life most vividly. We are not able to avoid the remembrance, because of the unpleasant
nature. Sometimes the punishment given causes better learning. We can stimulate a child to learn
the good spellings, but how to curb his bad spellings? If we say that rebuke or punishment will
discourage him to learn, then he might not learn the right spellings at all.
Law of Readiness:
“When a person feels ready to act or to learn, he acts or learns more effectively and with
greater satisfaction than when not ready’. Before actual learning, one must be mentally prepared;
one’s mind, must be mentally-set.
Educational Implications:
(i) Readiness means desire to do a job. In the absence of desire learning cannot be
effective. Hence the teacher must arouse the interest or readiness of the pupils. In teaching any
topic, he must tap their previous knowledge, arouse interest for the new topic through suitable
questions and then announce the aim of the new lesson. So ‘motivation’ is one of the important
step in lesson-planning.
(ii) Curiosity is essential for learning. Hence the teacher should arouse curiosity for
learning, so that the pupils feel ready to imbibe the new experiences. Some teachers do not
prepare their pupils psychologically for their lessons. They dole out the knowledge they possess
in a mechanical way. The teacher should, before taking up the new lesson arouse interest and
curiosity by making the problems real and concrete. Abstract elements not connected with real-
life situations should be avoided.
Secondary or Subordinate Laws of Learning:
Thorndike gave the following Secondary laws also:
1. Law of Primacy.
2. Law of Recency.
3. Law of Intensity of Stimulus.
4. Law of Multiple Response.
5. Law of Set Attitude.
6. Law of Analogy and Assimilation.
7. Law of Associative Shifting.
8. Law of Partial Activity.
1. Law of Primacy:
‘Learning that takes place in the beginning is the best and lasting’. Usually we say, first
impression is the best. Hence the pupils should make the right start, and be most serious even
from the first day. The learning on the first day is most vivid and strong. The teacher also should
be most serious on the first day of teaching. He must impress his students on the very first day.
2. Law of Recency:
‘Recent acts are lasting’. We remember those things better which are recent. Hence a
pupil should revise his entire course just before the examination. Without revision, he is apt to
forget even the best assimilated matter. The revision just before the examination helps him.
3. Law of Intensity of stimulus:
‘If a stimulus is strong, the response will be strong, and vice-versa.’ The student who has
the dash or the enthusiasm makes a greater progress and achievement. The weak-willed student
achieves less. The more serious a student, the greater his achievement.
From this point of view, examinations bear a positive effect on learning, in so far as they
present an intense stimulus to study. The justification of internal assessment throughout the
session is the same. Hence, the pupils must have a stimulus to learn throughout the academic
session.
4. Law of Multiple Response:
Confronted with a new situation the organism responds in a variety of ways arriving at
the correct response.
5. Law of Set Attitude:
The learner performs the task well if he has his attitude set in the task.
6. Law of Analogy and assimilation:
The organism makes responses by comparison or analogy and assimilation. When learner
finds the similarities and dissimilarities in the lesson with daily experiences he earns better.
Hence teaching must be correlated with life experiences.
7. Law of Associative Shifting:
According to this law we can get any response, from the learner of which he is capable,
associated with any situation to which he is sensitive.
8. Law of Partial activity:
This law states that teaching should be done in parts. It is truer in the case of children’s
education.
REFERENCES:
AIOU Course Team. (2009). Educational Psychology. Islamabad. Allama Iqbal Open
University Islamabad.
ORMROD, J. E. (2008) Human Learning (fifth edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
URDAN, T. and MIDGLEY, C. (2001) Academic self-handicapping: what we know, what more
there is to learn. Educational Psychology Review, 13, 115–138.
MOTIVATIONAL TECHNIQUES 15
Q.No.3 Which types of motivation techniques are helpful for a teacher to enhance
achievement of students? Discuss.
Answer:
Motivation plays a pivotal role in the process of learning. Both motivation and
learning go side by side. According to most psychologists motivation is essential for effective
learning. Actually, motivation is a force that modifies or directs behaviour; while learning is
actually a modification of behaviour which is permanent in nature and is caused by various
psychological factors. Now the question arises why an organism modifies its behaviour? The
answer is because there is a felt need to do so due to change in environment. The changing
condition of environment plays a role of stimulus which motivates the organism to seek
adjustment to the environment. Such adjustment seeking behaviour is called learning behaviour.
We can say that learning occurs as a consequence of motivation; and motivation can be used as a
productivity factor in the process of learning; it is just like pressing the right button to get the
desired response (H.R. Bhatia). Teachers have long been using the traditional techniques of
motivating students, for example praising, smile, touch, etc. A need is always felt during every
era of teaching learning process to find out techniques which can be effectively used for
motivating students in learning process.
Motivation can be characterized by following elements:
 Need or expectation
 Behaviour
 Goal
 Some form of feedback (Steers and Porter, 1991:6).
Types of Motivation:
Generally there are two types of motivation:-
EXTRINSIC = Here stimulus is outside the person, it can be there in the form of operant
conditioning or social cognition.
INTRINSIC= Here stimulus is internal to the person; it can be biological, emotional, spiritual or
social (huitt.W, 2011). Intrinsic Motivation: is driven by an interest or enjoyment which a person
feels in a task .It is within the individual and does not rely on external pressure. Extrinsic
Motivation: refers to performance of a task for attaining an outcome. It may be in the form of
some kind of reward, social approval or appreciation etc.
However some other following types of motivation are also found in literature:-
Instrumental Motivation: It is extrinsic in nature where students perform an activity in order to
obtain tangible rewards.
Social Motivation: Here students perform a task in order to earn praise from those they respect
or admire e.g. teachers, parents etc.
Achievement Motivation: Here students learn a hope of success. Ausubel has suggested three
elements in this type of motivation.
Cognitive Drive: Students tries to satisfy his need ‘to know’
