Electric vehicle

 An electric vehicle, also called an electric drive vehicle, uses one or more electric
motors or traction motors for propulsion. An electric vehicle may be powered through a
collector system by electricity from off-vehicle sources, or may be self-contained with a
battery, solar panels or a generator to convert fuel to electricity.[1] EVs include road and
rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric aircraft and electric spacecraft
 EVs first came into existence in the mid-19th century, when electricity was among the
preferred methods for motor vehicle propulsion. The internal combustion engine has
been the dominant propulsion method for motor vehicles for almost 100 years, but
electric power has remained commonplace in other vehicle types, such as trains and
smaller vehicles of all types.
 In the 21st century, EVs saw a resurgence due to technological developments and an
increased focus on renewable energy.

History
 Electric vehicles first appeared in the mid-19th century
 The invention of the first model electric vehicle is attributed to various people.[2] In
1828, Ányos Jedlik, a Hungarian who invented an early type of electric motor,
created a small model car powered by his new motor. In 1834, Professor Sibrandus
Stratingh of Groningen, the Netherlands and his assistant Christopher Becker
created a small-scale electrical car, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells
 The first known electric car was built in 1837 by chemist Robert
Davidson of Aberdeen. It was powered by galvanic cells (batteries)
 English inventor Thomas Parker, built the first production electric car in London in
1884, using his own specially designed high-capacity rechargeable batteries.
 On 31 July 1971, an electric car received the unique distinction of becoming the first
manned vehicle to drive on the Moon; that car was the Lunar rover, which was first
deployed during the Apollo 15 mission

Electric car built by Thomas Parker, photo from 1895

Thomas Edison and an electric car in 1913 (courtesy of

the National Museum of American History)

At present
  At the beginning of the 21st century, interest in electric and other alternative fuel
vehicles has increased due to growing concern over the problems associated
with hydrocarbon-fueled vehicles, including damage to the environment caused by
their emissions, and the sustainability of the current hydrocarbon-based
transportation infrastructure as well as improvements in electric vehicle technology.
 California electric car maker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 on the Tesla
Roadster, which was first delivered to customers in 2008.[59] The Roadster was the
first highway legal serial production all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells,
and the first production all-electric car to travel more than 200 miles (320 km) per
charge.
 A electric car known as Mitsubishi i-MiEV was launched in Japan for fleet customers
in July 2009, and for individual customers in April 2010.
 Models released to the market in 2012 and 2013 include the BMW
ActiveE, Coda, Renault Fluence Z.E., Tesla Model S, Honda Fit EV, Toyota RAV4
EV, Renault Zoe, Roewe E50, Mahindra e2o, Chevrolet Spark EV, Mercedes-Benz
SLS AMG Electric Drive, Fiat 500e, Volkswagen e-Up!, BMW i3, and Kandi EV.
 The world's top selling all-electric cars in 2014 were the Nissan Leaf (61,507), Tesla
Model S (31,655), BMW i3 (16,052), and the Renault Zoe (11,323)

The principal manufacturer of e-bikes globally is China, with 2009 seeing the
manufacturer of 22.2 million units. In the world Geoby is the leading manufacturers
of E-bikes.

Electricity sources[edit]
There are many ways to generate electricity, of varying costs, efficiency and ecological
desirability.

Connection to generator plants[edit]

 direct connection to generation plants as is common among electric trains, trolley buses,
and trolley trucks (See also : overhead lines, third rail and conduit current collection)
 Online Electric Vehicle collects power from electric power strips buried under the road
surface through electromagnetic induction
Onboard generators and hybrid EVs[edit]
 generated on-board using a diesel engine: diesel-electric locomotive
 generated on-board using a fuel cell: fuel cell vehicle
 generated on-board using nuclear energy: nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers
 renewable sources such as solar power: solar vehicle

batteries
Lithium-ion battery[edit]

