End of Course Exam Notes

PHYSICS

Scalar Quantities are quantities specified by size or magnitude but not defined not
direction
Vector Quantities are quantities that are defined by direction as well as size
Vectors can be added to determine displacement using trignometry

MOTION
Objects can move without effective force acting on them

Distance is measure of total length of the path take during the motion of an object
Displacement is measure of change in position of an object
Speed is measure of the rate at which an object moves over a distance
• Instantaneous Speed is speed of at a particular instant of time
Velocity is defined by speed and direction of a moving object
• Velocity is relative to the observer who is measuring the velocity
• Negative velocity is going backwards
• Instantaneous Velocity is velocity at a particular instant of time – if average
velocity is constant the instantaneous velocity is the same

Speed formulas
Speed= =

Velocity =

Instantaneous speed =

Average speed = =

Acceleration is the rate at which an object changes its velocity

Area under graphs in velocity time graphs are used to determine distance
travelled

Constant Acceleration Formulas

a = acceleration

u = initial velocity

v = final velocity
 End of Course Exam Notes

t = time

s = displacement

FORCE AND NEWTON’S LAWS

Acceleration of force of gravity = 9.8m/s/s

Weight = mass × force of gravity W=mg

Newton’s 3 Laws of motion

1. “A body persists its state of rest or of uniform motion unless acted upon by
an external unbalanced force” – The law of Inertia: The inertia of an object
is it tendency to resist changes in motion/velocity, it is not a force but
a property of all objects

2. F = ma ; force = mass × acceleration or a ; F(newtons) =

m(kgs)a(m/s/s)

3. “To every force there is an equal and opposite force” – When Object A exerts
a force (action) on object B, object B simultaneously exerts the equal force
(reaction) on object A, but in the opposite direction.

Forces on rolling car

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Momentum

Known as “quantity of motion”

Measure of how hard it is to stop or move an object or measure of how hard it is to
change an object’s velocity

Momentum = mass × velocity ;

Total Final momentum = total initial momentum (law of conservation of

momentum)

Multiple bodies

When multiple bodies are attached by string etc. the accel. Of entire system can
be determined and using this it can be used in F=ma to determine the force acting

on each body.

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MECHANICAL INTERACTIONS
Law of conservation of momentum
• When objects collide/interact Momentum is always conserved
• Total initial momentum = total final momentum
• Momentum is vector
In collisions:
• Momentum is always conserved
• KE is conserved in elastic (bouncy collisions)
• KE not conserved in inelastic collisions
• Total energy is always conserved – KE is converted into other forms of energy

Kinetic Energy
The energy of moving objects
Scalar Quantity
Change in KE Net Force acting on object

KE

Collisions (Interaction)

Some Kinetic energy is lost and changed into:

• Potential energy
• Sound energy
• Thermal energy

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Impulse

Impulse is the change in momentum; SN or kg m/s

In a graph of force vs. time the impulse can be determined from area under graph

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ELECTRICITY
Electrical charges are caused by an excess or deficiency of electrons

A deficiency is a + charge

An excess is a – charge

Like charges repel

Unlike charges attract

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Objects that become charged because of the influence of other charged objects
are called induced dipoles.

Test charges are always positive

Calculating force caused by charges

K=

Q = charge on object 1 (coulombs)

q = charge on object 2 (coulombs)

d = distance (metres)

f = force (Newtons)

Coulombs

1 coulomb = excess or deficiency of electrons

1 Micro coulomb (mc) =

1 Nano Coulomb (nc) =

1 pico coulomb (pc) =

Charge on 1 electron = C

Electric Field Strength (only for spherical objects)

Units of E : Newtons per coulomb N/C

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Batteries push electron – they are electron pumps
Electrical potential energy difference =

=work done by battery

A 1 volt battery does 1 joule of work to move 1 coulomb from one end to other or
gives 1coulomb an electrical PE of 1Joule

1V = 1 Joule / coulomb

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Voltmeters and Ammeters

Voltmeters – measures power supplied when connected across power supply

Measures electrical potential lost when connected to other parts of a Circuit
Always set up in parallel with the part of the circuit being tested
Resistance

Resistance is ohm’s law; measured in ohms Type equation here.

A = cross section area

T = temperature
l = length
R = Resistance
I = Current (amperes)
V = Voltage (V)
const’ = Resistivity (a property of the metal that makes up the wire)

A short circuit is where there is little to no resistance in a circuit

therefore a huge current travels causing conductor to heat up

Electrical Power

Power = rate of which work is done

Or
Power = rate at which one form of energy is transformed into another form of energy
Measure in Joules/Second or W (Watt)

1Kwh = 1 kilowatt hour

Is electrical energy used by 1kw electric device running for 1 hour

WAVES
Wavelength is smallest distance between 2 crests or troughs
Frequency is the number of crests going past a single point in one second or the
number of complete cycles of any point on the medium per second
Period is the shortest time for 1 point on the wave to return to its original position or
the time for 1 wavelength to pass a single point
Amplitude is the height of each wave or maximum distance the
Particles move from their original position also determines the
Volume of sound waves

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frequency

wavelength

V velocity

In waves on springs
V (velocity) depends on tension mass/meter

(in springs)

Waves can superimpose (stack up) to create bigger waves

Beats are loud soft cycles caused by the superposition of 2 sound waves of
slightly different frequencies.