Self Enhancement: Student tries to satisfy his self-esteem.
Affiliation Motivation: Student wants to earn approval from other.
Intrinsic Motivation: In this case there are no external rewards the activity is undertaken for self-
pleasure and individual satisfaction. It may be characterized by curiosity and desire to meet
challenges.
General Approaches to Motivation: There are numerous theories of motivation. Here is a brief
over view of these theories. All these are summed up into four approaches.
Humanistic Approach: According to humanistic approach, to motivate means, to arouse
individual’s inner resources. They see individual as a whole whose physical, emotional, and
intellectual needs are all interlinked. Maslow provided best explanation for this approach. In
1970 Abraham Maslow suggested that man has a hierarchy of needs, which ranges from lower
needs for survival to safety, belongingness, self-esteem and finally to self-actualization.
Behavioural approach: According to them behaviour of a student is the product of some
incentive present there in the form of ‘Reward and Punishment’. If a behaviour is repeatedly
rewarded it may develop into ‘Habit’. So motivation is produced through incentives.
Cognitive Approach: According to cognitive approach people are active and curious and they
search information to solve their problems. They totally reject the reward, punishment, or needs
as the determinants of behaviour. They say that individual behaves in the way he thinks and
believes about himself and his environment. The motivation of student is influenced by the
explanations, justifications, and excuses he provides for his success or failure. EXAMPLE: I can
attribute my failure to bad luck if I believe that I can control it, I will be motivated for putting
more effort for the next time, but if I believe that I cannot control bad luck I will simply
withdraw all my efforts and will not be motivated to put any effort.
Socio-cultural Approach: We belong to certain society and if we narrow down our approach we
belong to a certain group. And we want to maintain our identity and interpersonal relations
within that group. We learn by the company we keep. Society moulds us. A certain group is
characterized by certain traits. For example as a student everyone in a class is motivated to
secure the highest grades. As a doctor one wants to become the best among his colleagues. Even
a criminal belonging to a gang will be motivated to do the highest level of crimes in order to
achieve his identity in the group.
Motivational Techniques for Effective Learning:
Common Techniques:
Here are some basic ideas about how to motivate the students for learning.
Encouragement is need to internal motivation. It is necessary to prepare the students to learn and
to feel their responsibilities. If there is necessary to change the style of teaching, then make
groups to learn the students’ involvement and sharing. Assignments are useful and according to
their abilities. Explain the relation between different lessons so that students can understand the
overall subject. No to teach the student too much lessons. Present the overall picture of the lesson
in the end and explain the lesson with examples. Some students need extra attention, so beware
of their needs and requirements. Give respect and assist the students in the class.
Spark Interest:
To enhance the interest of students in studies, there are some more steps are as follows:
Clear the main objective of the subject. If you want your lesson more interesting then add some
facts and figures and before your lecture start ask some relative questions to get their attention.
To make your understand and clear add some quotes, a story if the subject matter allows and
explain it with visual aids which attract the attention of the students www.smartteaching.org.
Earning Environment:
Learning environment should be friendly being helpful to students. Friendly environment
can be making if some points should be followed. Such environment creates in the classroom so
the students should be attracted and interested to get knowledge. Good organization between the
students should be kept and take every student as an individual. It is the right of every student to
get extra time and attention of his/her teacher, and encouragement for her/his extra efforts. Make
sure that students should take part in class discussions, class decorating, familiarity with teachers
and other class-fellows and other activities around the class. Try to start everyday with a new
thing.
Feed Back:
If students do well in the class, a teacher should be praised him in very well manner, this
can help him to try hard in future. The behavior of teachers towards the students should be
positive. If students have any type of problem, teacher should help him. Positive ending of the
lesson can motivate the students very well. During the class, encouragement of the students is
very necessary, it can help him to improve confidence in the students. Teacher can satisfy the
curiosity of students. Create an environment in the class so that students feel easy, positively and
confident. Discuss the behavior of the students not the personality of the students. Don’t let the
students that they’ve completely failed, encourage students to try again
Learning Opportunities:
Some special learning opportunities should be kept in mind to motivate students. Explain
your less through practically, experimentally and examples taking daily life. In this respect
students should be visited to various places. It can make your lessons move attractive and
interesting. The teacher should create a sense of teamwork and group studies between them. If
the teacher feels need and wants his lesson to be move of interesting, be should allow the
students to learn through funny activity and through computer
Rewards:
Rewards play an important role to motivate the students. Special privileges make students
most active towards the process of knowledge. Prizes and rewards should be according to the
personality of the students. Make learning itself ends up being reward. It should be a useful
process for the students. It is not necessary to give them big and expensive rewards, small
rewards like candy, pen and pencils etc, should be given to encourage them. Praise is also a good
reward. The work done by the students should by display in the class. This thing can make
students and their teachers proud and create a sense of recognition
Online Students:
There are some problems come with online students. A teacher should face them
courageously. It is the understanding of the online students that the class-room’s rules and
regulations do not apply on them because they are not being directly learnt by a teacher. But the
teacher should remind them that they are alike as in a real classroom. A teacher should know
about all students of his class. He should be care of expectations and requirements of them. Make
sure that students are able to learn that how his study is relevant to his life and future career.