Battery electric bus powered with lithium-ion batteries

Electric truck e-Force One

Most electric vehicles use lithium ion batteries. Lithium ion batteries have higher energy density,
longer life span and higher power densitythan most other practical batteries. Complicating factors
include safety, durability, thermal breakdown and cost. Li-ion batteries should be used within safe
temperature and voltage ranges in order to operate safely and efficiently.[38]
Increasing the battery's lifespan decreases effective costs. One technique is to operate a subset
of the battery cells at a time and switching these subsets

Electric-vehicle battery
 An electric-vehicle battery (EVB) or traction battery is a battery used to power the
propulsion of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Vehicle batteries are usually a secondary
(rechargeable) battery
  Rechargeable batteriesused in electric vehicles include lead–acid ("flooded", deep-cycle,
and VRLA), NiCd, nickel–metal hydride, lithium-ion, Li-ion polymer, and, less
commonly, zinc–air and molten-salt batteries. The amount of electricity (i.e. electric
charge) stored in batteries is measured in ampere hours or in coulombs, with the total
energy often measured in watt hours.
 Flooded lead-acid batteries are the cheapest and in past most common traction batteries
available. Traditionally, most electric vehicles have used lead-acid batteries due to their
mature technology, high availability, and low cost (exception: some early EVs, such as
the Detroit Electric, used a nickel–iron battery.) 

Lithium-ion (and similar lithium polymer) batteries, widely known via their use in laptops
and consumer electronics, dominate the most recent group of EVs in development.
Advantages and disadvantages of EVs[edit]
Environmental[edit]
EVs release no tail pipe air pollutants at the place where they are operated. They also typically
generate less noise pollution than an internal combustion engine vehicle, whether at rest or in
motion.[90] The energy that electric and hybrid cars consume is usually generated by means that
have environmental impacts. Nevertheless, adaptation of EVs would have a significant net
environmental benefit, except in a few countries that continue to rely on older coal fired power
plants for the bulk of their electricity generation throughout the life of the car.[91][92][93]
There are special kind of electric vehicles named SAFA TEMPO in Nepal that help lower the
pollution created by vehicles.[94] These vehicles are powered by electricity - usually charged
batteries - rather than oil or gas and currently heavily promoted by the government to facilitate
environmental and vehicle management issues.. Electric motors don't require oxygen,
unlike internal combustion engines; this is useful for submarines and for space rovers.
Mechanical

Electric motors are mechanically very simple and often achieve 90% energy conversion
efficiency[95] over the full range of speeds and power output and can be precisely controlled. They
can also be combined with regenerative braking systems that have the ability to convert
movement energy back into stored electricity. This can be used to reduce the wear on brake
systems (and consequent brake pad dust) and reduce the total energy requirement of a trip.
Regenerative braking is especially effective for start-and-stop city use.
They can be finely controlled and provide high torque from rest, unlike internal combustion
engines, and do not need multiple gears to match power curves. This removes the need
for gearboxes and torque converters.
EVs provide quiet and smooth operation and consequently have less noise and vibration than
internal combustion engines.[90] While this is a desirable attribute, it has also evoked concern that
the absence of the usual sounds of an approaching vehicle poses a danger to blind, elderly and
very young pedestrians. To mitigate this situation, automakers and individual companies are
developing systems that produce warning sounds when EVs are moving slowly, up to a speed
when normal motion and rotation (road, suspension, electric motor, etc.) noises become audible.
[96]

Energy resilience[edit]
Electricity can be produced from a variety of sources, therefore it gives the greatest degree
of energy resilience.[97]
Energy efficiency
EV 'tank-to-wheels' efficiency is about a factor of 3 higher than internal combustion engine
vehicles.[90] Energy is not consumed while the vehicle is stationary, unlike internal combustion
engines which consume fuel while idling. However, looking at the well-to-wheel efficiency of EVs,
their total emissions, while still lower, are closer to an efficient gasoline or diesel in most
countries where electricity generation relies on fossil fuels.[98][99][100]
Well-to-wheel efficiency of an EV has less to do with the vehicle itself and more to do with the
method of electricity production. A particular EV would instantly become twice as efficient if
electricity production were switched from fossil fuel to a wind or tidal primary source of energy.
Thus, when "well-to-wheels" is cited, one should keep in mind that the discussion is no longer
about the vehicle, but rather about the entire energy supply infrastructure - in the case of fossil
fuels this should also include energy spent on exploration, mining, refining, and distribution.
Charging mechanisms
Chargers provide a DC charging voltage from an AC source whether from a common socket
outlet or more recently from a purpose built DC charging station. Most important are the
methods of controlling the charge and protecting the battery from over-voltage, over-current
and over-temperature. These charger functions are integrated with and unique to the battery.

