Writing, General writing skills

Grammar is not tested directly in the Writing section — there are no multiple-choice grammar items — but
your ability to use written grammar correctly is an important part of your score on the Writing section. In this
section, some common grammar points are explained and exercises are provided.

Run-on Sentences and Sentence Fragments

When you are writing responses, it is easy to make two mistakes. The first is to write run-on sentences. These
are not simply long sentences; they are sentences that consist of two or more clauses that are not correctly
connected.

Run-on sentence Correction

Professional workers such as lawyers or accountants Professional workers such as lawyers or accountants
usually work longer hours than factory workers they usually work longer hours than factory workers;
have more freedom in planning their time. however, they have more freedom in planning their
time.

OR

Professional workers such as lawyers or accountants

usually work longer hours than factory workers.
However, they have more freedom in planning their
time.

Another common mistake is to write a sentence fragment: an incomplete sentence that is missing some
important sentence elements such as a verb or a subject. By themselves, adverb clauses, adjective clauses,
and all kinds of phrases are fragments.

Fragment Correction
Larry wasn't able to finish graduate school. Because Larry wasn't able to finish graduate school because
he didn't get a scholarship. he didn't get a scholarship.

OR

Larry wasn't able to finish graduate school. He didn't

get a scholarship.

Grammar Exercise 1

Directions: Mark the following items F if they contain a fragment, RU if they are run-on sentences, and C if
they are correct. Then write corrections eliminating fragments and run-ons.

Taken from ROGERS, Bruce. The Complete Guide to the TOEFL test iBT Edition. Henle Cengage Learning, 2007.
1
 1. After its introduction in 1969. The float process became the world's principal method of manufacturing
flat sheets of glass. F

2. We heard a lecture by Professor Taylor. Who is the chairman of the history department. F
Correct statement: We heard a lecture by Professor Taylor, who is the chairman of the history department

3. Thomas Edison invented the light bulb and the phonograph. But not the telephone. F
Correct statement: Thomas Edison invented the light bulb and the phonograph, but not the telephone

4. Arnold Palmer, a famous American golfer, is no longer playing professionally, but he is still respected
by golf fans all over the world. C

5. Seals appear clumsy on the land, they are able to move short distances faster than most people can
run. RU
Correct Statement: Seals appear clumsy on the land, but they are able to move short distances faster than
most people can run.

6. You can't get to the island from here. Without a boat. F

Correct statement: You can’t get to the island from here without aboat.

7. While all birds are alike in that they have feathers and lay eggs, there are great differences among
them in terms of size, structure, and color. C

8. A barometer is a device it is used to measure atmospheric pressure. RU

Correct statement: A barometer is a device used to measure atmos-pheric pressure.

9. Sometimes cloth is made by blending natural fibers and synthetic fibers. Rayon and cotton, for
example. F
Correct statement: Sometimes cloth is made by blending natural fibers and synthetic fibers, such as rayon
and cotton

10. Professor Roberts bought a car in Rome. Then sold it in Amsterdam after her vacation. F
Correct Statement: Professor Roberts bought a car in Rome, then sold it in Amsterdam after her vacation.

11. Technical climbing means mountain climbing without special equipment, it shouldn't be attempted
without training. RU
Correct Statement: Technical climbing means mountain climbing without special equipment. It shouldn’t
be attempted without training

Taken from ROGERS, Bruce. The Complete Guide to the TOEFL test iBT Edition. Henle Cengage Learning, 2007.
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 12. Almost 92% of people get married over one third of these marriages end in divorce half of all divorced
people choose to get married a second time. RU
Correct statement: Almost 92% of people get married. Over one third of these marriages end in divorce,
but half of all divorced people choose to get married a second time.

Verbs

Errors with verbs are common in test-takers' writing. You should automatically check all your verbs when you
edit your response. Some points about verbs to keep in mind:

 A gerund, infinitive, or participle cannot be used alone as a sentence verb.

INCORRECT: The woman going to her office.

INCORRECT: The woman to go to her office.
INCORRECT: The woman gone to her office.