Continuous encouragement plays very important role to enhance the interest and motivation of
the students. Give them assessments to express their ideas. Such opportunities provide them so
that they connect with each other and use their useful information. The students need supervision
and support, so make them sure that they may as you know about every problem (Retrieved from
www.smartteaching.org.
Self-Motivation:
It is important to boost their learning potential. A student should motivate to study
himself. He can be seen himself in future in his imagination. This can help him to encourage in
present. He should be make friends, so that he can share his problems and studies to one another.
If he knows something, he should not be shy because everyone doesn’t know everything. Avoid
make excuses because they will let you back. A student always plans before learning that how to
use proper tools, this save your time and energy use to study. If there is a difficult and lengthy
task to do, should be do one piece at a time, it saves you from frustration. Know about yourself
very well so you can manage your abilities and energies according to your work.
Intrinsic Vs. Extrinsic Motivation:
Intrinsic means love of learning while extrinsic mean desire for reward. Inner love of
learning is satisfying while the external sources are necessary. Former is transferable to other
content whereas later is non-transferable. Inner love of learning can take time to produce and a
process-focused device. It has long term advantages in natural condition. It promotes a useful
mentality and self-motivation. It can be difficult for a new group of students. Whereas external
sources of motivation can be produced in a short period and product focused device.
Extrinsic Motivation Techniques: These include grades, rewards, praise, punishments, public
recognition and phone calls home.
Grades:
In schools we use grades for motivating the students. Our objective is to provide an
illustration of an act and provide an incentive. They only represent of value. So grades become
more effective. That is why grade system becomes more motivational than artificial, uses. They
also act as an incentive. Grades have the effect of creating future opportunities. These
opportunities depend upon on importance to parents and shovels’, or financial air opportunities.
Only some students can much influenced of these incentives. So grades put better motivational
effect on some students than others.
However students commonly see grades as something “given” to them by the teacher. They may
perceive that grade as a reflection of themselves or their ability in that subject then there are two
possible outcomes. If the student takes the grade as consistent with their academic self-concept,
they will not try to do better in future. If the student takes the grade as inconsistent with their
academic self-respect and feel ashamed.
Rewards Such as Tokens, Sticker, Stars and Prizes:
Another common extrinsic motivational; strategy used at the elementary level, is to give
token and other prizes to students. These rewards act as concrete representations and
reinforcement in the process of operant conditioning. This technique originated in the field of
psychology called behaviourism.
Incentives:
Many forms of prizes are incentives. They can be helpful in clarifying what is desirable
behavior. They can help promote good habits throughout their lifetime. And if the students do
not experience any internal satisfaction from the behavior being induced, the incentive will
eventually lose its power. One popular incentive strategy is that of Preferred Activity Time
(PAT). On the surface, this strategy “works”. That is, it motivates the students to do what it takes
to attain their “Preferred Activity”. But it has two undesirable by products. First, while it may
work in the short run, like other bribes it will lose its effect over time. Second, it will reinforce
the principle that the work that is being done in the class is undesirable. While this strategy is
attractive, consider its costs and tong-term effects.
Intrinsic Motivational Techniques:
It is difficult to explain intrinsic motivational techniques as compared to extrinsic
techniques. Reward, punishments, useless tasks and a lack of support are all hinders of intrinsic
sources of motivation. For one’s intrinsic sources of motivation to grow, the learning context
must support them. It may be most practical to examine intrinsic techniques within a single
structure that of basic needs. We should care about how they need basic needs. Unlike extrinsic
forms of motivation, intrinsic forms are less about adding something.
Basic Needs:
Each of us has some basic needs that we find a way to satisfy them, otherwise we will
experience some type of dissonance. The basic human for love and belonging, power,
competence, freedom and fun.
As a teacher we should recognize the student’s basic need. Students should not have a school
environment that cannot meet their needs. When their needs are not fulfilled, the reaction by the
student can take the form of either an external or an internal reaction.
Love and Belonging:
Each of us to be loved. If we feel unloved of isolated common internal reactions and
common external reactions not react.
Power:
If there is no sense of ‘agency’ in our lives, we feel helpless. A sense of power is
fundamental and basic need of ours. Teachers can give students a sense of power by giving them
choices, responsibility and opportunities for leadership
Competence:
We need to feel that we can do something valuable. Teachers can give students a greater
sense of competence by focusing on progressing.
Freedom:
Each of have needs to freedoms of choice. Teachers can help students experience
freedom through creativity avoiding praise and disappointment.
Techniques of Enhancing Student’s Motivation for Learning Student Centered Approach
The student is a student and the teacher only motivates him to learn. The teacher should see
what student has to learn. The curriculum should be according to the needs interest and previous
experience of the student (Yogesh Kumar Singh, 2005).
Linking the New Learning with the Past sop.
The teachers should be judged the previous experience of the student. Experience is a
great teacher and has the present learning. If the student properly related with the previous
experience then her/he easily move forward to the new material ( Yogesh Kumar Singh, 2005).
Awareness of aims and goals:
If the student has no awareness of purposes of studies, the student cannot feel interest in
learning. The student should be familiar with the aims and objects of subject and topic ( Yogesh
Kumar Singh, 2005).
Knowledge of the results and progress:
Every student desire to know the result of his effort. When we take any task, it is natured
to have completed it as soon as possible and that knowledge gives us satisfaction
and encouragement ( Yogesh Kumar Singh,2005).

