Educational Research 1

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 1
Name: Faheem Elahi

Roll No: BY646183
Address: R-373, Sector 9, North Karachi.
Course: Educational Research (M.Ed ETE)
Code: 837
Tutor: Syed Arshad Ali
Assignment: 02
Date of Submission:
Final Date of
Submission: 15-02-2020
SCIENTIFIC METHOD 2
Q.No.1 Critically examine the important steps involved in scientific method. What
problems are involved in its use? Elaborate.
Answer: The scientific method offers a standardized way for psychologists to test
hypotheses, build on theories, and gain knowledge about the mind. All scientific disciplines are
united by their use of the scientific method. The scientific method offers an objective
methodology for scientific experimentation that results in unbiased interpretations of the world
and refines knowledge. The scientific method was first outlined by Sir Francis Bacon (1561–
1626) and allows for logical, rational problem solving across many scientific fields. Across all
scientific disciplines, the major precepts of the scientific method are verifiability, predictability,
falsifiability, and fairness.
The Scientific Method: The scientific method is a process for gathering data and processing
information. It provides well-defined steps to standardize how scientific knowledge is gathered
SCIENTIFIC METHOD 2
through a logical, rational problem-solving method. This diagram shows the steps of the
scientific method, which are listed below
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Principles of the Scientific Method

Two key concepts in the scientific approach are theory and hypothesis. A theory is used to make
predictions about future observations. A hypothesis is a testable prediction that is arrived at
logically from a theory.
Several types of studies exist within the scientific method— experiments, descriptive studies,
case studies, surveys, and non-descriptive studies. In an experiment a researcher manipulates
certain variables and measures their effect on other variables in a controlled environment.
Descriptive studies describe the nature of the relationship between the intended variables,
without looking at cause or effect. A case study covers one specific example in which something
unusual has occurred. This is often done in extreme or rare cases, usually with a single subject.
Surveys are used with large groups of people who answer questions about specific subjects. Non-
descriptive studies use correlational methods to predict the relationship between two (or more)
intended variables.
Verifiability means that an experiment must be replicable by another researcher. To achieve
verifiability, researchers must make sure to document their methods and clearly explain how
their experiment is structured and why it produces certain results.
Predictability in a scientific theory implies that the theory should enable us to make predictions
about future events. The precision of these predictions is a measure of the strength of the theory.
Falsifiability refers to whether a hypothesis can disproved. For a hypothesis to be falsifiable, it
must be logically possible to make an observation or do a physical experiment that would show
that there is no support for the hypothesis. Even when a hypothesis cannot be shown to be false,
that does not necessarily mean it is not valid. Future testing may disprove the hypothesis. This
does not mean that a hypothesis has to be shown to be false, just that it can be tested.
To determine whether a hypothesis is supported or not supported, psychological researchers must
conduct hypothesis testing using statistics. Hypothesis testing is a type of statistics that
determines the probability of a hypothesis being true or false. If hypothesis testing reveals that
results were “statistically significant,” this means that there was support for the hypothesis and
that the researchers can be reasonably confident that their result was not due to random chance.
If the results are not statistically significant, this means that the researchers’ hypothesis was not
supported.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD 4
Fairness implies that all data must be considered when evaluating a hypothesis. A researcher
cannot pick and choose what data to keep and what to discard or focus specifically on data that
support or do not support a particular hypothesis. All data must be accounted for, even if they
invalidate the hypothesis.
Steps Involved in the Scientific Method:
The basic steps in the scientific method are:
 Observe a natural phenomenon and define a question about it
 Make a hypothesis, or potential solution to the question
 Test the hypothesis
 If the hypothesis is true, find more evidence or find counter-evidence
 If the hypothesis is false, create a new hypothesis or try again
 Draw conclusions and repeat–the scientific method is never-ending, and no result is ever
considered perfect
In order to ask an important question that may improve our understanding of the world, a
researcher must first observe natural phenomena. By making observations, a researcher can
define a useful question. After finding a question to answer, the researcher can then make a
prediction (a hypothesis) about what he or she thinks the answer will be. This prediction is
usually a statement about the relationship between two or more variables. After making a
hypothesis, the researcher will then design an experiment to test his or her hypothesis and
evaluate the data gathered. These data will either support or refute the hypothesis. Based on the
conclusions drawn from the data, the researcher will then find more evidence to support the
hypothesis, look for counter-evidence to further strengthen the hypothesis, revise the hypothesis
and create a new experiment, or continue to incorporate the information gathered to answer the
research question.
Example of the Scientific Method
To better understand the process of the scientific method, take a look at the following example:
 Observation: My oven doesn’t work.
 Question: Is something wrong with my electrical outlet?
 Hypothesis: If something is wrong with the outlet, my coffeemaker also won’t work when
plugged into it.
 Experiment: I plug my coffeemaker into the outlet.
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 Result: My coffeemaker works.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD 5
 Conclusion: My electrical outlet works, but my oven still won’t toast my bread.
 Refine the hypothesis: My oven is broken.
From this point, the process would be repeated with a refined hypothesis.
Importance of Scientific Method
The use of the scientific method is one of the main features that separates modern psychology
from earlier philosophical inquiries about the mind. Compared to chemistry, physics, and other
“natural sciences,” psychology has long been considered one of the “social sciences” because of
the subjective nature of the things it seeks to study. Many of the concepts that psychologists are
interested in—such as aspects of the human mind, behavior, and emotions—are subjective and
cannot be directly measured. Psychologists often rely instead on behavioral observations and
self-reported data, which are considered by some to be illegitimate or lacking in methodological
rigor. Applying the scientific method to psychology, therefore, helps to standardize the approach
to understanding its very different types of information.
The scientific method allows psychological data to be replicated and confirmed in many
instances, under different circumstances, and by a variety of researchers. Through replication of
experiments, new generations of psychologists can reduce errors and broaden the applicability of
theories. It also allows theories to be tested and validated instead of simply being conjectures that
could never be verified or falsified. All of this allows psychologists to gain a stronger
understanding of how the human mind works.
Scientific articles published in journals and psychology papers written in the style of the
American Psychological Association (i.e., in “APA style”) are structured around the scientific
method. These papers include an Introduction, which introduces the background information and
outlines the hypotheses; a Methods section, which outlines the specifics of how the experiment
was conducted to test the hypothesis; a Results section, which includes the statistics that tested
the hypothesis and state whether it was supported or not supported, and a Discussion and
Conclusion, which state the implications of finding support for, or no support for, the hypothesis.
Writing articles and papers that adhere to the scientific method makes it easy for future
researchers to repeat the study and attempt to replicate the results.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD 6
References:
AIOU Course Team. (2010). Educational Research. Islamabad. Allama Iqbal Open University
Islamabad.
OpenStax College, The Science of Biology. October 21, 2013. Retrieved

from: http://cnx.org/content/m44387/latest/#fig-ch01_01_05_07
Wikipedia: Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science.
\
ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE RESEARCH PROPOSAL 7
Q.No.2 .Describe the various elements of an effective research proposal.