Chargers for electric bikes are usually low cost, separate units. To save weight they
are not usually mounted on the bike and charging takes place at home. Their power
handling capacity is only sufficient for charging the relatively low power bike batteries
and entirely unsuitable for passenger car applications.
Chargers for passenger cars are normally mounted inside the car. This is because
the vehicle may be used a long way from home, further than the range possible from
a single battery charge. For this reason they have to carry the charger with them on
board the vehicle. Charging can be carried out at home from a standard domestic
electricity socket outlet but the available power is very low and charging takes a long
time, possibly ten hours or more depending on the size of the battery. Since charging
is usually carried out overnight this is not necessarily a problem, but it could be if the
car is away from its home base. Such low power charging is normally used in an
emergency and most cars are fitted with a higher power charging option which can
be used in commercial locations or with a higher power domestic installation. In
many countries this higher power facility is implemented by means of a three phase
electricity supply.

Commercial electric vehicles need bigger batteries which need higher power
charging stations to achieve reasonable charging times but they also have extra
options. Many of them follow prescribed delivery routes within a limited range from
base and return to base in the evening. In these cases off board charging is possible
saving weight and space on the vehicle. Such applications can also be adapted to
battery swap options. Each vehicle may have two batteries with one being charged
while the other is in use. When used in long distance shuttle applications this can
double the effective range of the vehicle. The vehicle depletes the battery during
each journey and picks up a fully charged battery at the terminus leaving the
discharged battery to be recharged ready for the next trip. This shuttle option
however needs three batteries per vehicle.
 
Early HEVs used Nickel Metal Hydride batteries, but they are mostly being
superseded by a range of variants of Lithium ion batteries which is the technology of
choice for most new EV applications since they can store more energy and deliver
higher power. For this reason most EV chargers are designed to work exclusively
with Lithium ion batteries.

Charging Stations
Charging stations merely deliver the energy to the vehicle, usually in the form of a
high voltage AC or DC supply. They don't normally have the functions of the charger
which must transform the electrical energy into a form which can be applied directly
to the battery.
From the wide range of potential consumers noted above, it can be seen that the EV
community needs several power supply options. Broadly speaking, three different
power levels have been defined but within these levels a very wide range of options
are available to accommodate the different existing power grid standards of the
national electricity generating utilities

 Level 1 refers to Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) using grounded

receptacles as used in domestic applications. In North America this typically
means 16 Amps at 120 Volts delivering 1.9 kW of power. In Europe it may be 13
or 16 Amps at 240 Volts delivering 3 kW of power. The EV may incorporate a
standard domestic power cord to connect the vehicle to a domestic socket outlet
or a Level 1 charging station.
 


Level 2 delivers up to 20 kW of power from either Single or Three Phase
Alternating Current (AC) sources of 208-240V at up to 80Amps. In North
America, the J1772 standard has been defined by the Society of Automotive
Engineers - SAE to cover the connector and charging cable used in Level II
applications. These cables are permanently fixed to the Level II charging station
rather than the vehicle with the male connector being mounted in the vehicle
itself. The connector is also commonly called a "coupler". Individuals can install a
level 2 charging station at home, while businesses and local government can
also provide level 2 charging for a fee or free if they wish.
 