Praise and Reproof:
Both praise and criticism are the strong incentives. If students have some weakness, to
appreciate them, who are self-assured, work hander after criticism. The teacher must try to
understand the nature of students and then appreciate and criticize in motivating and inspiring
them (Yogesh Kumar Singh, 2005).
Reward and Punishment
Reward and punishment are the potent incentives. They show great result to influence the
future performance. The teacher should avoid, the use of punishment because it kills initiative
and the spirit of independently thinking on the other hand, the rewards like, prizes, honors,
medals etc, have psychological value and develop in the student, self-confidence, self-respect
and creative abilities and other democratic feelings ( Yogesh Kumar Singh, 2005).
Ego Involvement:
The ego depends on attitudes relating to the self. Every student has wished to maintain
his status and self-respect. The teacher should task a care of the students’ ego and motivate them
with positively behavior. The teacher should adopt those activities which raise the status of
students among the class fellows (Yogesh Kumar Singh, 2005).
REFERENCES:
AIOU Course Team. (2009). Educational Psychology. Islamabad. Allama Iqbal
Open University Islamabad.
Bhatia.H.R (2004). Educational Psychology and Techniques of Teaching. Kalia Publisher

New Dehli.4th edition .pp109-111.
Kleinginna, P., Jr., & Kleinginna A. (1981a). A categorized list of motivation definitions,
with suggestions for a consensual definition. Motivation and Emotion, 5, 263-291.
Robert Haris, Version date, October 14, 2012. Retrieved from