 If the subject of the sentence performs the action, the verb must be in the active voice.

The architect designed the building. (Active verb)

 If the subject of the sentence receives the action, the verb must be in the passive voice.

The building was designed by the architect. (Passive verb)

 The verb must agree with its subject. Singular subjects require singular verbs; plural subjects require plural
verbs.

The class is . . . The classes are . . .

The bicycle was . . . The bicycles were . . .
The game has been . . . The games have been . . .
The child likes . . . The children like . . .

• A sentence with two subjects joined by “and” takes a plural verb.

The chemistry lab and the physics lab are . . .

• Some words end in “–s” but are singular in form. Many of these words are the names of fields of study
(economics, physics, and so on). “News” is another word of this kind.

Economics is . . .
The news was . . .

Taken from ROGERS, Bruce. The Complete Guide to the TOEFL test iBT Edition. Henle Cengage Learning, 2007.
3
• Subjects with “each” and “every” take singular verbs. (This includes compound words like everyone and
everything.)

Each state has . . .

Each of the representatives was . . .
Every person was . . .
Everyone wants . . .

• Singular subjects used with phrases such as along with, accompanied by, together with, as well as, and in
addition to take singular verbs.

The mayor, along with the city council, is . . .

Together with his friends, Mark has . . .

• Quantities of time, money, distance, and so on, usually take a singular verb.

Five hundred dollars was . . .

Two years has . . .
Ten miles is. . .

The appropriate tense must be used according to the time-related words or ideas in the sentence.

 The simple present tense is a general time tense. It usually indicates that a condition is always true or that
an action always occurs. It may also indicate that an action regularly occurs.

The atmosphere surrounds the Earth.

Karen often stays at this hotel.
Generally, the lectures in this class are very interesting.

 The future tense is used for future time.

Next semester I will take a chemistry class.

 The simple past tense indicates that an action took place at a specific time in the past.

They moved to Phoenix five years ago.

This house was built in the 1920s.
Dinosaurs lived millions of years ago.

 The present perfect tense usually indicates that an action began at some time in the past and continues to
the present. It may also indicate that an action took place at an unspecified time in the past.

Mr. Graham has worked for this company since 2003.

Steven hasn't been to a doctor for over a year.

Taken from ROGERS, Bruce. The Complete Guide to the TOEFL test iBT Edition. Henle Cengage Learning, 2007.
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 Jennifer has recently returned from Europe.

The correct form of the main verb — base form, -ing form, past tense, past participle — must be used.

 The base form follows all modal auxiliaries (verb forms such as can, could, and might).

Might be
Can remember
Should study
Must know
Could go
May follow

 Certain similar auxiliary verbs require infinitives (to + base form of the verb).

Ought to attend
Used to play
Have to hurry

 The past participle is used after a form of have in all perfect forms of the verb.

Has done
Had called
Should have said
Have run
Will have read
Could have made

 The past participle is used after a form of be in all passive forms of the verb.

Is worn
Has been shown
Would have been lost
Is being considered
Had been promised
Might have been canceled
Were told
Will have been missed

Taken from ROGERS, Bruce. The Complete Guide to the TOEFL test iBT Edition. Henle Cengage Learning, 2007.
5
Grammar exercise 2

Directions: Complete the sentence with the correct form of the verb in parentheses ( ).

1. Physician Alice Hamilton (know) ___IS KNOWN_____ today for her research on industrial diseases.

2. The business school at our university (found) _WAS FOUNDED____ almost 100 years ago.

3. For thousands of years, farmers (use) __HAVE USED_ scarecrows to protect their crops from hungry birds.

4. NASA's space probe New Horizon (fly) __WILL FLY_ by Pluto in the year 2015.

5. Before the late eighteenth century, most textiles (make) WERE MADE at home.

6. Sarah Knight (write) _WROTE_ a fascinating account of a journey she made from Boston to New York in
1704.

7. Each of the four types of human tooth (suit) _IS SUITED_ to a specific purpose.

8. Since about 1980, computers and new methods of communication (revolutionize) _HAVE
REVOLUTIONIZED_ office work.

Grammar Exercise 3

Directions: Decide if the underlined word or phrase in the sentences below is used correctly. If the phrase is
used correctly, mark the sentence C. If the sentence is used incorrectly, mark the sentence X and rewrite the
underlined expression, correcting the mistake.