 Level 3 refers to Direct Current DC charging, or “fast charging.” To achieve
very short charging times, Level 3 chargers supply very high currents of up to
400 Amps at voltages up up to 600Volts DC delivering a maximum power of
240kW. Within this definition there are several competing industry / commercial
standards including an SAE J1772 Hybrid coupler, the so called Jumbo, and the
Japanese CHAdeMO. The J1772 combo coupler for example allows charging
from either a conventional, 15-amp AC wall outlet or a DC connection of up to 90
kilowatts. These systems are being proposed for public fast charging stations.
Examples of J1772 and CHAdeMO couplers are shown below

The Charger
The diagram below illustrates how the key functions of Level 1, 2 and 3 chargers are
implemented. All charging systems take AC power from the grid and convert it to DC
power at a suitable voltage for charging the battery. In EV applications, except for
bicycles, Level 1 and Level 2 chargers are completely contained within the vehicle.
In Level 3 charging systems however the charging functions are split between the
charging station and the vehicle's on board charger.
 Level 1 and Level 2 Chargers
In low power, Level 1 and level 2, applications the power conditioning which includes
the AC to DC conversion, the power control unit which delivers a variable DC voltage
to the battery, and various filtering functions are all carried out within the charger and
can be implemented at a relatively low cost. The Battery Management System
(BMS) is tightly integrated with the battery. It monitors the key battery operating
parameters of voltage, current and temperature and controls the charging rate to
provide the required constant current / constant voltage (CC/CV) charging profile and
it triggers the protection circuits if the battery's operating limits are exceeded,
isolating the battery if needed. See more details about BMS functionality on
the Battery Management Systems page. The charger will also most likely
incorporate CAN Bus functionality to integrate with other vehicle systems but not
necessarily with the charging station.
Safety measures in the relatively low power Level 1 charging station are fairly simple
and may be limited to a ground fault sensing device and a circuit interrupting device
(CID) or "circuit breaker", however the charger itself will usually incorporate more
comprehensive safety measures in addition to the standard BMS functions including
safety interlocks and isolators to prevent power being connected if there is a fault in
the battery or the charger, as well as measures to prevent misuse, electric shocks
and inadvertently driving away with the power cord still plugged in.
Level 1 charging works from a single phase AC power outlet and is suitable for
private, domestic installations and these do not need authentication and billing.
If the charger is designed to work with public charging stations, as many Level 2
installations will be, it will most likely need to incorporate further intelligence to
communicate with the charging station to verify that the user is authorised to draw
power from that particular source and to allow it to bill the customer for the energy
transferred unless charging is installed at home or as a free service in the workplace
or shopping mall.
Level 2 charging stations may use either single phase or three phase AC power from
the grid.
This self contained systems used for Levels 1 and 2 gives the charger the flexibility
to connect to different AC charging sources.