http://www.virtualsalt.com/motivate.htm and http://mot-to-work.blogspot.com/
STEPS IN EFFECTIVE INTELLIGENCE TEST 23
Q,No.4 While developing an effective intelligence test what steps a class teacher has to
follow? Creating the Test.
Answer: Introduction:
Interest in intelligence and in intelligence testing was an inherent part of the
movement, beginning in the later part of the nineteenth century that brought psychology into
being as a separate discipline. Intelligence testing had its root in the field of general psychology
and measurement. The physical method developed by E.H. Weber (1795-1878) and G.T.
Fechner (1801-1887), the study of difference limens by G.E. Muller (1850-1934) and
F.M. Urban, and the statistical studies of higher mental processes initiated by Sir Francies Galton
(1822-1911) formed the background for much of the work that would take place in the twentieth
century.
Sir Francies Galton played an extremely influential role in the development of testing
movement. The psychometric field was able to flourish because he originated two very important
statistical concepts regression to the mean and correlation. Some regard Galton as the true father
of the testing movement. In 1883 he published an important work “Inquiries into human faculty”
in which he considered the problem involved in measuring mental characteristics.
Galton tried to measure sensory powers and thus intelligence. In 1882 he set up a testing
booth in a London Museum and charged people a fee to have their learning, vision and other
sensory motor equipment measured. One of Galton‟s students “Kari Pearson” worked out the
basic equation of correlation coefficient that has proved so useful in the study of intelligence.
James Mckeen Cattle (1860-1944) established his own laboratory at the University of
Pennsylvania. In an article published in 1890 in Mind he used the term “Mental test”. So
different measures were described, most of them of a sensory and motor nature and differing
little from those of Galton.
Cattell stressed that psychology must rest on a foundation of measurement and
experimentation. He foresaw the practical application of test as tools for the selection of people
for training and for diagnostic evaluation. Clark Wissler (1901) was another investigator who
sought to determine the validity of some of the test that was thought to be related to be cognitive
processes.
At about the same time in Farance, Alferd Binet (1857 – 1911), Victor Henri (1872-1940)
and Theodore Simon (1873-1961) were developing methods for the study of a variety of mental
functions.
These investigators found the key to the measurement of intelligence by focusing on

higher mental processes instead of on simple sensory function. Their work appears in the form of
Binet-Simon Scale (1905). The 1905 scale might be considered the first modern intelligence test
of mental ability. With the introduction of the Binet-Simon scales, the testing movement began
to flourish in the United States. Lewis Terman standardized the Binet-Simon scale in 1916,
Robert Rerker and his colleagues however found fault with the age-scale format of the Binet-
Simon scales and developed their own point scale.
Many other specialized tests were also developed to evaluate specific facets of cognitive
ability. Testing in school, clinics, industry and the military became a common practice and
influenced public affairs, business, and scientific psychology.
In 1939, David Wechsler introduced the Wechsler-Bellevue intelligence scale in
designing this scale Weshler studied the standardized test that were available during the later
1930s, and selected eleven different subsets to form the scale. Source for the subsets included the
Army Alpha, Stanford-Binet test, Healy picture completion tests, army group examination,
Kohs-Block design test and Army beta.
Wechsler focus on the global nature of intelligence. Wechsler considered intelligence to
be a part of the large whole of personality itself. The Wechsler designed many scales of
intelligence including Wise, Wisc-R, Wais-R, WPPSI etc. The overall IQ obtained from the scale
represented an index of general mental ability.
Testing of Intelligence:
Intelligence testing has generated much controversy in recent year. Some writer
maintains that the development of intelligence tests is one of the most significant contributions in
the field of psychology, while others believe that intelligence tests have many serious
shortcomings.
Our intelligence tests which measure success in school quite effectively are value laden.
They represent primarily such social values as schooling, verbal abilities, abstraction and concept
formation skills. These are important skills in western societies but they are not the only ones.
Attempts are being made to find ways to measure and reward different kind of skills (e.g
creativity) from those currently associated with intelligence tests. Such efforts are needed
because our tests tap only part of the spectrum of human abilities. Still our current intelligence
test does their job well. They predict success in school, and they measure some of the important
skills needed in our industrialized society.
Assessment of Intelligence:
No other are of assessment has generated as much attention, controversy, and debate as
the testing of what we call “intelligence”. For centuries philosophers, Psychologists, educators,
and lay people have the meaning of intelligence. Numerous definitions of the term intelligence
have been proposed, with each definition serving as a stimulus for counter definitions and
counter proposals. Several theories have been advanced to describe and explain intelligence and
its development such as Cattle-Horn, Gardner, Kaufman, Sternberg, and Guilford (Flanagan,
Genshaft & Harrison, 1997). The extent to which the intelligence is genetically or
environmentally, determined has been of special concern, Genetic determinists, environmental
determinists, and inter actionists have all observed difference in the intelligence test
performances of different populations of children.
Both the interpretations of group difference in intelligence measurements and the practice
of testing the intelligence of school children have been topics recurrent controversy and debate,
aired in professional journals, in the popular press, and on television. In some instance the courts
have acted to curtail or halt intelligence assessment in the public school, in other, the courts have
defined what composes intelligence assessment. Debate and controversy have flourished about
whether intelligence test should be given, what they measure, and how different level of
performance attained by different populations is to be explained.
No one, however, has seen a specific thing called “intelligence”. Rather, we observe
differences in the ways people behave-either differences in everyday behavior in a variety of
situations or differences in response to standard stimuli or sets of stimuli, then we attribute those
differences to something termed intelligence.
In this sense intelligence is an inferred entity, a term or construct we use to explain
differences in present behavior and to predict differences in future behavior.
We have repeatedly stressed the fact that all tests, including, therefore, intelligence tests
assess sample of behavior, Regardless, of how an individual’s performance on any given tests is
viewed and interpreted, intelligence tests- and on the item on those tests-simply sample
behaviors. A variety of different kinds of behavior samplings are used to assess intelligence, in
most cases, the kind of behavior sample reflect a test author’s conception of intelligence. The
behavior sample are combined in different ways in which they view the concept of intelligence,
here we review the kinds of behaviors sampled by intelligence tests, with particular emphasis on
the psychological
demands of different test items as a function of pupil characteristics.

