Lesson II: Virtue Ethics

Socrates, Plato and Aristotle are Greek philosophers in Ancient period who deeply affected Western
Philosophy. Young man Plato eventually became a student and disciple of Socrates.

Aristotle the most patronized greek philosopher at the time. He is a philosopher and natural scientist
who eventually shared the distinction of being the most famous of ancient philosophers with Socrates
and Plato.

Contemporary theory in ethics called Virtue Ethics, to have started with these 3 great philosophers.
Thomas Aquinas recieved, enhanced and ‘christianized’ the greek virtue ethics.

1. Virtue ethics- moral philosophy that teaches that an action, right if it is an action that virtuous person
is someone who acts virtously and people act virtuously if they posses and live the virtues. Moral
characteristics that an individual needs to live well.

Chosen character traits that people praise others:

 they are difficult to develop

 they are corrective of natural deficiencies
 they are beneficial both to self and society

Virtue ethics a moral person as someone who develops the virtues and unfailingly displays them over
time.

The ancient greek 4 Cardinal Virtues:

 namely, wisdom, courage, moderation and justice.

2. Socrates and Plato’s Moral Philosophy

Plato wrote down and essentially adhered to Socrates indicates that pleasure and practical for us to
treat their ethical theories.

Gorgias written by Plato, Socrates indicates that pleasure and pain fail to provide an objective standard
for determining moralfrom immoral.

Euthryphro something is good because the gods love it. Socrates point is that what is good has certain
independence from the whism of the gods.

Plato’s philosophy theory of forms – objectively existing immaterial entities that are the proper object of
knowledge. This universal Form or Idea.

Circularity and squareness are good examples of what Plato meant by Forms. Circle or square insular as
itb resembles or participates the form “circularity’ or ‘squareness”. Virtue- regarded as knowledge and
can be taugh.

3. Aristotle’s Ethics

Two works of Aristotle cocern morality the Eudemian Ethics and Nicomachean Ethics. Nicomachean
ethics been regarded as the ethics of Aristotle since the beginning of the Christian era.
Three genenral descriptions

 Self- realizationism - when someone acts in line with his nature or end
 Eudaimonistic- focuses on happiness or good for man and how to obtain it.
 Aretaic- virtue based

3.1 Aristotle’ ‘telos’- a telos from greek is an end or purpose. Belives that the essense or eesential
nature of beings including humans, lay not at their cause but at their end.

Philosophical contemplation and virtuous actions stemming from virtuous persons means those which
the person with wisdom would choose because what is good is obvious to such a person.

3.2 Happiness and Virtues- ultimate human goal is self- realization. One’s natural purpose by
functioning or living is Human Nature. In turn produces Happines but realize it Leads to sadness.

Aristotle 3 Nature of man: Vegetable or physical, animal or emotional and rational or mental. Living in
accordance with reason – vital in self-realization or developing one’s potential. Self-realization-
awareness of our nature and the development of our potentials-is the key to human happiness.

Ethics-is the inquiry into the human good. Studying ethics is to make ourselves good. Human good is
eudaimonia or happiness.

Aristotle also considers happiness as the summum bonum-greates good of all human life. Intrisic good
that is pursued for its own sake.

The activity of the soul in accordance with excellences or virtue therefore is not match of a subjective
feeling of well-being but human well-being itself, being the human good. Eudaimania is different from
hedonist and utilitarian account of happiness as pleasure.

3.3 Virtue as Habit. The sense of human flourishing attainted buy the habitual practice of moral and
intellectual excellences or virtues.

Moral virtue for Aristotle the only practical road to effective action. Virtuous person who has good
character, sees,truly,judgest rightly, and acts morally.

3.4 Virtues and the golden mean. Virtue refers to an excellence of moral or intellectual character.
Aristotle two kinds of virtue, virtues of intellect and moral virtues. The intellect fully retional part of the
soul. Moral virtue an expression of character formed buy habits reflecting repeated choices also called
virtue of characters.