Level 3 Chargers
Level 3 chargers have the same functionality as the Level 1 and 2 chargers but with
the very high power levels used, the AC/DC conversion and the power conditioning
and control circuits become very large and very expensive requiring heavy duty
components. It makes sense to carry out these functions in the charging station
rather than the charger so that the equipment can be shared by many users. This
allows major cost and weight savings in the vehicle's on board charger and with a
bigger budget for the charging station, more efficient designs may be possible. In this
case the BMS must communicate with the charging station to control the voltage and
current delivered to the battery since power control is not implemented within the
battery.
 The charging station however does not control how the batteries on the vehicle are
charged. That is the function of the charger on the vehicle itself, and its battery
management system. The charger provides this control by means of the CAN Bus
which communicates its demands to the charging station. Safety functions for
isolating the battery and protecting the vehicle's occupants are also managed by the
charger and the BMS.
While putting some of the traditional charger functions into the charging station
permits cost savings in the vehicle, the charging station will be correspondingly more
expensive. Level 3 charging stations currently cost between $20,000 and $50,000.
On top of this there is the cost of providing access to the grid. Because of the high
power requirements of up to 240 kWatts per station, they can't just be connected to
the grid anywhere. The electricity generating utility must provide a dedicated supply
line capable of delivering the very high currents demanded.
One drawback of this system is that the vehicle can only be charged at compatible
public charging stations.
 CHAdeMO
An example of a Level 3 quick charging system is the CHAdeMO system
developed by the Japanese auto industries and proposed as a global standard.
The name is an abbreviation of “CHArge de MOve", equivalent to “charge for
moving”, and is a pun for O cha demo ikaga desuka in Japanese, meaning “How
about some tea” (while charging) in English.
The CHAdeMO "fast charger" is basically a current source which can deliver up
to 62.5 kW of direct current at voltages between 50 Volts and 500 Volts via a
proprietary electrical connector. The vehicle charger tells the charging station
through the CAN Bus, the battery capacity, and at what level to set the voltage.
Every 0.1 seconds the vehicle tells the charging station how much current to
deliver following a very specific CC/CV charging curve profile defined in the
CHAdeMO specification and finally it tells it when to stop. Safety interlocks are
also managed through the CAN Bus which tests the charger circuit and the
battery for any fault conditions (short circuits, high leakage currents, overheating)
before the charging station can apply power to the connector preventing it from
being energised before it is safe.
In this way the charging process is essentially controlled by the vehicle.
 The SAE J1772 system provides similar functionality to the CHAdeMO
system
Wireless Inductive Charging
The main
advantage of inductive charging is convenience. It allows electrical energy to
be transferred from the grid to a vehicle without the aid of wires. Energy
transfer takes place by magnetic resonance coupling between two copper
coils tuned to the same frequency, one embedded in the ground and the other
mounted under the vehicle. The arrangement is essentially a transformer with
the primary in the ground and the secondary in the vehicle. This is not a
charger in itself. It simply replaces the direct connection to the grid. The AC
power picked up by the secondary coil is applied to a normal charger such as
the Level 1 and Level 2 chargers described above. The system has been in
use for over 10 years in shuttle buses which follow a short well defined route,
picking up energy at each bus stop from coils mounted in the road. It is not yet
in common use in small passenger vehicles but design teams are working on
suitable systems with power transfer levels up to 10kW.
 The principle of Inductive Charging is described in more detail in the section
about Chargers

Machines used in electic vehicles

I. Introduction
Electrical machines and drives are a key enabling technology for electric, hybrid, and
fuel cell vehicles. The basic characteristics which are required of an electrical machine
for traction applications include the following [1]–[3]. •

High torque density and power density.

High torque for starting, at low speeds and hill climbing, and high power for high-speed
cruising.

Wide speed range, with a constant power operating range of around 3–4 times the base speed
being a good compromise between the peak torque requirement of the machine and the volt-
ampere rating of the inverter.

High efficiency over wide speed and torque ranges, including low torque operation.

•
Intermittent overload capability, typically twice the rated torque for short durations.

•
High reliability and robustness appropriate to the vehicle environment.

•
Acceptable cost.

Let’s consider some of the most important parts of the electric car:

The Battery
Although many people think of gas-electric hybrids when they think of electric cars,
true BEVs – battery electric vehicles – are generating the most excitement. The batteries
can be charged through the use of ordinary grid electricity at a specialized power
station. Aside from conventional lithium ion battery technologies, there are at least four
major battery technologies now represented: Solid state, aluminum ion, lithium sulfur,
and metal-air. Although top ranges of 200 miles or more are now attainable, a range
around 70-100 miles on a full charge is more typical.

The Motor Controller

The control system governs the complete operation of the electric vehicle and the
distribution of its power at any given moment. It monitors and helps to regular all key
performance indicators, including those from the vehicle’s operator, motor, battery,
motor controller, accelerator pedal, and more. Equipped with a powerful
microprocessor, it can limit or redirect current – either to improve the mechanical
performance of the device or suit the operator’s driving style. Generally, more
sophisticated controllers are capable of greater precision and thus, higher efficiency.

Regenerative Braking
With its capacity to enhance the range of an electric vehicle, regenerative braking has
been adopted in virtually all hybrid and BEV models on the road today. Put simply, it
allows for the extraction of energy from the braked components so it can be reused
rather than wasted. When the operator applies the brake, the electric motor goes into
reverse mode, allowing the motor itself to do most of the “braking” and thus prevent
more kinetic energy from being lost. This contrasts conventional systems using brake
pads, which generate friction at multiple levels to achieve breaking.