Waves can bounce and transfer from one medium to another

Changing mediums
In particular mediums (velocity) is constant and

When waves pass from one medium to another (frequency) remains constant and

Particle motion in waves

• In the middle of a rarefaction or compression the particles are in their

undisturbed state
• Particle in rarefaction is moving backwards at max speed
• Particle in a compression is moving forward at max speed

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Electromagnetic radiation can refract, reflect and be absorbed.

Refraction
When a wave moves from a fast (less dense) medium to a slow (denser) medium it
bends towards the normal.

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Refractive index

Inverse square law

I (intensity)
d (distance)

Critical Angles
The angle of incidence that results in an angle of refraction equaling 90 degrees is the
critical angle
If the angle if incidence exceeds this angle the light beam will reflect instead of
refract.
Critical angle is influenced by refractive index

If If

Total internal reflection Partial refraction partial internal

reflection
Total internal reflection in optic fibers
2 (outer layer)
1(inner)

Antinodal line
Line where waves from two sources superimpose to form the a line of greatest amplitude

COSMIC ENGINE
1 Solar day – time form the sun is due north to the next time the sun is due north
Sidereal day – time from the time you face the stars to the next time you face the
same stars

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Approx 360 degree revolution

1 Sidereal day is 4 minutes shorter than a solar day
Number of sidereal days = number of solar days + 1
Retrograde motion – back and forth motion of planets
North celestial pole – the pole of the ‘Celestial sphere’ directly up from the North
Pole
South celestial pole – the pole of the ‘Celestial sphere’ directly up from South Pole
Celestial Equator - ‘Equator’ or the celestial sphere
Ecliptic – the path that the sun seems to follow in the sky
Tycho Brahe
Observed planets with accuracy of 8 minutes

Kepler’s laws
1. Law of ellipses: each planet moves in an ellipse with the sun at one focus.
2.
Law of areas: the area swept out by a planet as it orbits the sun is proportional
to the time taken or i.e. the closer they are to the sun the faster they travel
along their orbit

3. Law of periods

Acceleration of circular motion

a (acceleration)
v (speed of orbiting object)
d (distance from centre)

Gravitation force
G (gravitation constant) =

M (mass of object 1)
m (mass of object 2)

Acceleration of gravity

Brightness of stars
Hertzsprung-Russel diagram for classifying star clusters

Using v-filters (allows visible light through) and b-filter (colors that aren’t visible)
Color index of a star determined by subtracting visual magnitude from blue
magnitude
Absolute brightness found by comparing apparent brightness and distance

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Spectra
The wavelengths of light emitted by certain atoms when energy is applied to them
Spectra can be detected by a spectroscope
Used as evidence in determining temperature of stars.
Examples
Spectra of Ionised helium = mega hot
Spectra of ionized calcium = hot
Spectra of calcium = cooler

Doppler Effect
Effect of the distortion of light waves due to the movement of observation point and
source
No color change BUT all spectra lines are shifted
Majority of stars are red shifted or majority of spectra lines are shifted towards the red
spectrum of light

Hertsprung-Russel diagrams
Is scatter graph of stars showing relationships between absolute
magnitude/luminosity , spectral types/classifications and effective
temperature.

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Main sequence fuse hydrogen in core to for helium

Red giants are super hot at core and fuse helium into carbon and hydrogen fusion in
outercore

Expanding universe
Edwin Hubble (1920s)
Measured:
1. Distance to galaxies
2. Doppler shift of galaxies :
• Found speed of galaxies
• Galaxies were moving away from each other
 Concluded Universe is expanding

Hubble’s law

 Galaxies closer together in past

Genesis
Nothing

BIG BANG!

Quarks + electrons

Atoms (H + He)

Gas clouds

Stars
Galaxies

Gas

Evidence for BIG BANG

1. Hubble’s law > expanding universe
2. Cosmic background radiation
3. Observation of galaxies in distant past

Cosmic background radiation is the EM energy that was not converted into matter
during BIG BANG , emanates from all of universe

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Was discovered as a constant noise picked up on satellite radios, it was same

frequency from all directions

RADIATION
α particles:
• Nucleus of a helium atom
• 2 units of positive charge
• Interacts strongly with matter – can ionize other atoms
• Rapidly slowed because of these interactions
• Weakly penetrating
β particles:
• Fast moving
• Negatively charged electron
• Can go through atoms before ionization occurs
• Strongly penetrating
rays:
• High frequency EM radiation
• No charge
• Can penetrate up to several centimeters of lead
• Low inonisation

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