Answer:
Background:
It is always helpful to provide information about your company, its current market
position and where your company wishes to be. This scene setting is helpful for both
internal and external partners working on the research project. It gives clarity of thinking,
provides your starting point and your desired outcome. The sort of information to be
imparted includes:
 Your current knowledge of the market and its dynamics
 Major players and key competitors
 Target markets
 Regulations, pricing, channels to market
 Past and current activity
Objective:
It is important to spell out what you aim to achieve by conducting the research. What
are your information needs? What is your end objective? Well thought out objectives provide
clarity to your research brief.
For example, these could cover any of the following:
 Find out who specifies your product
 Identify ways to increase specification
 Learn about why your product is specified
 Know who is not specifying your product and why…
When writing your objective remember to make it ‘SMART’ – specific, measurable,
achievable, realistic and timely.
Positioning:
Remember to detail how your research objective fits with your marketing strategy and in
turn how it fits with your company’s business strategy. Like the exercise on providing
background information this adds depth to why you are conducting the research, as well as
direction.
Also share any previous research or information that leads up to this project. As well as showing
how the current project fits into the bigger picture it also helps avoid any duplication of work.
Respondents and methodology – how are you wanting the research to be conducted?
If you have a preferred methodology for conducting the research, then make it known. It
is important to detail the requirements you have.
For example, anonymity, how impartial do you want the feedback? Do you want to remain
anonymous for full impartiality?
And who should be contacted when conducting the research? Is it current customers or your
wider target market?
All of this information is important to detail.
Deliverables:
As with the previous point it is important to detail your expectations. Do you want to
receive the top line findings in advance of the final report? Or the final report only? How would
you like the information presented, in a research document only, or as part of a presentation
and/or workshop?
It is also a good idea to detail the timescales for the procurement process, when you expect to
commission the research and any deadlines when you will need the findings.
Conclusion:
Communication is key when agreeing the boundaries of the research project. Delivering a
comprehensive brief is a great starting point but remember to be open to suggestions, to get the
best of the researcher’s knowledge and experience.
And finally ask your research consultancy for
 Examples of similar research reports.
 Experience in the particular sector of importance to your company
 References
References:
Islamabad.
Grade Saver. “Writing Resources – Essay Help / Elements of a Successful Research Paper” 6
March 2018. Retrieved from https://cadvantage-knowledge.co.uk/product/news-
articles/articles/the-5-essential-elements-of-an-awesome-research-brief/0253
SOURCES OF DATA COLLECTION 9
Q.No.3 Computer search is one of the best sources of data collection. Discuss with
reference to distant learners.
Answer: Computer have always assisted to solve the problems faced by the mankind since
the time of invention, the size of the computers has drastically reduced from that of a room to
that can be accommodated in a human palm. The word computer means something which
computes or a machine for performing calculations automatically, but, today computer means not
merely a calculator. It does vast variety of jobs with tremendous speed and efficiency. Today
people use computers in almost every walk of life. Electronic computers have now become an
indispensable part of every profession: so do research. Computers have a very important role to
play in all research activities.
WHY ONLY COMPUTERS?
The importance of computers in scientific research is exceptionally high and the use of a
computer can help scientific research immensely, and is an almost invaluable tool. There are
many reasons why computers are so important in scientific research and here are some of the
main reasons:
1. SPEED: computer can process numbers and information in a very short time. So
researcher can process and analyze data quickly. By saving time researcher can conduct further
research. A calculation that may take a person several hours to process will take computer mere
minutes, if not seconds.
2. ACCURACY: Computer is incredibly accurate. Accuracy is very much important in
scientific research. Wrong calculation could result an entire research or project being filled with
incorrect information.
3. ORGANIZATION: We can store millions of pages of information by using simple folders,
word processors & computer programs. Computer is more productive & safer than using a paper
filing system in which anything can be easily misplaced.
4. CONSISTENCY: computer cannot make mistakes through “tiredness” or lack of
concentration like human being. This characteristic makes it exceptionally important in scientific
research.
COMPUTER IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research
and the desired sequencing of these steps. The following order concerning various steps provides
a useful procedural guideline regarding the research process:

(1) formulating the research problem;
(2) extensive literature survey;
(3) developing the hypothesis;
(4) preparing the research design;
(5) determining sample design;
(6) collecting the data;
(7) execution of the project;
(8) analysis of data;
(9) hypothesis testing;
(10) generalizations and interpretation, and
(11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions
reached.
There are five major phases of the research process. They are:
1. Conceptual phase
2. Design and planning phase
3. Data collection phase
4. Data Analysis phase and
5. Research Publication phase
1. Role of Computer in Conceptual Phase
The conceptual phase consists of formulation of research problem, extensive literature
survey, theoretical frame work and developing the hypothesis.
Use of computers in extensive literature review: computers help for searching the literatures (for
review of literature) and bibliographic reference stored in the electronic database of the world
wide webs. It can thus be used for storing relevant published articles to the retrieved whenever
needed. This has the advantage over searching the literatures in the form of books, journals and
other newsletters at the libraries which consume considerable amount of time and effort.
2. Role of Computers in Design and Planning Phase
This phase consists of research design preparation and determining sample design.
Design and planning phase also consists of population, research variables, sampling plan,
reviewing research plan and pilot study.
OURCES OF DATA COLLECTION 11
Role of Computers for Sample Size Calculation: Several software’s are available to
calculate the sample size required for a proposed study. The standard deviation of the data from
the pilot study is required for the sample size calculation.
3. Role of Computers in Data collection phase
This Empirical phase consists of collecting and preparing the data for analysis: In
research studies, the preparation and inputting data is the most labor-intensive and time
consuming aspect of the work. Typically, the data will be initially recorded on a questionnaire or
record for suitable for its acceptance by the computer. To do this the researcher in conjunction
with the statistician and the programmer, will convert the data into Microsoft word file or excel
spreadsheet or any statistical software data file. These data can be directly opened with statistical
software’s for analysis. Data collection and Storage: The data obtained from the subjects are
stored in computes are word files or excel spread sheets or any statistical software data file. This
has the advantage of making necessary corrections or editing the whole layout of the tables if
needed, which is impossible or time consuming in case of writing in papers. Thus, computers
help in data entry, data editing, data management including follow up actions etc. computers also
allow for greater flexibility in recording the data while they are collected as well as greater ease
during the analysis of these data. Examples of editors are WordPad, SPSS data editor, word
processors, others like ultra-edit etc. Data exposition: Most researchers are anxious about seeing
the data: what they look like; how they are distributed etc. you can also examine different
dimension of variables or plot them in various charts using a statistical application.
4. Role of Computers in Data Analysis
This phase consists of the analysis of data, hypothesis testing and generalizations and
interpretation. Data analysis phase mainly consist of statistical analysis of the data and
interpretation of results.
Data analysis: many software’s are now available to perform the mathematical part of the
research process i.e. the calculations using various statistical methods.
Softwares like SPSS and spreadsheets are the widely used. They can be like calculating
the sample size for a proposed study, hypothesis testing and calculating the power of the study.
Familiarity with any one package will suffice to carry out the most intricate statistical analysis.
Computers are useful not only for statistical analysis, but also to monitor the accuracy
and completeness of the data as they are collected. This software’s also display the results in
graphical char or graph form.
5. Role of Computer in Research Publication
This phase consists of preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal
write-up of conclusions reached. This is the research publication phase. The research article,
research paper, research thesis or research dissertation is typed in word processing software and
converted to portable data format (PDF) and stored and/or published in the world wide web.
Online sites are available through we can convert our word file into any format like html, pdf etc.
Various online applications are also available for this purpose. Even we can prepare our
document using online word processing software and can store/edit/access it from anywhere
using internet.
ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
There are various computer applications used in scientific research. Some of the most
important applications used in scientific research are data storage, data analysis, scientific
simulations, instrumentation control and knowledge sharing. [2] Data Storage Experimentation is
the basis of scientific research. Every experiment in any of the natural sciences generates a lot of
data that needs to be stored and analyzed to derive important conclusions, to validate or disprove
hypotheses. Computers attached with experimental apparatuses, directly record data as it's
generated and subject it to analysis through specially designed software. Data storage is possible
in SPSS data file, lotus spreadsheet, excel spreadsheet, ASCII/DOS text file etc.
Data Analysis
Analyzing tons of statistical data is made possible using specially designed algorithms
that are implemented by computers. This makes the extremely time-consuming job of data
analysis to be a matter of a few minutes. In genetic engineering, computers have made the
sequencing of the entire human genome possible. Data from different sources can be stored and
accessed via computer networks set up in research labs, which makes collaboration simpler.
Scientific Simulations
One of the prime uses of computers in pure science and engineering projects is the
running of simulations. A simulation is a mathematical modeling of a problem and a virtual
study of its possible solutions. Problems which do not yield themselves to experimentation can
be studied through simulations carried out on computers. For example, astrophysicists carry out
structure
formation simulations, which are aimed at studying how large-scale structures like galaxies are
formed. Space missions to the Moon, satellite launches and interplanetary missions are first
simulated on computers to determine the best path that can be taken by the launch vehicle and
spacecraft to reach its destination safely.
Instrumentation Control
Most advanced scientific instruments come with their own on-board computer, which can
be programmed to execute various functions. For example, the Hubble Space Craft has its own
on- board computer system which is remotely programmed to probe the deep space.
Instrumentation control is one of the most important applications of computers.
Knowledge Sharing Through Internet
Lastly, in the form of Internet, computers have provided an entirely new way to share
knowledge. Today, anyone can access the latest research papers that are made available for free
on websites. Sharing of knowledge and collaboration through the Internet, has made international
cooperation on scientific projects possible. Through various kinds of analytical software
programs, computers are contributing to scientific research in every discipline, ranging from
biology to astrophysics, discovering new patterns and providing novel insights. When the work
in neural network based artificial intelligence advances and computers are granted with the
ability to learn and think for themselves, future advances in technology and research will be even
more rapid.
TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS USED IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Statistical Analysis Tool: SPSS
SPSS is the most popular tool for statisticians. SPSS stands for Statistical Package for
Social Sciences. The latest version of SPSS is IBM SPSS STATISTICS 20 (purchased by IBM
after version 19). It provides all analysis facilities like following and many more.
 Provides Data view & variable view
 Measures of central tendency & dispersion
 Statistical inference
 Correlation & Regression analysis
 Analysis of variance
 Non parametric test
 Hypothesis tests: T-test, chi-square, z-test, ANOVA, Bipartite variables etc
 Multivariate data analysis