The Drive System

The drive system’s function is to transfer mechanical energy to the traction wheels,
generating motion. An electric vehicle does not require anything resembling a
conventional transmission – but there are several different internal configurations
depending on the components in use. For example, a large electric motor may be
coupled to the rear wheels using a differential housing. Some designs use multiple
smaller motors that power each wheel individually.

The Electric Engine

Electric engines can be structured to use either AC or DC current. AC motors tend to be
less expensive and lighter than DC engines, reaching about 95% efficiency at full load
compared to the 85%-95% attained by AC engines. AC engines are more common in
other types of electrical devices and, due in large part to the reduced number of moving
parts, tend to be suffer from less mechanical wear and tear. AC technology requires a
more sophisticated controller, however

1: The Electric Motor.

This one’s kinda obvious; it’s the motor which propels the car. The beauty of the electric
motor is that it has only one moving part, unlike the internal combustion engine which
typically has over a hundred moving parts. This alone makes electric motors a very reliable
source of motive power. When choosing an electric motor, you’ll need to find one that’s
suitable for your car’s system voltage, and the car’s voltage will determine what sort of
performance your car will have. DC motors are tolerant things however, and you don’t have to
be spot-on with your voltage. Just keep an eye on your motor’s temperature while you’re
getting used to your electric car. Expect to pay anything from $0 for a used electric forklift
motor, to $3000 for a high performance motor for your conversion.

2: The Controller.

The controller’s job is to act as a floodgate between the motor and the batteries. It’s
controlled by your existing accelerator pedal, so the more you press down, the more power
goes to the motor. Because modern controllers have no moving parts, quality looked-after
versions should last decades without needing components replaced. The popular Curtis
controllers for example have less than a 3% failure rate. The controller is a vital component –
without it you’d
have either full power or no power. Depending on your desired performance, expect to pay
between $0 for a used forklift controller, to $5000 for a high performance, high voltage
controller

3: The Batteries.

Thanks to laptop computers and cellphones, battery technology has improved in leaps and
bounds over the last 20 years, with lithium batteries being the desired choice for every
converter. Sadly they’re still expensive to manufacture and buy, so for the timebeing many
converters still use lead batteries, similar to the ones that start your car. Due to weight and
size issues however, the only benefit of lead batteries is the cost, so let’s assume you’re on a
budget.
Batteries are an area in your electric car where you have plenty of choice in makes, models
and sizes. To cut costs further you could even look into battery rejuvenation, where free
second-hand batteries are brought back to life through desulphation (though I’ve tried it
myself with fairly lackluster results).
While I’m always looking (and encouraging) people to try new things, I’ve always mentioned
that batteries are one area in your electric vehicle where you should not cut costs.
Understandably however, the costs ultimately rule our conversion outcomes. So to buy
batteries you have a couple of options. How many batteries you’ll need depends on the size of
your pack (which depends on how far you want to drive per charge).

Therefore if you want a usable local range of just 20 miles, then your battery pack might cost
between $0 for second hand rejuvenated lead batteries, up to $2000 for brand name deep-
cycle lead batteries.

Energy and motors

Most large electric transport systems are powered by stationary sources of electricity that are
directly connected to the vehicles through wires. Electric traction allows the use of regenerative
braking, in which the motors are used as brakes and become generators that transform the
motion of, usually, a train into electrical power that is then fed back into the lines. This system is
particularly advantageous in mountainous operations, as descending vehicles can produce a
large portion of the power required for those ascending. This regenerative system is only viable if
the system is large enough to utilise the power generated by descending vehicles.
In the systems above motion is provided by a rotary electric motor. However, it is possible to
"unroll" the motor to drive directly against a special matched track. These linear motors are used
in maglev trains which float above the rails supported by magnetic levitation. This allows for
almost no rolling resistance of the vehicle and no mechanical wear and tear of the train or track.
In addition to the high-performance control systems needed, switching and curving of the tracks
becomes difficult with linear motors, which to date has restricted their operations to high-speed
point to point services.