Excess and defect normally indicate a vice. Thus moral virtue is the Golden Mean between the two less
desirable extremes . Virtuous person brought up to find enjoyment in virtuous actions and sorrow in
vices.

Aristotle 4 basic moral virtues:

Courage- golden mean between cowardice and tactless rashness.

Temperance- mean between gluttony and extreme frugality. Makes one virtuous andfulfilled.

Justice- virtue of giving others right what they deserve, neither more nor less.
Enabling us to keep away from excess and defect is the moral virtue called Prudence or Wisdom.

Aristotle by his doctrine of virtues why should be moral. Additional moral virtues include generosity,
civility, trustworthiness, reliability, sociability, dependability, honesty, sincerity, gentleness, tolerance
etc.

3.5 ‘Phronesis and Practice- using golden mean to become virtuous also it is ‘relative to us’ as moral
agent. Aristotle teaches about intellectual virtue plays a significant role in ethics. The phronesis
intellectual virtue of practical wisdom. Phronesis or Practical Wisdom is a grasp of the appropriate way
to respnd- to feel and act- in a particular situations. We have the right prescription “orthas logos”
therefore to act in accordance with the right prescription.

Practice in terms- training or cultivation. To be Virtuous- the actions that habitually bring virtue. Moral
Education thus comprises imitation, internalization, and practice until becomes normal.

Morally virtuous man someone who constantly and habitually acts according to normal virtue and
practical wisdom. Virtue is a state of character manifested in choice and action, resting in golden mean,
resolved by the prescription that a wise person would determine.

4. An Evaluating of the Greek Philosophers’ Ethical Theories

Socrates and Plato based on their ethical theory, advocate a positive view of man. All vice therefore is
the result of lack of knowledge and that no person is willingly bad.

Why should be moral/ The beauty of this ethical theory is that it inspirespeople to be moral as it teaches
that morality is a recipe to real happiness.

Plato’s form- it teaches that there are moral truths whose truthis independent of peoples thoughts and
perceptions or society’s beliefs and customs. Coparatively, Aristotle concept of virtue- is more active
than that of Plato.

Being virtuous for Aristotle denotes doing what is right, to the right person, at the right moment , in the
appropriate amount, in the correct manner, for the right reason.

5. Thomas Aquinas’ ethics

Also called Angelic Doctor and Prince of Scholastics, Thomas Aquinas is an Italian philosopher and
theologian most important thinkers of the medieval period. He believes that all actions are directed
towards ends and that happiness . True happiness is to be found only in the souls of the blessed in
heaven or in be attitued with God.

5.1 The Natural Law- Aquinas ethics his typology of laws. In terms of “rules and measures” as “rational
pattererns or forms” obedience to the laws viewed also as participating in or being in conformity with
pattern or form.

4 Primary types of law

 Eternal law- rational plan of God

 Natural law- the eternal law which is accessible to human reason.
  Human law- too broad to provide particular guidance the human law’s precise, positive rules of
behavior are supposed to spell out what the natural lawprescribes.
 Divine law- relation disclosed through sacred text or Scriptures and the Church which is also
directed toward man’s eternal end.

Primarily significant in ethics is the natural law. Natural law inherent natural tendency to pursue the
behaviour and goals appropriate to us also is a knowledge by natural reason. Virtue of a faculty insight
Thomas called synderesis we also have natural inclination to some specific goods.

3 sets of these inclination

To survive, to reproduce and educate offspring and to know the truth about God and to live peacefully
in society

5.2 features of human actions

Human actions on the basis not only of their conformity to the natural law but also of their specific
features.

3 aspects through which the morality of an act can be determined in terms of it:

 Species - an action refers to its kind called the object of the action which are good, some bad
and some indifferent or neutral.
 Accidents- refers to the circumstances surrounding the action.
 End- stands for the agent’s intention. Good is clearly immoral. Bad intension can spoll a good
act like giving of alms out of vainglory.