 Frequency distribution
 Data exposition by using various graphs like line, scatter, bar, ogive, histogram,
pie charts etc.
Data Analysis Tool: SPREADSHEET PACKAGES
A spreadsheet is a computer application that simulates a paper worksheet. It
displays multiple cells that together make up a grid consisting of rows and columns, each
cell containing either alphanumeric text or numeric values.
Microsoft Excel is popular spreadsheet software. Others spreadsheet packages are
Lotus 1-2-3
Quattro Pro, Javeline Plus, Multiplan, VisiCalc, Supercalc, Plan Perfect etc.
OTHER STATISTICAL TOOLS
SAS, S-Plus, LISREL, Eviews etc.
WORD PROCESSOR PACKAGES
A word processor (more formally known as document preparation system) is a
computer application used for the production (including composition, editing, formatting,
and possibly printing) of any sort of printable material.
The word processing packages are Microsoft Word, Wordstar, Word perfect,
Softward, Akshar (Gujarati), Amipro etc.
PRESENTATION SOFTWARE
A presentation program is a computer software package used to display
information, normally in the form of a slide show. It typically includes three major
functions: an editor that allows text to be inserted and formatted, a method for inserting
and manipulating graphic images and a slide- show system to display the content.
The presentation packages are Microsoft PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance Graphics,
Corel Presentations, Apple keynote etc.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT PACKAGES (DBMS)
Database is an organized collection of information. A DBMS is a software
designed to manage a database.
Various Desktop Databases are Microsoft Access, Paradox, Dbase or DbaseIII+,

FoxBASE, FoxPro/ Visual FoxPro, FileMaker Pro
Commercial Database Servers that supports multiuser are Oracle, Ms-SQL
Server, Sybase, Ingres, Informix, DB2 UDB (IBM), Unify, Integral, etc.
Open source Database packages are MySQL, PostgreSQL, Firebird etc.
BROWSERS
A web browser is a software application which enables a user to display and
interact with text, images, videos, music, games and other information typically located
on a Web page at a website on the World Wide Web or a local area network.
Examples are Microsoft Internet explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Netscape
navigator, Chrome (google browser), Safari
TOOLS THROUGH INTERNET
SEARCH ENGINES (to search the information) Google (popular search engine)
Yahoo! WebCrawler Excite AltaVista Online Data/Documentation Management (to
manage your documents online) Dropbox Google Drive Google Docs MS Sky Drive
(free) Microsoft 365 (paid version) Online Data Collection (To collect data online from
different users) Online forms Online questionnaires Online surveys Collaboration tools
Skype : Voice and video conferencing Google Hangouts :Voice and video conferencing
Modern Research tools Zotero Evernote Modern electronic research tools, like Zotero
and Evernote, make the collection of research data, and collaboration between colleagues
possible, which that in the past would have been difficult, expensive, or even impossible.
They also save large amounts of time citing and creating bibliographies. Evernote allows
the user to capture digital content, including web pages, PDF files or snippets of web
pages, organize them, annotate them, share them, publish them and search them.
CONCLUSION
Use of computer in research in science is so extensive that it is difficult to
conceive today a scientific research project without computer. Many research studies
cannot be carried out without use of computer particularly those involving complex
computations, data analysis and modeling. Computer in scientific research is used at all
stages of study-from proposal/budget stage to submission/presentation of findings.
References:
Islamabad.
Kothari C R, “Research Methodology, Methods and Techniques”, New Age International

Publishers, pp.10-19, 2004.
Rich McCue, Research & Collaboration Tools for Students, Staff & Faculty: Creating a Modern
Memex, http://richmccue.com
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Q.No.4 Write down the characteristics of different tools of research.

Answer: Research is an essential and powerful tool in leading man towards progress.
Without systematic research there would have been very little progress. John W. Best has rightly
said, “The secret of our cultural development has been research, pushing back the areas of
ignorance by discovering new truths, which, in turn, lead to better ways of doing things and
better products.” Scientific research leads to progress in some field of life. New products, new
facts, new concepts and new ways of doing things are being found due to ever-increasing
significant research in the physical, the biological, the social and the psychological fields.
Research today is no longer confined to the science laboratory.
Definitions of Research:
The following are the important definitions of research:
“Research is an endeavor / attempt to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is an
intellectual process that has developed over hundreds of years ever changing in purpose and form
and always researching to truth.” J. Francis Rummel.
“Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching
conclusions and at last careful testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulated hypothesis.” Clifford Woody
“Research is a systematic effort to gain new knowledge.” Redman & Mori
Tools of Research:
Following research tools are frequently used all over the world.
1. Rating scale
2. Questionnaire.
3. Checklist.
4. Psychological Test.
5. Observation.
6. Interview.
1. RATING SCALE:
Rating scale is one of the enquiry form. Form is a term applied to expression or judgment
regarding some situation, object or character. Opinions are usually expressed on a scale of
values.
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Rating techniques are devices by which such judgments may be quantified. Rating scale is a very
useful device in assessing quality, especially when quality is difficult to measure objectively. For
Example, “How good was the performance?” is a question which can hardly be answered
objectively. Rating scales record judgment or opinions and indicates the degree or amount of
different degrees of quality which are arranged along a line is the scale. For example: How good
was the performance?
Excellent Very good Good Average Below average Poor Very poor ___|
__________|_________|_________|_________|___________|_______|____
This is the most commonly used instrument for making appraisals. It has a large variety
of forms and uses. Typically, they direct attention to a number of aspects or traits of the thing to
be rated and provide a scale for assigning values to each of the aspects selected. They try to
measure the nature or degree of certain aspects or characteristics of a person or phenomenon
through the use of a series of numbers, qualitative terms or verbal descriptions.
Ratings can be obtained through one of three major approaches:
• Paired comparison
• Ranking and
• Rating scales.
The first attempt at rating personality characteristics was the man to man technique
devised curing World-war-I. This technique calls for a panel of raters to rate every individual in
comparison to a standard person. This is known as the paired comparison approach.
In the ranking approach every single individual in a group is compared with every other
individual and to arrange the judgment in the form of a scale.
In the rating scale approach which is the more common and practical method rating is
based on the rating scales, a procedure which consists of assigning to each trait being rated a
scale value giving a valid estimate of its status and then comparing the separate ratings into an
over all score.
Purpose of Rating Scale:
Rating scales have been successfully utilized for measuring the following:
• Teacher Performance/Effectiveness
• Personality, anxiety, stress, emotional intelligence etc.
• School appraisal including appraisal of courses, practices and programmes.
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Useful hints on Construction of Rating Scale:

A rating scale includes three factors like:
i) The subjects or the phenomena to be rated.
ii) The continuum along which they will be rated and
iii) The judges who will do the rating.
All taken three factors should be carefully taken care by you when you construct the rating scale.
1) The subjects or phenomena to be rated are usually a limited number of aspects of a thing
or of a traits of a person. Only the most significant aspects for the purpose of the study should be
chosen. The usual may to get judgement is on five to seven point scales as we have already
discussed.
2) The rating scale is always composed of two parts:
i) An instruction which names the subject and defines the continuum and
ii) A scale which defines the points to be used in rating.
3) Any one can serve as a rater where non-technical opinions, likes and dislikes and matters of
easy observation are to be rated. But only well informed and experienced persons should be
selected for rating where technical competence is required. Therefore, you should select experts
in the field as rater or a person who form a sample of the population in which the scale will
subsequently be applied. Pooled judgements increase the reliability of any rating scale. So
employ several judges, depending on the rating situation to obtain desirable reliability.
Use of Rating Scale:
Rating scales are used for testing the validity of many objective instruments like paper
pencil inventories of personality.
They are also advantages in the following fields like:
• Helpful in writing reports to parents
• Helpful in filling out admission blanks for colleges
• Helpful in finding out student needs
• Making recommendations to employers.
• Supplementing other sources of understanding about the child
• Stimulating effect upon the individuals who are rated.
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Limitations of Rating Scale:

The rating scales suffer from many errors and limitations like the following: As you
know that the raters would not like to run down their own people by giving them low ratings. So
in that case they give high ratings to almost all cases. Sometimes also the raters are included to
be unduly generous in rating aspects which they had to opportunity to observe. It the raters rate
in higher side due to those factors, then it is called as the generosity error of rating.
2. QUESTIONNAIRE:
A questionnaire is a form prepared and distributed to secure responses to certain
questions. It is a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent
fills by himself. It is a systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of
population from which information is desired. Questionnaire rely on written information
supplied directly by people in response to questions. The information from questionnaires tends
to fall into two broad categories – ‘facts’ and ‘opinions’. It is worth stressing that, in practice,
questionnaires are very likely to include questions about both facts and opinions.
Purpose:
The purpose of the questionnaire is to gather information from widely scattered sources.
It is mostly used in uses in cases where one can not readily see personally all of the people from
whom he desires responses. It is also used where there is no particular reason to see them
personality.
Types: Questionnaire can be of various type on the basis of its preparation. They are like:
• Structured v/s Non Structured
• Closed v/s Open
• Fact v/s Opinion
Structured v/s Non-Structured Questionnaire:
The structured questionnaire contains definite, concrete and directed questions, where as
non-structured questionnaire is often used in interview and guide. It may consist of partially
completed questions.
Closed v/s Open Questionnaire:
The question that call for short check responses are known as restricted or closed form
type. For Example, they provide for marking a yes or no, a short response or checking an item
RESEARCH TOOLS 19
from a list of responses. Here the respondent is not free to wrote of his own, he was to select
from
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the selected from the supplied responses. On the other hand, increase of open ended
questionnaire, the respondent is free to response in his own words. Many questionnaires also
included both close and open type questions. The researcher selects the type of questionnaire
according to his need of the study.
Planning the Use of Questionnaire:
The successful use of questionnaire depends on devoting the right balance of effort to the
planning stage, rather than rushing too early into administering the questionnaire. Therefore, the
researcher should have a clear plan of action in mind and costs, production, organization, time
schedule and permission should be taken care in the beginning. When designing a questionnaire,
the characteristics of a good questionnaire should be kept in mind.
Characteristics of A Good Questionnaire:
• Questionnaire should deal with important or significant topic to create interest among
respondents.
• It should seek only that data which cannot be obtained from other sources.
• It should be as short as possible but should be comprehensive.
• It should be attractive.
• Directions should be clear and complete.
• It should be represented in good Psychological order proceeding from general to more
specific responses.
• Double negatives in questions should be avoided.
• Putting two questions in one question also should be avoided.
• It should avoid annoying or embarrassing questions.
• It should be designed to collect information which can be used subsequently as data for
analysis.
• It should consist of a written list of questions.
• The questionnaire should also be used appropriately.
Advantages of Questionnaire:
Questionnaire are economical. In terms of materials, money and time it can supply a
considerable amount of research data.
• It is easier to arrange.
• It supplies standardized answers
RESEARCH TOOLS 21
• It encourages pre-coded answers.

• It permits wide coverage.
• It helps in conducting depth study.
Disadvantages:
• It is reliable and valid, but slow.
• Pre-coding questions can deter them from answering.
• Pre-coded questions can bias the findings towards the researcher.
• Postal questionnaire offer little opportunities to check the truthfulness of the answers.
• It cannot be used with illiterate and small children.
irrespective of the limitations general consensus goes in favour of the use of questionnaire. Its
quality should be improved and we should be restricted to the situations for which it is suited.
3. CHECKLIST:
A checklist, is a type of informational job aid used to reduce failure by compensating for
potential limits of human memory and attention. It helps to ensure consisting and completeness
in carrying out a task. A basic example is ‘to do list’. A more advanced checklist which lays out
tasks to be done according to time of a day or other factors. The checklist consists of a list of
items with a place to check, or to mark yes or no.
Purpose:
The main purpose of checklist is to call attention to various aspects of an object or
situation, to see that nothing of importance is overlooked. For Example, if you have to go for
outing for a week, you have to list what things you have to take with you. Before leaving home,
if you will check your baggage with the least there will be less chance of forgetting to take any
important things, like toothbrush etc. it ensures the completeness of details of the data.
Responses to the checklist items are largely a matter of fact, not of judgment. It is an important
tool in gathering facts for educational surveys.
Uses:
Checklists are used for various purposes. As we have discussed that we can check our
requirements for journey, Birthday list, proforma for pass-port, submitting examination form or
admission form etc. in every case, it we will check before doing the work, then there is less
chance of overlooking any, important things. As it is useful in over daily life, it is also useful in
educational field in the following way.
RESEARCH TOOLS 22
• To collect acts for educational surveys.

• To record behaviour in observational studies.
• To use in educational appraisal, studies – of school buildings, property, plan, textbooks,
instructional procedures and outcomes etc.
• To rate the personality.
• To know the interest of the subjects also. Kuder’s interest inventory and Strong’s
Interest Blank are also checklists.
Steps of Constructing Checklist:
• Items in the checklist may be continuous or divided into groups of related items.
• Items should be arranged in categories and the categories in a logical or psychological
order.
• Terms used in the items should be clearly defined.
• Checklist should be continuous and comprehensive in nature.
• A pilot study should be taken to make it standardized.
• Checklist can be constructed in four different ways by arranging items differently.
Analysis and Interpretation of Checklist Data:
The tabulation and quantification of checklist data is done from the responses.
Frequencies are counted, percentages and averages calculated, central tendencies, measures of
variability and co-efficient of correlation completed as and when necessary. In long checklists,
where related items are grouped together category wise, the checks are added up to give total
scores for the category wise total scores can be compared between themselves or with similar
scores secured through other studies.
The conclusions from checklist data should be arrived at carefully ad judiciously keeping
in view the limitations of the tools and respondents.
Merits:
• Students can measure their own behaviour with the help of checklist.
• Easy and simple to use and frame the tools. • Wanted and unwanted behaviours can be
included.
• Personal - Social development can be checked.
RESEARCH TOOLS 23
Limitations:
• Only the presence or absence of the ability can be tested.
• Yes or no type judgement can only be given.
• How much cannot be tested through checklist.
For Example, you want to test the story telling still of a student. You can check only whether the
student developed or not developed the skill but you cannot study how much he has developed?
When we want to check ‘yes’ or ‘no’ of any ability, checklist is used.
4. PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS:
Among the most useful and most frequently employed tools of educational research
psychological tests occupy a very significant position. Psychological tests are described to
describe and measure a sample of certain aspects of human behaviour or inner qualities. They
yield objective descriptions of some psychological aspects of an individual’s personality and
translate them in quantitative terms. As we have mentioned earlier there are various kinds of
psychological tests. In this unit we will discuss ‘Aptitude tests’ and ‘Inventories’.
Aptitude Tests:
“Aptitude tests attempt to predict the capacities or the degree of achievement that may be
expected from individuals in a particular activity”.
Aptitude is a means by which one can find the relative knowledge of a person in terms of
his intelligence and also his knowledge in general.
Purpose:
The purpose of aptitude test is to test a candidate’s profile. Aptitude test helps to check
one’s knowledge and filters the good candidates. The ability of creativity and intelligence is
proved by the aptitude test. It always checks the intelligence and fastness of the person in
performance. Importance of Aptitude Test:
Research data show that individually administered aptitude tests have the following
qualities:
• They are excellent predictors of future scholastic achievement.
• They provide ways for comparison of a child’s performance with other in a same
situation.
• They provide a profile of strength and weaknesses.
RESEARCH TOOLS 24
• They asses difference among individuals.