Intelligence tests as sample of behavior:
There is a hypothetical domain of items that could be used to assess intelligence. In
practice, it is impossible to administer every item in the domain to a student whose intelligence
we want to assess. The characterization of behaviors sampled by intelligence tests is complex.
Some persons have argued, for example, that intelligence tests assess a student’s capacity to
profit from instruction, whereas others, argue that such tests assess merely what has been
learned, some have characterized intelligence tests as either verbal or nonverbal, some
characterized intelligence tests as either culturally biased or culturally fair. In actuality, nearly
any contention regarding what intelligence tests measure can be supported. The relative merit of
competing options, theories and contentions is primarily a function of the interaction between the
characteristics of an individual and the psychological demands of items in an intelligence test. It
is also a function of the stimulus and response requirements of the items.
Similar behavior may assess in different ways. In assessing vocabulary, for example, the
examiner may ask the pupils to define words, to name pictures, to select a synonym of a stimulus
word or to point to pictures depicting words read by the examiner. All found kinds of
assessments are called “vocabulary tests” yet they sample different behaviors. The psychological
demands of the items change with the ways the behavior is assessed.
In evaluating the performance of individuals on intelligence tests, teachers,
administrators, counselors, and diagnostic specialists must go beyond test names and scores to
look at the kinds of behaviors sampled on the test. They must be willing to question the ways test
stimuli are presented to question the response requirements, and to evaluate the psychological
demands placed on the individual.
Behavior Sampled by Intelligence:
Tests Regardless of the interpretation of measured intelligence, it is a fact that
intelligence tests simply sample behaviors. This section describes the kinds of behaviors
sampled, including discrimination, generalization, motor behavior, general knowledge,
induction, comprehension, sequencing, detail recognition, analogical reasoning, pattern
completion, abstract reasoning, and memory.
Discrimination:
Intelligence test-items that sample skill discrimination usually, present a variety of
stimulus, and ask the student to find the one that differs from all the others. Figural, symbolic, or
semantic discrimination may be assessed. Figure 2.1 illustrates items assessing discrimination:
both, items „a‟ and „b‟ assess semantic discrimination. In each case, the student must identify
the item that differs from the others. The psychological demand of the items differs, however,
depending on the student’s age and particular set of background experiences.
Symbolic Discrimination
a. 4 A Q W
b. a 3 5 8
Semantic Discrimination
c. elephant horse monkey truck
d. Hispanic French Arabian Germanic
Generalization
Items assessing generalization present a stimulus and ask the student to identify which of
several response possibilities goes with the stimulus. Again, the content of the item may be
figural, symbolic, or semantic, the difficulty may range from simple matching to a more difficult
type of classification.
Motor Behavior:
Many items on intelligence tests require a motor response. The intellectual level of very
young children, for example, is often assessed by items requiring them to throw objects, walk,
follow moving objects with their eyes, demonstrate a pincer grasp in picking up objects, build
block towers, and place geometric forms in a recessed-form board. Most motor items of higher
age levels are actually visual motor items. The student may be required to copy geometric
designs, trace, paths through a maze, or reconstruct design from memory. Obviously, because
motor responses can be required for items assessing understanding and conceptualization, many
items assess motor behavior at the same time that they assess others behaviors.
Items that assess Symbolic and Semantic Generalization
Symbolic Generalization
c. J H 8 6 9
d. 81 21 23 26 25
Semantic Generalization
e. tree car man horse walk
f. salvia flashlight frog tulip banana
General Knowledge
Items on intelligence tests sometimes require a student to answer specific factual
questions, such as “in what direction would you travel if you were go to from Poland to
Argentina? “And” what is the cube root of 8?” Essentially, such items are like the kinds of the
items in achievement tests, they assess primarily what has been learned. ‘
Vocabulary
Much different kind of test items are used to assess vocabulary. In some cases, the
student must name picture, and in others, she or he must point to object to response to words read
by the examiner. Some vocabulary items require the student to product oral definitions of words,
whereas others call for reading a definition and selecting one of several words to match the
definition. Some test score a students definitions of words as simply pass and fail, others uses a
weighted scoring system to reflect the degree of abstraction used in defining words. The
Wechsler intelligence scale for Children-III, for example, assigns 0 points to incorrect
definitions. I point to definitions that are descriptive (an orange is round) or functional (an
orange is to eat) and 2 points to more abstract definitions (an orange is a citrus fruit).
Induction
Induction item present a series of example and require the student to induce a governing
principle. For example, the student is given a magnet a several different cloth, wooden, and
metal objects and is asked to try to pick up the objects with the magnet.
After Several trials, the student is asked to state a rule or principle about the kinds of
objects that magnets can pick up.
Comprehension
There are three kinds of items used to assess comprehension, items related to directions,
to printed material and to societal customs and mores. In some instance, the examiner presents a
specific situation and ask what actions the student would take (for example, “what would you do
if you saw a train approaching a washed-out bridge?”). In other cases, the examiner reads the
paragraphs to a student and then asks specific questions about the content of paragraphs.
In still other instance, the student is asked questions about social mores, such as, “why should we
keep promises?
Sequencing
Items assessing sequencing consists of series of stimuli that have a progressive
relationship among them. The student must identify a response that continues the relationship.
Detail Recognition
In general, not many tests o test items assess detail recognition. Those that do evaluate
the completeness and detail with which a student solves problems. Certain drawing tests. Such as
the Good enough-Harris Draw- A-Person Test, evaluate a student‟s drawing of a person on the
basis of inclusion of detail. The more details in a student‟s drawing, the more credit the student
earns. In other instances, items require a student to count the blocks in pictured piles of blocks in
which some of the blocks are not directly visible, to copy geometric designs, or to identify
missing part in pictures. To do so correctly, the student must attend to detail in the stimulus
drawings and must reflect this attention to detail in making responses.
Analogical Reasoning
“A is B as C is to …… “ is the usual form for analogies. Element A is related to element
B. The student must identify the response having the same relationship to element C as B to A.
Pattern completion
Some test and test items require a student to select form several possibilities the missing
part of a pattern or matrix.
Abstract Reasoning
A variety of items on intelligence tests sample abstract reasoning, ability. The standford-
Binet, intelligence scale, for example, presents absurd verbal statements and pictures and ask the
student to identify the absurdity. It also includes a series of proverbs, the essential meaning of
which the student must state. In the Stanford-Binet and other scales, arithmetic-reasoning
problems are often though to assess abstract reasoning.
analog items
a. man: boy: : woman ---------------girl mother daughter aunt
b. tapeworm: plat helminthes : starfish: -------echinoderm mollusca water porifera
c. variance : standard deviation : : 25 ------------4 5 625 747
Coping with Dilemmas in Current Practice:

The practice of assessing children intelligence is currently marked by controversy
However, much of that controversy could be set aside if intelligence tests were viewed
appropriately. Intelligence tests imply assess sample of behavior, and different intelligence test
sample different behaviors. For that reason, it is wrong to speak of a person’s IQ. Instead, we can
refer only to a person’s IQ on specific test. An IQ on the Stanford-Binet IV intelligence scale is
not derived from the same samples of behaviors as an IQ on any other intelligence test.
Because the behavior samples are different for different tests, educators, and others must
always ask, “IQ on what test?”. It is helpful to understand that for the most part, the particular
kinds of items or subtests found on an intelligence test are a matter of the way in which a test
author defines intelligence and think about the kinds of item and subtests that assess it.
The same test may make different psychological demands on various test takers,
Depending on their ages and acculturation. Test result mean different things for different
students. It is imperative that we be especially aware of the relationship between a person’s
acculturation and acculturation of the norm group with which that person is compared.
Memory
Several different kids of tasks assess memory, repetition of sequences of digits presented
orally, reproduction of geometric designs from memory, verbatim repetition of sentences, and
reconstruction of the essential meaning of paragraphs or stories. Simply saying that an item
assess memory is too simplistic. We need to ask, memory for what?. The psychological demand
of memory task changes in relation to both the method of assessment and the meaningfulness of
the material to be recalled.
METHODOLOGY
Population
All the children‟s of age group 6-11 years comprised the population of the study.
Sample
A sample of 600 children was selected from urban and rural areas as under:
1. Male urban children of age 6 years = 25
2. ---------------------------------7------- = 25
3. ---------------------------------8------- = 25
4. ---------------------------------9------- = 25
5. ---------------------------------10------ = 25
6. ---------------------------------11------ = 25
7. Male Rural ------------------6-------- = 25
8. ---------------------------------7------- = 25
9. ---------------------------------8------- = 25
10. ---------------------------------9------- = 25
11. ---------------------------------10------ = 25
12. ---------------------------------11------ = 25
13. Female urban ----------------6 Years = 25
14. ---------------------------------7------- = 25
15. ---------------------------------8------- = 25
16. ---------------------------------9------- = 25
17. ---------------------------------10------ = 25
18. ---------------------------------11------ = 25
19. Female Rural------------------6------ = 25
20. ---------------------------------7------- = 25
21. ---------------------------------8------- = 25
22. ---------------------------------9------- = 25
23. ---------------------------------10------ = 25
24. ---------------------------------11------ = 25
Procedure
Criteria for selection of test items The test item must satisfy the following criteria.
1. An effort was made to select those items which were considered interesting according to
judgment of the researcher in order to reduce unwanted variation in performance resulting from
poor motivation or flagging attention.
2. Socially and culturally neutral items were selected so that they neither favor an individual nor
put him at a disadvantage because of the particular group to which he/she belongs.
3. Those items were selected which were considered neither very easy nor very difficult.
Administration of the Test After the selection of test items different sub-tests were arranged
according to the age level of the students. As describe in the sample the 100 photo copies of each
age level were prepared and these were tested on trial bases to the students of urban / rural and
male / female schools. Instructions were given to the children for each part of a test. Each subtest
was assigned specific time in which children were required to complete the subtest and a watch
was used for this purpose. Test administration procedure was similar for all the participants.
Tests were marked using a standard procedure in which score of +1 was given for each item
passed. Thus total 50 marks were assigned for each test. Data Analysis After collecting the data,
it was arranged in tabular form and two statistical techniques difficulty level and discrimination
index were used for item analysis. To find difficulty level and discrimination index the test score
were divided into three groups, the highest 27 Percent, the middle 46 Percent, and the lowest 27
Percent. The difficulty level was calculated with the help of the formula (a + b) / 2 where „a‟
represent the percentage of the students doing the item right in the high achievers group and „b‟
stands for the percentage of the students doing the item right in the low achievers group. The
discrimination index was determined by the difference between the percentages of the students
doing the item right in the high achievers and low achievers group i.e., discrimination index = a –
b.
REFERENCES:
Thorpe, Showick( 2000). General intelligence and test of reasoning. Vikas Publishing
house private ltd. , India. Pp34.
Thorpe, Showick( 2000). General intelligence and test of reasoning. Vikas Publishing
house private ltd. , India. Pp34.
IER Punjab (1978). Test of learning abilities. Printing corporation of Pakistan, Islamabad
Pakistan. Pp3-15.
PROJECTIVE TEST 33
Q.No.5 How projective tests are used effectively by teachers to explore personality of
students? Also discuss the significance of The Rorschach's Ink Blot Test.
Answer:
THE PROJECTIVE METHOD OF PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT
Projective techniques are characterized by a global approach to the appraisal of
personality. Attention is focused on a composite picture of the whole personality rather than on
the measurement of separate traits. Projective techniques are usually regarded by their exponents
as especially effective in revealing covert, latent or unconscious aspect of personality. It is
understood that the projective materials will serve as a screen on which the subject will project
his characteristics thought processes, needs, anxieties and conflicts. The respondent's personality
will be projected as a whole unit. It is agreed that projective techniques are more useful to assess
some inner aspects of personality.
Lindzey (1961) suggested a set of criteria that outline the general nature of projective
tests as follows:
 They are sensitive to unconscious personality dimensions because they can detect the
things hidden in the unconscious of an individual.
 They permit the client a broad range of responses.
 They are capable of measuring many different aspects of personality.
 They leave the client unaware or at least unsure of the specific meaning of his or her
responses.
 They generate a large amount of complex assessment data.
 They employ relatively ambiguous stimuli.
 They can be interpreted to provide an integrated picture of the client's personality as a
whole.
 They are capable of evoking fantasy material from the client.
 They have no right or wrong answers.
The Basis for Projective Techniques
Freudian and Neo-Freudian psychology emphasized the importance of understanding
unconscious information and bypassing strong defense mechanisms in order to help a person
heal. Treatment is often focused in insight, or creating a deeper understanding of motives,
beliefs, and drives.
PROJECTIVE TEST 34
Freud believed that there were only two distinct drives that motivate every person: sex
and aggression. These drives, often buried deep in the unconscious, direct the majority of our
everyday behavior. If we are to change these behaviors, according to psychoanalytic and
dynamic thought, we must understand not only what they are but where they come from as well.
The problem, however, is that this information is hidden even from the individual. Even
if he or she wants to access it, there are defenses in the way that seem to function beyond the
conscious will of the person. No matter how much they want to remember something, no matter
how hard they try to access this hidden information, it remains buried.
One of Freud’s main defense mechanisms is called projection: the projecting of one’s
own unconscious and often anxiety provoking impulses onto a less threatening person or object.
In other words, a person who has an unconscious need for aggression may become actively
involved in crime prevention and may criticize violence. What they are really doing, according to
Freud and others, is seeing this tendency in the self, acknowledging it and the associated anxiety
and then throwing it outside the self to relieve anxiety. The person can now criticize or attack the
self without the associated anxiety.
The idea of projection prompted many psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theorists to
devise ways of accessing the buried information by allowing the patient to project it somewhere
else. This resulted in the birth of the projective techniques of assessment.
Varieties of projective test
Lindsey has categorized the great variety of projective devices into five groups, based on
types of responses required from the subject.
1. Association techniques - ask the person to respond to some stimulus with first word, image or
percept that comes to mind. Examples are the Rorschach and word association.
2. Construction techniques- give the subject the task of producing something, usually a story or a
drawing such as the Thematic Apperception Test. It is more or less a completion test. They can
give you a picture and you are asked to write a story about it. The initial structure is limited and
not detailed like the completion test. For example; two cartoons are given and a dialogue is to be
written.
3. Completion techniques- require the subject to finish an incomplete task in any manner be
wishes such as sentence- completion procedure.
PROJECTIVE TEST 35
4. Choice or ordering techniques- merely involves a selection among alternatives, sometimes