5.3 Happiness, Moral Virtues, and Theological Virtues

Aquinas believes that Happiness is the final end also thinks that happiness is not equated with pleasure,
material possessions, honor, or any sensual good. He defines virtue as “a good habit bearing on activity”.
Habits are firm dispositions or “hard to eradicate”.

Aquinas differentiates between acquired and infused habits.

Aquinas 2 kinds of infused virtues:

Moral Virtues- as their object not God Himself but activities that are less virtuous and inferior to the final
end. 4 basic virtues- a.) prudence b.) fortitude c.) temperance and d.) justice

Theological Virtues- desire of God and of His will. The virtues of a.) faith b.)hope and c.)love serve to
attune us to our final end. Theological virtues in terms of the vices and sins which respectively conflict
with them.

6. An Analysis of Thoministic Ethics

He holds that the goodness or badness of an action lies in the interior act of will, in the external bodily
act, in very nature of the act and even in its consequences. The result of actions in his so-called features
of actions, he say more of a deontologist or Kantian than utilitarian.

Lesson III: Kant and Rights Theory

Immanuel Kant is a German thinker the most significant philosopher. His 2 works: The Foundations of
the Metaphysics of Morals and The Critique of Practical Reason.

1. Kantian Ethics

Rejects that ethical judgements based on feelings. Feelings even serve as obstructions to our
discernment of right and wrong. His ethical theory bases moral judgements on reason alone. Reason is
what deems an action ethical or otherwise.

1.1 Good Will- when we wish determine the moral status of an action, we consult reason. If accords
with reason, we must do it, if not, we must avoid it. Good will intrinsically good it is the only thing which
is good without qualification. Good will one that habitually wills rightly.

Inclination the feeling pushes us to select a particular option or make a particular decision. Acting
morally entails from the motive of duty regardless of the consequences. First, it is one’s duty as rational
being, to act on principle or maximum, as contrasted to simply acting on impulse.

Maxim, is a general rule or principle which serve as a guide action. “be honest always” “don’t always
shoot the ball when we get it are examples of Maxim.

Kant conduct 2 classes: a.) hypothetical b.) categorical imperative

Imperative- command of reason.

Hypothetical- being true only under some conditions and not universality true valid.

Hypothetical imperative is how reason orders one to achieve one’s specific ends. Also thus both
contingent and derivative. It is conditional or contingent because circumstances are imaginable.

Hypothetical Imperative states, “if you want to attain a certain end act in such and such a way”.
Categorical imperative, “no matter what end you desire to attain, act in such and such a way”. Also
demands actions without qualification, without any ifs, and without regard to the consequence such an
act may produce.

Universalizability- formulation which states “act only on that maxim through which you can at the same
time will that it should become a universal law.

2. An Analysis of Kantian Ethics

Kant ethical system find it sensible and plausible. But Kantian ethics inflexibly demands that he ought to
do both always and in all circumstances which in this case is logically impossible. Clearly Kant here is
referring to the consequences of lying. Kant, a moral act involves being contrary to somebody’s feelings,
natural inclinations and wishes. Kant completely removes one’s taste, emotion, liking and the like in the
sphere of morality. Kant’s stance sems to go against the biblical decree to worship and serve God with a
joyful hearth.

Kant contributes much to study of morality. It affirms our conciousness of the moral law inherent to our
practical reason. Also defines human dignity as resting on the attainment of moral character. Moreover
his categorial imperative forbids us to behave in an inconsistent and hypocritical manner.

3. Rights Theory
Kant proposed the principle of rights between the inherent of the law and the enforcement of law.

Right Based Ethics- is a broad moral theory which kant’s principle of rights theory. The concept of rights
based ethics is that “there are some rights, both positive and negative. These rights can be natural or
conventional. Natural rights are those rhat are moral while conventional are those created by humans
and reflect society’s values”

Examples of rights based ethics system:

 The right of life

 The right to liberty
 The right to pursue happiness
 The right to a jury trial
 The right to freely practice a religion of choice
 The right to freely live and travel within the country
 The right to work
 The right to marry
 The right to bear children
 The right to free education
 The right to be free from slavery
 The right to be treated as equal to others
 The right to personal privacy
 The right to own property
 The right to not be tortured and; etc....