Uses of Aptitude Test:
Aptitude tests are valuable in making programme and curricula decisions. In general, they
have three major uses:
Instructional: Teacher can use aptitude test results to adopt their curricula to match the level of
students or to design assignments for students who differ widely.
Administrative: Result of Aptitude tests help in determining the programmes for college on the
basis of aptitude level of high-school. It can also be identify students to be accelerated or given
extra attention, for exampling and in predicting job training performance.
Guidance: result of aptitude tests help counsellors to help parents and students. Parents develop
realistic expectations for their Child’s performance and students understand their own strength
and weaknesses. Intelligence tests are also a kind of aptitude test as they describe and measure
the general ability which enters into the performance of every activity and thus predict the degree
of achievement that may be expected from individuals in various activities. Aptitude test,
however have proved of great value for research in educational and vocational guidance, for
research in selection of candidates for particular course of study or professional training and for
research of the complex causal relationship type.
5. OBSERVATION:
Observation offers the researcher a distinct way of collecting data. It does not rely on
what people say they do, or what they say they think. It is more direct than that. Instead, it draws
on the direct evidence of the eye to witness events first hand. It is a more natural way of
gathering data. Whenever direct observation is possible it is the preferable method to use.
Observation method is a technique in which the behaviour of research subjects is watched and
recorded without any direct contact. It involves the systematic recording of observable
phenomena or behaviour in a natural setting.
Purpose:
The purpose of observation techniques are:
• To collect data directly.
• To collect substantial amount of data in short time span.
RESEARCH TOOLS 25
 To get eye witness first hand data in real like situation.

 To collect data in a natural setting.
Characteristics:
It is necessary to make a distinction between observation as a scientific tool and the
casual observation of the man in the street. An observation with the following characteristics will
be scientific observation.
• Observation is systematic.
• It is specific.
• It is objective.
• It is quantitative.
• The record of observation should be made immediately.
• Expert observer should observe the situation.
• It’s result can be checked and verified.
Types of Observation:
On the basis of the purpose of observation may be of varied type like:
• Structured and Unstructured
• Participant and Non-participant
Structured and Unstructured Observation:
In the early large stage of an investigation, it is necessary to allow maximum flexibility in
observation to obtain a true picture of the phenomenon as a whole. In the early stage, it we
attempt to restrict the observation to certain areas, then there we’, be the risk of overlooking
some of the more crucial aspects. As the investigator studies the significant aspects and observes
some restricted aspects of the situation to derive more and rigorous generalizations. So in the
first stage of observation, the observation is wide and unstructured and as the investigation
proceeds observation gets restricted and structured.
Participant and Non-Participant Observation:
In participant observation, the observer becomes more or less one of the groups under
observation and shares the situation as a visiting stranger, an attentive listener, an eager learner
or as a complete participant observer, registering, recording and interpreting behaviour of the
group. In non-participant observation, the observer observes through one way screens and hidden
microphones. The observer remains a look from group. He keeps his observation as
RESEARCH TOOLS 25
inconspicuous as possible. The purpose of non-participant observation is to observe the

behaviour in a natural setting. The subject will not shift his behaviour or the will not be
conscious hat someone is observing his behaviour. The advantages and disadvantages of
participant and nonparticipant observation depend largely on the situation. Participant
observation is helpful to study about criminals at least participating with person sometime. It
gives a better insight into the life. Therefore, it has a built in validity test. Its disadvantages are
that it 198 is time consuming As he develops relationship with the members, there is a chance of
losing his neutrality, objectivity and accuracy to rate things as they are: Non-participant
observation is used with groups like infants, children or abnormal persons. It permits the use of
recording instruments and the gathering of large quantities of data. Therefore, some researchers
feel that it is best for the observer to remain only a partial participant and to maintain his status
of scientific observer apart from the group.
Steps of Effective Observation:
As a research tool effective observation needs effective
• Planning
• Execution
• Recording and
• Interpretation Planning:
While planning to employ observation as a research technique the following factors
should be taken into consideration.
• Sample to be observed should be adequate.
• Units of behaviour to be observed should be clearly defined.
• Methods of recording should be simplified.
• Detail instruction should be given to observes if more than one observe is employed to
maintain consistency.
• Too many variables should not be observed simultaneously.
• Excessively long period of observation without rest period should be avoided.
• Observes should be fully trained and well equipped.
• Records of observation must be comprehensive.
Execution:
RESEARCH TOOLS 25
A good observation plan lends to success only when followed with skill and expert
execution. Expert execution needs:
RESEARCH TOOLS 26
• Proper arrangement of special conditions for the subject.

• Assuming the proper physical position for observing.
• Focusing attention on the specific activities or units of behaviour under observation.
• Observing discreetly the length and number of periods and internals decided upon.
• Handling well the recording instruments to be used.
• Utilizing the training received in terms of expertness.
Recording:
The two common procedures for recording observations are:
• Simultaneous
• Soon after the observation.
Which methods should be used depend on the nature of the group? The type of behaviour to be
observed. Both the method has their merits and limitations. The simultaneous form of recording
may distract the subjects while after observation the observer may distract the subjects while
after observation the observer may fail to record the complete and exact information. Therefore,
for a systematic collection of data the various devices of recording should be used. They are like
– checklist, rating scale and score card etc.
Interpretation:
Interpretation can be done directly by the observer at the time of his observation. Where
several observers are involved, the problem of university is there. Therefore, in such instances,
the observer merely records his observations and leaves the matter of interpretation to an export
that is more likely to provide a unified frame of reference. It must of course, be recognized that
the interpreter’s frame of reference is fundamental to any interpretation and it might be advisable
to insist on agreement between interpreters of different background.
Limitations of Observation:
• The limitations of observation are:
• Establishing validity is difficult.
• Subjectivity is also there.
• It is a slow and laborious process.
• It is costly both in terms of time of time and money.
• The data may be unmanageable.
RESEARCH TOOLS 27
• There is possibility of biasness.