1. Cans of paint must be shaking before use to mix the pigments with the medium in which they are
suspended. X
Correct Statement: Cans of paint must be shaken before use to mix the pigments with the medium in which
they are suspended.

2. Each of the Ice Ages were more than a million years long. X
Correct Statement: Each of the Ice Ages was more than a million years long.

3. The white pine is the most commercially important forest tree in North America until the beginning of the
twentieth century. X
Correct Statement: The white pine was the most commercially important forest tree in North America until
the beginning of the twentieth century

4. The first bicycle race on record in the United States taken place in 1883. X
Correct Statement: The first bicycle race on record in the United States took place in 1883.

Taken from ROGERS, Bruce. The Complete Guide to the TOEFL test iBT Edition. Henle Cengage Learning, 2007.
6
5. Teeth are covered with a hard substance called enamel. C

6. When scientists search a site for fossils, they begin by examining places where the soil has wore away from
the rock. X
Correct Statement: When scientists search a site for fossils, they begin by examining places where the soil has
worn away from the rock.

7. The first seven American astronauts were chose in 1959. X

Correct Statement: The first seven American astronauts were chosen in 1959.

8. Medical students must to study both the theory and practice of medicine. X
Correct Statement: Medical students must study both the theory and practice of medicine.

9. Ethics is the study of moral duties, principles, and values. C

10. In music, a chord is the sound of two or more notes that are playing together. X
Correct Statement: In music, a chord is the sound of two or more notes that are played together.

11. Every one of the body's billions of cells requires a constant supply of food and oxygen. C

12. The more or less rhythmic succession of economic booms and busts are referred to as the business cycle. X
Correct Statement: The more or less rhythmic succession of economic booms and busts is referred to as the
business cycle.

13. In the late nineteenth century, many important theories in both the biological and the physical sciences
have been produced. X
Correct Statement: In the late nineteenth century, many important theories in both the biological and the
physical sciences were produced.

14. Chromium used to make stainless steel. X

Correct Statement: Chromium is used to make stainless steel.

Adjective Clauses

Adjective clauses — also called relative clauses — are a way of joining two sentences. However, test-takers
sometimes use these clauses incorrectly.

In the joined sentence, the adjective clause modifies (describes) a noun in another clause of the sentence. An
adjective clause begins with a word called an adjective clause marker.

I wanted the book. The book was already checked out.

The book that I wanted was already checked out.

The adjective clause in this example begins with the marker “that” and modifies the noun “book”.

Taken from ROGERS, Bruce. The Complete Guide to the TOEFL test iBT Edition. Henle Cengage Learning, 2007.
7
Adjective clause markers are relative pronouns such as “who”, “that”, or “which” or the relative adverbs
“when” or “where”.

A neurologist is a doctor who specializes in the nervous system.

This is the patient whom the doctor treated.
Mr. Collins is the man whose house 1 rented.
The assignment, which was due last week, took me four hours to complete.
Art that is in public places can be enjoyed by everyone.
The painting that Ms. Wallace bought was very expensive.
That is the site where the bank plans to build its new headquarters.
This is the hour when the children usually go to bed.

Like all clauses, adjective clauses must have a subject and a verb. In some cases the adjective clause marker
itself is the subject; in some cases, there is another subject.

The painting was very expensive. Ms. Wallace bought it.

The painting that Ms. Wallace bought was very expensive.

The adjective clause marker in the joined sentence replaces “it”, the object of the verb “bought”. In the joined
sentence, the adjective clause keeps the subject — Ms. Wallace — that it had in the original sentence. Notice
that the inclusion of the pronoun “it” in the joined sentences above would be an error.

INCORRECT: The painting that Ms. Wallace bought it was very expensive.