U.S said to be founded upon a right based ethics system which citizens are held to have certain unalieble
rights. Philosopher John Locke is one of the main supporters of this system.

Bill of Rights of the U.S.A characterizes the type of rights that are embraced by Rights Based Ethical
Systems. Define the term “Rights” justified claim that individuals and groups upon other individuals or
upon society.

What others should do or need not do? Rights can be legal in nature or pertain to human rights or moral
rights.

4. Legal vs. Moral Rights

Moral rights refer to what ought to be, whereas legal rights are the rights on the books. Moral rights
represents the natural law while legal rights embody the conventional positive law.

4.1 Legal rights- denote all rights found within existing legal codes as such they enjoy the recognition
and protection of the law. Legal rights does not exist prior to its passing into law and the limits of its
validity.

4.2 Moral rights- in plain contrast are rights that exist prior to and independently from their legal
counterparts. South Africa country moral rights, such as the rights not to be discriminated against on
grounds of color and rights to political participation. Human rights are best thought of as being both
moral and legal rights.
Lesson IV: Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill are British philosophers who immense impact on British thought.
Bentham was the head of a group of reformers called “the philosophical radicals” include James Mill and
his son, John Stuart Mill. Bentham and younger Mill considered main proponents of the moral theory
called Utilitarianism.

1. Utilitarianism Explained

A teleological- ethical system judges the rightness of in fact in terms of an external goal or purpose. John
Rawls is considered teleological but not really.

Consequentialist ethics- proposes the actions, rules or policies should be ethically measured and
evaluated by their consequences, not by the intentions or motives of the agent.

Utilitarianism is the most influential consequentialist theory. Derived from the Latin terms “utilis” which
means “useful”, utilitarianism basically states that what is useful is good and moral value of actions.

Utilitarianism ethics argues that the right course of action is one that maximizes overall happiness.

The principle of utility. The former usually called ‘act utilitarianism’ and the latter, ‘rule-utilitarianism”:

1.1 Act Utilitarianism- principle of utility is applied directly to every alternative act situation of choice.

1.2 Rule Utilitarianism- principle of utility used to decide the validity of rules of conduct.

2. Origins and Nature of the Theory

Jeremy Bentham doctrine of utilitarianism but Stuart Mill systematized and modified some of Bentham’s
utilitarian principles. Jeremy Bentham the primary form of utilitarianism his introduction to the
principles of Morals and Legislation. He confessed nonetheless that he took over the principle of utility
from David Hume.

2.1 Bentham’s utilitarianism- the principle of utility thus states that an action is right insofar as it tends
to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Dubbed as quantitative hedonist or
quantitative utilitarian,a detailed method the’hedonic calculus’ to calculate the quantitative worth of
pleasuress.

The method has 7 criteria or ingridients:

 Intensity
 Duration
 Certainty
 Propinquity
 Fecundity
 Purity
 Extent to which pleasure and pain are shared among the greatest no. of people.

2.2 Mills Utilitarianism

He is most famous proponent of utilitariansm after Bentham. He made doctrine subject of his
philosophical treatise published in 1863. Mill differ fundamentally from Bentham on 2 central aspects.
1st Mill rejects the purely quantitative treatement the principle of utility. 2nd he introduces the so-
called 2nd principles which set the tone for contemporary variant form of theory called rule
utilitarianism. Mill distinguished between higher and lower pleasure. The critism utilitarianism defines
man in terms of mere pleasure and pain, Mill cites Epicurus who explained that while the good or happy
life is the life of pleasure. Lower pleasures can experience those from food, drink and sex.