These limitations can be minimized by systematic observation as it provides a
framework for observation which all observes will use. It has the following advantages.
Advantages of Observation:
• Data collected directly
• Systematic and rigorous
• Substantial amount of data can be collected in a relatively short time span.
• Provides pre-coded data and ready for analysis.
• Inter observer reliability is high.
However, observation is a scientific technique to the extent that it serves a formulated research
purpose, planned systematically rather than occurring haphazardly, systematically recorded and
related to more general propositions and subjected to checks and controls with respect to
validity, reliability and precision.
6. INTERVIEW:
Interviews are an attractive proposition for the project researcher. Interviews are
something more than conversation. They involve a set of assumptions and understandings about
the situation which are not normally associated with a casual conversion. Interviews are also
referred as an oral questionnaire by some people, but it is indeed mush more than that.
Questionnaire involves indirect data collection, whereas Interview data is collected directly from
others in face to face contact. As you know, people are hesitant to wrote something than to talk.
With friendly relationship and rapport, the interviewer can obtain certain types of confidential
information which might be reluctant to put in writing. Therefore, research interview should be
systematically arranged. It does not happen by chance. The interviews not done by secret
recording of discussions as research data. The consent of the subject is taken for the purpose of
interview. The words of the interviews can be treated as ‘on the record’ and ‘for the record’. It
should not be used for other purposes besides the research purpose. The discussion therefore is
not arbitrary or at the whim of one of the parties. The agenda for the discussion is set by the
researcher. It is dedicated to investigating a given topic. Importance of Interview:
Whether it is large scale research or small scale research, the nature of the data collection
depends on the amount of resources available. Interview is particularly appropriate when the
researcher wishes to collect data based on:
RESEARCH TOOLS 27
• Emotions, experiences and feelings: Sensitive issues. Privileged information.

• It is appropriate when dealing with young children, illiterates, language difficulty and
limited, intelligence.
• It supplies the detail and depth needed to ensure that the questionnaire asks valid
questions while preparing questionnaire.
• It is a follow up to a questionnaire and complement the questionnaire.
• It can be combined with other tools in order to corroborate facts using a different
approach.
• It is one of the normative survey methods, but it is also applied in historical,
experimental, case studies.
Types of Interview:
Interviews vary in purpose, nature and scope. They may be conducted for guidance,
therapentic or research purposes. They may be confined to one individual or extended to several
people.
The following discussions describe several types of interview.
Structured Interview: Structured interview involves fight control over the format of questions
and answers. It is like a questionnaire which is administered face to face with a respondent. The
researcher has a predetermined list of questions. Each respondent is faced with identical
questions. The choice of alternative answers is restricted to a predetermined list. This type of
interview is rigidly standardized and formal. Structured interviews are often associated with
social surveys where researchers are trying to collect large volumes of data from a wide range of
respondents. Semi-Structured Interview: In semi-structures interview, the interviewer also has
a clear list of issues to be addressed and questions to be answered. There is some flexibility in
the order of the topics. In this type of interviewee is given chance to develop his ideas and speak
more widely on the issues raised by the researcher. The answers are open-ended and more
emphasis is on the interviewee elaborating points of interest.
Unstructured Interview: In case of unstructured interview, emphasis is placed on the
interviewee’s thoughts. The role of the researcher is to be as unintruisve as possible. The
researcher introduces a theme or topic and then letting the interviewee develop his or her ideas
and pursue his or her train of thought. Allowing interviewees to speak their minds is a better way
of discovering things about complex issues. It gives opportunity for in depth investigations.
RESEARCH TOOLS 28
Single Interview: This is a common form of semi structured or un-structured interview. It

involves a meeting between one researcher and one informant. It is easy to arrange this type of
interview. It helps the researcher to locate specific ideas with specific people. It is also easy to
control the situation in the part of the interviewer.
Group Interview: In case of group interview, more than one informant is involved. The
numbers involved normally about four to six people. Here you may think that it is difficult to get
people together to discuss matters on one occasion and how many voices can contribute to the
discussion during any one interview. But the crucial thing to bear in mind. Here is that a group
interview is not an opportunity for the researcher to questions to a sequence of individuals,
taking turns around a table. ‘group’ is crucial here, because it tells us that those present in the
interview will interact with one another and that the discussion will operate at the level of the
group. They can present a wide range of information and varied viewpoints.
Focus Group Interview: This is an extremely popular form of interview technique. It consists
of a small group of people, usually between six and nine in number. This is useful for non-
sensitive and non-sensitive and noncontroversial topics. The session usually revolves around a
prompt, a trigger, some stimulus introduced by the interviewer in order to ‘focus’ the discussion.
The respondents are permitted to express themselves completely, but the interviewer directs the
live of thought. In this case, importance is given on collective views rather than the aggregate
view. It concentrates on particular event or experience rather than on a general line of equality.
Requirements of a Good Interview:
As a tool of research good interview requires:
• Proper preparation.
• Skillful execution and
• Adequate recording and interpretation.
Preparation for Interview:
The follow actors need to be determined in advance of the actual interview:
• Purpose and information needed should be clear.
• Which type of interview best suited for the purpose should be decided.
• A clear outline and framework should be systematically prepared.
• Planning should be done for recording responses.
RESEARCH TOOLS 28
Execution of the Interview:

• Rapport should be established.
• Described information should be collected with a stimulating and encouraging
discussion.
• Recording device should lease without distracting the interviewee.
Recording and Interpreting Responses:
• It is best to record through tape recorder.
• It the responses is to be noted down, it should be either noted simultaneously or
immediately after it.
• Instead of recording responses, sometimes the researcher noted the evaluation directly
interpreting the responses.
Advantages of Interview:
Interviews techniques has the following advantages:
Depth Information: Interviews are particularly good at producing data which deal with topics in
depth and in detail. Subjects can be probed, issues pursued lines of investigation followed over a
relatively lengthy period.
Insights: The researcher is likely to gain valuable insights based on the depth of the information
gathered and the wisdom of “key informants”.
Equipment: Interviews require only simple equipment and build on conversation skills which
researchers already have.
Information Priorities: Interviews are a good method for producing data based on informant’s
priorities, opinions and ideas. Informants have the opportunity to expand their ideas, explain
their views and identify what regard as their crucial factors.
Flexibility: Interviews are more flexible as a method of data collection. During adjustments to
the line of enquiry can be made.
Validity: Direct contact at the point of the interview means that data can be checked for
accuracy and relevance as they are collected.
High response rate: Interviews are generally pre-arranged and scheduled for a convenient time
and location. This ensures a relatively high response rate.
RESEARCH TOOLS 28
Therapeutic: Interviews can be a rewarding experience for the informant, compared with
questionnaires, observation and experiments, there is a more personal element to the method and
people end to enjoy the rather rare chance to talk about their ideas at length to a person whose
RESEARCH TOOLS 29
purpose is to listen ad note the ideas without being critical.