The adjective clause marker in the joined sentence replaces it, the subject of the second original sentence. In
the joined sentence, the marker itself is the subject of the adjective clause.

In some adjective clauses, the relative pronoun “that” may be used in place of “which” or “who”. These
sentences are called identifying adjective clauses (also called restrictive adjective clauses). The information in
the clause is needed to identify the noun. This type of clause is not set off by commas.

The island that we visited was beautiful.

The people that moved next door are very friendly.

In other adjective clauses (called non-identifying or non- restrictive), the clause provides ‘extra’ information.
It's not needed to identify the head noun. These clauses are always set off with commas.

Maui, which is one of the Hawaiian Islands, is quite beautiful.

The Smiths, who are our new neighbors, are very friendly.

The word “that” cannot be used to introduce this type of clause.

INCORRECT: Maui, that is one of the Hawaiian Islands, is quite beautiful.

INCORRECT: The Smiths, that are our new neighbors, are very friendly.

Taken from ROGERS, Bruce. The Complete Guide to the TOEFL test iBT Edition. Henle Cengage Learning, 2007.
8
The adjective clause markers which and whom can also be used as objects of prepositions:

That is the topic. I will write on it.

That is the topic on which I will write.

Marie is the student. The teacher gave the special assignment to her.
Marie is the student to whom the teacher gave the special assignment.

You may also see sentences with adjective clauses used in this pattern:

quantifier + of + relative clause

He met with two advisors. He had known both of them for years.
He met with two advisors, both of whom he had known for years.

I read a number of articles. Most of them were very useful.

I read a number of articles, most of which were very useful.

Grammar Exercise 4

Directions: Join the two sentences below into a single sentence using adjective clause markers (who, which,
that, whom, whose, and so on). The word in italics will be replaced.

1. Most folk songs are ballads. They have simple words and tell simple stories.
Most folk songs are ballads that have simple words and tell simple stories.

2. A battery is a device. It provides electricity by chemical means.

A battery is a device that provides electricity by chemical means.

3. In May, the university will finish building a new wing of the library. Rare books will be stored there.
In May, the university will finish building a new wing of the library where rare books will be stored there.

4. The melting point is the temperature. At this temperature, a solid changes to a liquid.
The melting point is the temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid.

5. A keystone species is a species of plant or animal. Its absence has a major effect on an ecological system.
A keystone species is a species of plant or animal whose absence has a major effect on an ecological system.

6. Active stocks are stocks. They are frequently bought and sold.
Active stocks are stocks that are frequently bought and sold.

7. There are many varieties of snakes. Most of them are harmless to humans.
There are many varieties of snakes. Most of which are harmless to humans.

Taken from ROGERS, Bruce. The Complete Guide to the TOEFL test iBT Edition. Henle Cengage Learning, 2007.
9
8. Charlotte Gilman's best-known book is “Women and Economics”. In this book she urges women to become
financially independent.
Charlotte Gilman's best-known book is “Women and Economics”, in which she urges women to become
financially independent.

Grammar Exercise 5

Directions: Decide if the underlined word or phrase in the sentences below is used correctly. If the phrase is
used correctly, mark the sentence C. If the sentence is used incorrectly, mark the sentence X and rewrite the
underlined expression, correcting the mistake.

1. There are many species of plants and animals that they are peculiar to Hawaii. X
That

2. Diamonds are often found in rock formations called pipes that resemble the throats of extinct volcanoes. C

3. There are thousands of kinds of bacteria, many of whom are beneficial. X

Which

4. Today meteorologists obtain the information that they use to make weather predictions chiefly from
satellites. C

5. The Pritzker Prize is given every year to architects their work benefits humanity and the environment. X
Whose

6. Pipettes are glass tubes, open at both ends, which chemists use them to transfer small volumes of liquid. X
Which chemists use

7. The size and shape of a nail depends primarily on the function which for it was intended. X
For which it was

8. Jakarta, that is the capital of Indonesia, is also the largest city. X

Which

Taken from ROGERS, Bruce. The Complete Guide to the TOEFL test iBT Edition. Henle Cengage Learning, 2007.
10