Mill declared “it is better to be human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates
dissatisfied than a fool satisfieda.”

Higher pleasures means intellectual which includes artistic, political and even spiritusl pleasures.

Note, nonetheless, does not remove the lower pleasure from picture of happy life. Considered
qualitative hedonist wants qualitative distinctions among pleasures. And for him happiness is made up
principally of higher pleasure is higher, deeper, truer and morevaluble happiness.

Regards Mill’s 2ndary principles believes that past experiences teach us kind of action promote happines
and which do not.

3. An Analysis of Utilitarianism

To be direct negative reaction against Kantian ethics. Utilitarianism has transcultural appeal as all
sentient beings understand pain and pleasure. simulating cause and effect reasoning in science, proves
action to be right or wrong by pointing observable evidence.

Utilitarianism also allows for exeptions to the rule if justified by the consequences. The theory
nonetheless receives some negative criticism. Utilitarianism principle the total no. of outcomes should
be considered before an act can be declaredv to be right or wrong is also prolematic. By giving moral
importance exclusively to the consequences of actions, utilitarianism mayb also bring complications.

4. Business’s Fascination with Utilitrianism

The most broadly understood and normally applied ethical theory to business in an organizational
contex.

Pharmaceutical company may operate by the princple will release any official approved drug with
traditional business thig.

Lesson V: Justice and Fairness

Rawls most important American Political philosopher in 20th century. Rawls rejects utilitarianism he
argues that utilitarian thinking cannot absolutely exclude system such a theory. Rawls maintains that
slavery is wrong under all situations, regardless of any utility calculations.

1. Rawls Justice as Fairness

The elements of both Kantian and utilitarian philosophy in describing a method the moral evaluation of
social and political institutions.

Justice as Fairness consist 2 principles:

1.1 Rawls two principles. Rawls’ 1st principle of social justice called Liberty Principle- concerns political
institutions

Rawls 2nd Principle of social justice- Fair equality of opportunity and the difference Principle – concerns
social and economic institutions.

1.2 The Thought Experiment. Rawls unsurprisingly focused on society’s basic institution. Rawls received
concept of social contract developed by philosophers like John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau.

4 things the primary goods:

 Wealth and income

 Rights and liberties
 Opportunities for advancement
 Self-respect

2. An Evaluation of Rawls Principles

Criticism against Rawls Justice as Fairness they do not allow ample tolerance for various religious and
intensity held benefits.

3. Distributive Justice

Justice as Fairness principles an example of social justice concept called distributive principles.

Common types of distributive principles:

A) Equity- members’ outcomes should be based upon their inputs.

B) Equality- all group members should be given an equal share of reward/costs.

C) Power- more authority, status or control over the group should receive more than those in lower
level positions.

D) Need- greatest need should be provided with resources needed to meet those needs.

E) Responsibility- group members who have most should share their resources with those who have
less.

3.1 Egalitarian- set of closely related socio-economic political theories that without exemption promote
the proposition all society members ought to have equal amount of resources.

3.2 Capitalist Laissez-fair capitalist- distributive justice is when people, business, and corporations
perform based on their individual self-interest for their own benefit.

3.3 Socialist. system where the government or a central authority controls the production of goods and
services. The reformer Soviet Union practiced this state socialism. A better version of a socialist
distributive justice is that of democratic socialism.

4. State and Citizens Responsibility

Taxation and Inclusive Growth. Taxation means the state and its citizens accomplish their responsibilities
to each other. Taxation means states or governments finance their expenditure, basically and ideally for
constituents by imposing charges on them and corporate entities. Democratic socialism works hand-in-
hand with capitalism, free markets and private property. Inclusive growth is “economic growth that
creates opportunity for all segments of the population and distributes the dividends of increased
prosperity.

CONCLUSION: ETHICS THROUGH THICK AND THIN, AND ETHICS AND RELIGION

Lesson I: Globalization and Pluralism: Challenges to Ethics