Disadvantages of Interviews:
Irrespective of the above advantages, it has the following disadvantages.
Time Consuming: Analysis of data can be difficult and time consuming. Data preparation and
analysis is “end loaded” compared with, for instance, questionnaires, which are preceded and
where data are 206 ready for analysis once they have collected. The transcribing and coding of
interview data is a major task for the researcher which occurs after the data have been collected.
Difficulty in data analysis: This method produces non-standard responses. Semistructured and
unstructured interviews produce data that are not pre coded and have a relatively open format.
Less Reliability: Consistency and objectivity are hard to achieve. The data collected are, to an
extent, unique owing to the specific content and the specific individuals involved. This has an
adverse effect on reliability.
Interviewer Effect: The identity of the researcher may affect the statements of the interviewee.
They may say what they do or what they prefer to do. The two may not tally.
Inhibitions: The tape recorder or video recorder may inhibit the important. The interview is an
artificial situation where people are speaking for the record and on the record and this can be
daunting for certain kinds of people.
Invasion of Privacy: Interviewing can be an invasion of Privacy and may be upsetting for the
informant.
Resources: The cost of interviewer’s fine, of travel and of transcription can be relatively high it
the informants are geographically widespread. On the basis of the merits and limitations of the
interview techniques it is used in many ways for research and non-research purposes. This
technique was used in common wealth teacher training study to know the traits must essentials
for success in teaching. Apart from being an independent data collection tool, it may play an
important role in the preparation of questionnaires and check lists which are to be put to
extensive use.
RESEARCH TOOLS 30
References:
Islamabad.
Siddhu Kulbir Singh (1992). Methodology of Research in Education, Sterling Publisher, New
Delhi.
Denscombe, Martyn (1999). “The Good Research Guide” Viva Books Private Limited, (19)(24)
COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH REPORT 31
Q. No.5 Write a detailed note on the main divisions of which points to consider while
writing a research report. Elaborate.
Answer:
Definition:
Research is the systematic investigations into study of a natural phenomena or materials
or sources or existing condition of the society in order to identify facts or to get additional
information and derive new conclusions. It is a production process, which needs a number of
inputs to produce new knowledge and application of new and existing knowledge to generate
technology that ultimately may generate economic prosperity of a nation. Simply, a research
paper/report is a systematic write up on the findings of the study including methodologies,
discussion, conclusions etc. following a definite style. The research report writers in making the
report good qualitative should remember the saying ‘Try to express, not to impress’. More
elaborately and precisely, a report or systematic write up on the findings of a research study
including an abstract/executive summary/summary, introduction (Background with literature
review, justification, objectives etc.) methodology/materials and methods (including statistical
design, if any), results and discussion, conclusions and recommendations, references etc.
following a definite style or format may be called a Research Report.
Types of Report:
General types of reports are –
1. Informational
 Inform or instruct – present information.
 Reader sees the details of events, activities or conditions.
 No analysis of the situation, no conclusion, no recommendations.
2. Analytical
 Written to solve problems.
 Information is analyzed.
 Conclusions are drawn and recommendations are made.
3. Persuasive
 An extension of analytical reports - main focus is to sell an idea, a service, or product.
 Proposals are the most common type.
Reports usually have a more diverse audience, more than one purpose and more detailed
information. Some other types of reports are –
 Incident Report: A report describing how close you are to completing something you
planned.
 Accident Report: A report describing how many goods or services were sold, and the
reasons for any differences from the plan.
 Sales Report: A report on what has happened in a place, and how close your
organization is to finishing construction.
 Progress Report: An academic report on how and why something has changed over
time.  Feasibility Study/Report: A report describing something that has happened. 
Recommendation Report: A report on how practical a proposal is.
 Site: A report on what your organization should do.
 Case Study: A report describing how someone was hurt or something was damaged.
 Periodic Operating Reports: To monitor and control production, sales, shipping,
service, etc.
 Situational Report: To describe one-time events, such as trips, conferences, and
seminars.  Investigative/Informational: To examine problems and supply facts – with
little analysis.
 Compliance: To respond to government agencies and laws.
 Justification/Recommendation: To make recommendations to management and
become tools to solve problems and make decisions.
 Yardstick: To establish criteria and evaluate alternatives by measuring against the
‘yardstick’ criteria.
 Research Studies: To study problems scientifically by analyzing a problem, developing
hypotheses, collecting data, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.
Components of A Research Report:
Scientific research articles provide a method for scientists to communicate with
other scientists about the results of their research. A standard format is used for these
articles, in which the author presents the research in an orderly, logical manner.
This doesn't necessarily reflect the order in which you did or thought about the work. The
following is a general outline for a research report.
1. Title
2. Authors
3. Abstract
4. Introduction
5. Method
6. Results
7. Discussion
8. References
1. TITLE:
 The title is centered at the top of the page and only important words are capitalized. It
includes a very brief statement of the main variables (independent and dependent) in the
study.
 Make the title specific enough to describe the contents of the paper, but not so
technical that only specialists will understand. The title should be appropriate for the
intended audience.
 The title usually describes the subject matter of the article. For example: Effect of
Smoking on Academic Performance.
 Sometimes a title that summarizes the results is more effective. Example: Students
Who Smoke Get Lower Grades.
 Titles with colons are currently in vogue but usually they are not as cute as you think
they are when you first think of them.
 Notice that the title allows the reader the most succinct summary of the main ‘players’
in the experiment and the character of their relationship to each other.
2. AUTHORS:
 The author’s name is centered below the title along with the name of the university or
research institution.
 The person who did the work and wrote the paper is generally listed as the first author
of a research paper.
 For published articles, other people who made substantial contributions to the work are
also listed as authors. Ask your mentor's permission before including his/her name as co-
author.
3. ABSTRACT:
 An abstract or summary is published together with a research article, giving the reader
a ‘preview’ of what’s to come. This is used by potential readers to determine whether or
not the paper is interesting enough to read, so it should be clear, concise and complete.
 Abstract should be one paragraph of 100-250 words, which summarizes the purpose,
methods, results and conclusions of the paper.
 It includes a statement of the manipulations of the independent variables and a précis
of the results of the research. Do not include review of the literature or theoretical
background, but leave these for the ‘Introduction and Discussion’.
 It is easiest to write the abstract after the paper itself is written. A rough rule of thumb
is to write an introductory sentence, then one sentence per chapter of your report and a
few sentences summarizing your most important conclusions/recommendations.
 Don’t use abbreviations or citations in the abstract. It should be able to stand alone
without any footnotes.
Here is a summary of the content of the ABSTRACT and its order of presentation.
a. Identification the subject population,
b. Specification of the research design,
c. Apparatus and data gathering procedures,
d. Summary of the results including statistical significance levels,
e. Report on the inferences made or comparisons drawn from the results.
4. INTRODUCTION:
 Centre the word ‘INTRODUCTION’ on the page. It begins on a new page which is
numbered. Put down the title once again as on the face page, but do not repeat
researcher’s name.
 A reader of the introduction should be able to answer the following questions, although
not in any depth.
a) What is the research about?
b) Why is it relevant or important?

c) What are the issues or problems?
d) What is the proposed solution or approach?
e) What can one expect in the rest of the research?
 Tell the reader what the problem is, what question you will try to answer, and why it is
important. It might be important for practical reasons or for theoretical (or
methodological) reasons having to do with the development of a scholarly discipline.
Don’t neglect either type of reason.
 The introduction should lead up to, and conclude with, a statement of how you intend
to approach your question and why your approach is an improvement on past efforts (or
why it is worth undertaking even if it isn’t). This is essentially what is new about your
approach, your particular contribution.
 You can think of the introduction as (i) a description of the psychological issues that
you are going to investigate; (ii) a discussion of the research question(s) or hypothesis
that you are examining; and (iii) a reference to other studies (in the same area) which
have results which bear on your research project - whether they are in the same direction
as your hypothesis or in the opposite direction. The final paragraph(s) should include a
more specific definition of your variables (independent and dependent) and a clear
statement of the predictions based on the background information that you have
presented.
 The related work section (sometimes called literature review) is just that, a review of
work related to the problem you are attempting to solve. It should identify and evaluate
past approaches to the problem. It should also identify similar solutions to yours that have
been applied to other problems not necessarily directly related to the one you’re solving.
Reviewing the successes or limitations of your proposed solution in other contexts
provides important understanding that should result in avoiding past mistakes, taking
advantage of previous successes, and most importantly, potentially improving your
solution or the technique in general when applied in your context and others. In addition
to the obvious purpose indicated, the related work section also can serve to –
 justify that the problem exists by example and argument,
 motivate interest in your work by demonstrating relevance and importance,
 identify the important issues, and

 provide background to your solution. Any remaining doubts over the existence,
justification, motivation, or relevance of your research topic or problem at the end of the
introduction should be gone by the end of related work section
 Avoid editorialization, personal opinion and judgmental statements. Stay close to the
data, theory, design and hypotheses. Your hypotheses should never appear to come out of
nowhere or to be derived from personal opinion and preference.
 Hypotheses are usually stated formally in the closing paragraph of the introduction. If
you have more than one hypothesis, state them in a logical order using numbers.
Although your experiment may contain more than one independent variable and
dependent variable, each hypothesis can contain only one of each type of variable. You
state them in conceptual terms rather than in terms of the specific procedures (operational
definitions) used in your experiment.
 Concepts and terms are to be defined clearly as soon as they are introduced and then
used consistently thereafter. Make sure you do not include the term you are defining in
the body of the definition (tautology).
5. METHOD
 This section can be thought of as the ‘cookbook’ section of the paper, by reading this
section, could duplicate (or in research terms, replicate) your study. Therefore, it should
be complete, detailed and clear enough to allow another investigator to understand how
you ran your experiment.
 Centre the word ‘METHOD’ on the page. This section is written in past tense.
 The methods section is generally easy to write - you simply describe what you did,
how you did it, and when you did it.
The method is divided into several subsection headings which you should use in the organization
of your paper.
Subjects (a) Who are the subjects? The ‘Subjects’ subsection specifies who participated
in the study. The subjects are described according to age, gender and other relevant social or
demographic considerations.
(b) How many subjects are there? State the total number of participants and the number
assigned to each experimental condition. If any subjects did not complete the study, give the
7COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH REPORT 37
number and reason.