with instructions to rank the possibilities in order of preference or attractiveness, such as the
Tomikas Horn Picture. Arrangement Test which consists of sets of three line drawings depicting
activities to be arranged by the subject to make a story.
5. Expressive techniques- are oriented toward revealing personal manner and style in the process
of performing some activities, such as play situations with children or the draw-a-person test.
THE RORSCHACH INKBLOT TEST
The Rorschach is, at its most basic level, a problem-solving task that provides a picture of
the psychology of the person taking it, and some level of understanding the person’s past and
future behavior. Imagination is involved most often in the embellishment of a response, but the
basic process of the task has little to do with imagination or creativity.
The Rorschach inkblot test is a type of projective psychological test created in 1921 by a
Swiss psychologist named Hermann Rorschach. Often utilized to assess personality and
emotional functioning, it is the second most commonly used forensic test after the MMPI-2 . One
1995 survey of 412 clinical psychologists by the American Psychological Association revealed
that 82% used the Rorschach inkblot test at least occasionally.
PROCEDURE
In order to understand how the inkblot test works, it is important to understand what it
consists of and how it is administered.
1. The Rorschach test consists of 10 inkblot images, some of which are black, white, or gray and
some of which are color.
2. A psychologist or psychiatrist who has been trained in the use, scoring and interpretation of
the test shows each of the ten cards to the respondent. During the test, the subject is provided
with each of the ten cards, one by one.
3. The subject is then asked to describe what he or she thinks the card looks like.
4. Test-takers are allowed to hold the cards in any position they may want, whether it is upside
down or sideways.
5. The respondents are free to interpret the ambiguous image however they want.
6. They may also respond in any way that they want. They may say that they see one thing,
several different things, or even nothing at all.
PROJECTIVE TEST 36
7. Test-takers can focus on the image as a whole, on certain aspects of the image, or even on the
white space that surrounds the image.
8. Once the subject has provided a response, the psychologist will then ask additional questions
to get the subject to further elaborate on his or her initial impressions.
9. The psychologist also rates the reactions on a large number of variables such as whether the
subject looked at the whole image. These observations are then interpreted and compiled into a
profile of the individual.
EVALUATION
The actual content of the responses is one thing, but other factors are essential as well.
Some of the things that interpreters are looking at include:
a. How respondents describe the image: Certain responses are common on each card, so
scorers include a code that identifies such responses.
b. How long they take to respond: Here, taking a very long time before offering a
response might indicate that the respondent is "shocked" by what they see.
c. Factors known as determinants: This includes location, form, color, and shading that
generate and include response.
d. Extra or unrelated comments: This refers to any additional comments that are made
which are not part of the main response.
e. The popularity or originality of the responses given: Some responses are quite
common, while others may be much more unique. Highly atypical responses are notable since
they might indicate disturbances in thought patterns.
CRITICISMS
Despite the popularity of the Rorschach test, it has remained the subject of considerable
controversy. Many of the criticisms center on how the test is scored and whether the results have
any diagnostic value.
The test was criticized extensively during the 1950s and 1960s for its lack of standardized
procedures, scoring methods, and norms. Before 1970, there were as many as five scoring
systems that differed so dramatically that they essentially represented five different versions of
the test. In 1973, John Exner published a comprehensive new scoring system that combined the
strongest elements of the earlier systems. The Exner scoring system is now the standard
approach used in the administration, scoring and interpretation of the Rorschach test.
PROJECTIVE TEST 37
In addition to early criticism of the inconsistent scoring systems, detractors note that the
test's poor validity means that it is unable to accurately identify most psychological disorders. As
you can imagine, scoring the test can be a highly subjective process. Another key criticism of the
Rorschach is that it lacks reliability. In other words, two clinicians might arrive at very different
conclusions even when looking at the same subject's response
The test has shown some effectiveness in the diagnosis of illnesses characterized by
distorted thinking such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Some experts caution however,
that since the Exner scoring system contains errors, clinicians might be prone to over-diagnosing
psychotic disorders if they rely heavily on Exner's system.
APPLICATIONS
The test is primarily used in psychotherapy and counseling; those who use it regularly
often do so as a way of obtaining a great deal of qualitative information about how a person is
feeling and functioning. The therapist and client can then further explore some of these issues
during therapy. Despite the controversies and criticisms over its use, the Rorschach test remains
widely used today in a variety of situations such as in schools, hospitals and courtrooms. Some
skeptics have been more critical, suggesting that the Rorschach is nothing more than
pseudoscience. In 1999, some psychologists called for a complete moratorium on the use of the
Rorschach inkblot for clinical purposes until researchers could better determine which scores are
valid and which are invalid. A later report had more mixed finding about the usefulness of the
inkblot test. The researchers concluded that while the test possessed problems, it did have
established value in identifying thought disorders. "Its value as a measure of thought disorder in
schizophrenia research is well accepted," the researchers suggested. "It is also used regularly in
research on dependency, and, less often, in studies on hostility and anxiety. Furthermore,
substantial evidence justifies the use of the Rorschach as a clinical measure of intelligence and
thought disorders.
REFERENCES:
PROJECTIVE TEST 38
Goldman, Howard H. (2000). Review of general psychiatry. New York: Lange Medical
Books/McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division. ISBN 978-0-8385-8434-7.
Groth-Marnat, Gary (2003). Handbook of psychological assessment. John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 978- 0-471-41979-2.
Hardman, David (2009). Judgment and decision making: psychological perspectives.

WileyBlackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-2398-3.
Retrieved from https://janaenahirney.wordpress.com/2015/10/28/the-draw-a-person-

personality-test/
History of projective testing. Retrieved from http://www.projectiontests.umwblogs.org

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Q.No.1 Discuss educational implications of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Also

Maslow, A. (1954). “Motivation and Personality”. New York: Harper.

Wahba, A, & Bridewel, L. (1976). “Maslow Reconsidered. A review of research on the

and encouragement ( Yogesh Kumar Singh,2005).

Bhatia.H.R (2004). Educational Psychology and Techniques of Teaching. Kalia Publisher

Robert Haris, Version date, October 14, 2012. Retrieved from

These investigators found the key to the measurement of intelligence by focusing on

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Coping with Dilemmas in Current Practice:

4. Choice or ordering techniques- merely involves a selection among alternatives, sometimes

Hardman, David (2009). Judgment and decision making: psychological perspectives.

Retrieved from https://janaenahirney.wordpress.com/2015/10/28/the-draw-a-person-

History of projective testing. Retrieved from http://www.projectiontests.umwblogs.org

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