(c) How the subjects are selected? Report how the subjects were selected for the
experiment and how the chosen subjects were assigned to groups. For example, was some sort of
randomization technique used or was some other method necessary? Report such things as
payments or promises made to subjects.
Apparatus This subsection (if one is required) gives a brief description of the equipment
or materials used in the study. Standard hardware such as stop watches need not be described in
detail. Remember the description must be detailed enough so that the reader can replicate the
study.
Procedure Being a kind of recipe of each step in the execution of the experiment,
these instructions to the subjects must be recorded verbatim. The formation of groups and the
specific experimental manipulations performed on each group are included. Procedures such as
randomization, counterbalancing and other control procedures are also detailed. To assist
yourself in the clear execution of this section, keep in mind that one of the purposes of it is to
allow another experimenter to replicate exactly what you have done. Do not put results in this
section. You may, however, include preliminary results that were used to design the main
experiment that you are reporting on. Mention relevant ethical considerations. If you used human
subjects, did they consent to participate? If you used animals, what measures did you take to
minimize pain?
6. RESULTS
 Centre the word ‘RESULTS’ on the page. Do not begin on a new page unless space
considerations require it. This is (obviously) where you present the results of your
experiment to the reader. The results section is also written in the past tense.
 The result section summarizes the data and the statistical treatment of them. If the data
are relatively simple, they may be reported entirely in text without the use of TABLES or
FIGURES.
 Summarize the main idea of your findings and report them whether or not your
hypothesis(es) have been confirmed. Present the results in the same order as you have
made your predictions (hypotheses) in the introduction and do so in simple sentences.
 Do not discuss the implications, interpretations, or theoretical significance of your
results in the RESULTS section.
 Most professors (except nitpickers) prefer the tables and figures close to where they are
needed.
Tables
 Tables placed in the results section of the paper are reserved for the most important data
directly related to the experiment. Tables are economical in that they compress data and
allow the reader to see relationships not otherwise discernible at a glance.
 A good table should not duplicate the text of the RESULTS but the text should
highlight the data by referring to the table.
 The table should be self-explanatory as well as related to the text.
 Always number the tables and refer to those numbers in the text - If tables are included
in an APPENDIX, these are identified with capital letters (e.g., Table A).
 Tables always appear in the order in which they are mentioned in the text.
 Every table is given a brief explanatory title written in telegraphic style. It is placed
below the table number and above the table.
 Enough space is used to render the table easily readable. Notes of sub-headings are
employed to explain abbreviations, parentheses or units of measurement.
Figures
 What has been said of Tables applies generally to the figures of the results section as
well.
 Figures are graphs, charts, and illustrations.
 The caption is placed below the figure instead of above. The word ‘Figure 1’ appears
first followed by the caption. Only the first word of the caption is capitalized.
 If there is enough space, you may place it on the same page as text, but a separate page
should otherwise be used, especially for publishing purposes.
 Remember to place the dependent variable on the vertical axis and to follow the rules
for correct calibration of the data.
 Both axes should be clearly labeled, and the graph lines too when appropriate.
7. DISCUSSION
 The word ‘DISCUSSION’ is centered. Do not use a new page unless it is necessary.
 It is a good idea to begin the discussion with a summary of the results, for the benefit
of the reader who wants to skip the results section (and to remind the reader who didn’t
skip it but got interrupted by a phone call and forgot it).
 The discussion section states the major results (what you have discovered), and tells
the reader what you think they mean. There is no need in this section to restate the data -
that is all in the results section.
 Your discussion section should refer back to those studies you mentioned in your
introduction. Discuss how your results are similar to the findings (results) of these
studies, or, if they are different, (don’t panic), how they differ (and your ideas as to why
they differ). Attempt to resolve and deal with these differences by suggesting reasons for
why they might have occurred.
 Another good tactic is to suggest ideas for future research experiments in this area,
ones that follow the study you have done, improve upon it, etc. For example, you could
suggest how to further explore a finding you discovered, suggest how to discover why
you got different results from other researchers, etc.
 If your discussion section is fairly long, it’s nice to put a short summary paragraph (of
the conclusion, interpretations, etc.) at the very end to help the reader remember your
general conclusions.
 This is also a good preparation for writing the abstract. Remember, the discussion
section will make or break your paper - put a lot of thought into it and try to draw
sophisticated (and accurate) conclusions from your data.
 The discussion section will show your grasp of the inductive and deductive thinking
routines involved in experimental work.
8. REFERENCES
This is the last section and it should conform to APA style.
 Centre the word ‘REFERENCES’ at the top of the page, but do NOT underline it or
place it in quotation marks.
 A reference list cites works that are publicly available.
 This section is always placed on a separate page, and the page number is omitted.
 Works cited in the text of your experiment must appear in the reference list and
conversely each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text.
 Since reference lists are intended for the use of the reader, they must be accurate and
complete.
 A reference consists of the following broad subsections - AUTHOR, DATE OF

PUBLICATION, TITLE and PUBLICATION DATA.
Footnotes:
Footnotes are rarely used in psychology. They may be used to acknowledge a research
grant or assistance of others in preparation of a study. Avoid footnotes. Sometimes you want to
say something that isn’t quite necessary. This is the time to use a footnote. If you can get away
without using them, it saves the reader’s eyes. But sometimes it’s hard to resist making rather
extensive, but rather tangential remarks. These go in footnotes, not the text. The really eager
reader will read them. Others will not.
References:
Islamabad.
S.M.S. (2018). Psychological health challenges of the hill-tracts region for climate change in
Bangladesh. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, Elsevier,34, 74–77.
Jahan, A.K.M.S., Mannan, S.M., & Kabir, S.M.S. (2013). Designing a Plan for Resource Sharing
among the Selected Special Libraries in Bangladesh, International Journal of Library Science
and Research (IJLSR), ISSN 2250-2351, Vol. 3, Issue 3, Aug 2013, 1-20, ISSN: 2321-0079.
Amanullah, A.S.M., Karim, S.F., & Shafiqul, I. (2008). Mental Health and Selfesteem: Public
Vs. Private University Students in Bangladesh. Journal of Business and Technology, 3, 96-108.
Rashid, U.K. (2017). Interpersonal Values, Inferiority Complex, and Psychological Well-Being
of Teenage Students. Jagannath University Journal of Life and Earth Sciences, 3(1&2),127-135

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Name: Faheem Elahi

Principles of the Scientific Method

 Result: My coffeemaker works.

OpenStax College, The Science of Biology. October 21, 2013. Retrieved

Wikipedia: Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science.

Q.No.2 .Describe the various elements of an effective research proposal.

a useful procedural guideline regarding the research process:

 Multivariate data analysis

Various Desktop Databases are Microsoft Access, Paradox, Dbase or DbaseIII+,

Kothari C R, “Research Methodology, Methods and Techniques”, New Age International

Q.No.4 Write down the characteristics of different tools of research.

Useful hints on Construction of Rating Scale:

Limitations of Rating Scale:

• It encourages pre-coded answers.

• To collect acts for educational surveys.

• They asses difference among individuals.

 To get eye witness first hand data in real like situation.

inconspicuous as possible. The purpose of non-participant observation is to observe the

• Proper arrangement of special conditions for the subject.

• There is possibility of biasness.

• Emotions, experiences and feelings: Sensitive issues. Privileged information.

Single Interview: This is a common form of semi structured or un-structured interview. It

Execution of the Interview:

purpose is to listen ad note the ideas without being critical.

b) Why is it relevant or important?

 identify the important issues, and

number and reason.

 A reference consists of the following broad subsections - AUTHOR, DATE OF

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