Essay on Management

1. Essay on the Introduction to Management: 

Management is a vital aspect of the economic life of man, which is an organised group
activity. It is considered as the indispensable institution in the modern social
organisation marked by scientific thought and technological innovations. One or the
other form of management is essential wherever human efforts are to be undertaken
collectively to satisfy wants through some productive activity, occupation or profession.

Management today is not just an exercise of blind authority or bossism but it implies
scientific thinking, accurate planning and meticulous control to ensure quick and better
results. Management has become a profession in view of the modern business becoming
more sophisticated.

As ownership gets divorced from management, specialisation in business operations

becomes more marked. Proprietors, shareholders and even their directors remain
comparatively in the background and experts specialising in delicate and intricate
matters of industrial techniques play increasingly positive and prominent role in running
the business. Professional experts like engineer, scientist, market surveyor, trained
executive, researcher, technician, occupy important place in running the affairs of an
enterprise today.

Management now a days, therefore, consists of cadre of experts who performs a

profitable job to build-up the competitive strength of the firm and they strive to “develop
and expand the assets and profits” of the proprietors. According to Drucker,
“Management, which is the organ of society specially charged with making resources
productive, that is, with the responsibility for organised economic advance, therefore,
reflects the basic spirit of the modern age.”

2. Essay on the Meaning and Definition of

Management: 
It is not an easy job to give the exact meaning of management.

Management as a Process:
In the words of George R. Terry, “Management is a distinct process consisting of
planning, organising actuating and controlling performed to determine and
accomplish objectives by the use of human beings and other resources.” The
elements of management are: planning, organising, actuating (directing) and
controlling.
These are also called the functions of management. It is through the performance of
these functions that management is able to effectively utilise manpower and physical
resources such as capital, machines, material, etc. to produce goods and services
required by the society.

This has been shown in Fig. 1:

Henri Fayol has defined management as a process consisting of five functions: “To
manage is to forecast and plan, to organise, to command, to coordinate and to control.”

However, modern authors do not view coordination as a separate function of

management. They consider it as the essence of managing. Koontz and O’Donnell have
classified the functions of management as follows: planning, organising, staffing,
directing and controlling. These functions are inter-dependent and interrelated. There is
no fixed sequence of their performance. They are performed more or less
simultaneously.

Management is regarded a process because it involves a series of functions

as shown in: 
It starts with planning and ends with controlling. But it does not mean that managerial
functions are followed in a specific sequence. A manager performs all the managerial
functions simultaneously. Moreover, Management is a never-ending process.

There are three features of management as a process:

(i) Management is a social process as it deals with human beings.

(ii) Management is an integrating process as it organises human resources for the

efficient use of other resources like capital, materials, technology, machines, etc.

(iii) Management is a continuous process. It is always involved in identifying the

organisation problems and solving them.

“Management is the technique of getting things done.”

Or

“Management is the art of getting things done.”

Marry Parker Follet defined management as “an art of getting things done through
others”. This is a traditional definition of management. It emphasises that management
directs the workers for getting results from them and supervises their performance. The
workers are treated merely as a factor of production like materials, machines and capital.

This definition is insufficient in the modern world because of the following

reasons: 
(i) The above definition is incomplete because workers are treated as a mere means to
organisational goals.

(ii) The management tries to manipulate the behaviour of the workers.

(iii) The needs and aspirations of the workers are not considered.

People are not mere cogs in the wheel and so they should not be treated as commodity or
mere means to certain ends. Needs and aspirations of the people working in an
organisation should not be overlooked. They must be satisfied so as to obtain sustained
and consistent effort towards organisational objectives.

Management may be defined as a technique of getting things done through others by

satisfying their needs and providing them opportunity for growth and development.
According to Harold Koontz, “Management is the art of getting things done through and
with people in formally organised groups. It is the art of creating environment in which
people can perform as individuals and yet cooperate towards attainment of group goals.”

In order to accomplish results, management must create opportunities, and encourage

growth and development of employees and provide guidance and assistance, wherever
necessary. All this demands skillful application of the basic principles of the science of
management. Managers must have conceptual, technical and social skills in translating
the abstract organisational philosophy into concrete action.

Management is the dynamic life-giving element in every organisation. It is the activating

element that gets things done through people. It provides the force necessary to
transform the resources of a business organisation into desired goods and services. The
primary job of management is to convert the disorganised resources of men, machines
and materials into a productive organisation.
Management as a Group:
In the words of sociologists, management is a group or a class who together carry out
various managerial activities.” Thus, management refers to the group of people in an
enterprise who are carrying out management functions.

In other words, all individuals occupying managerial positions are collectively known as
management. A manager is a person who performs the managerial functions of planning,
organising, staffing, directing and controlling.

Since a manager performs the managerial functions, he is a member of the management

of the organisation. Used in this sense, management includes all those who manage the
affairs of an organisation. But in practice, the term ‘management’ is used to indicate the
top management consisting of chairman, managing director or chief executive and Board
of Directors.

Management as a Discipline:
As a discipline, management refers to the body of knowledge and a separate field of
study. Management is an organised body of knowledge which can be learnt through
instructions and teaching. It entails the principles, practices, techniques and skills of
management which help in achieving organisational objectives. This discipline is taught
widely in schools and colleges in most of the countries of the world.

Management has acquired the status of a discipline because of the following

two reasons: 
(i) A lot of research is being carried out by the scholars in the field of management. The
results of research will be useful for future managers.

(ii) It is a specialised body of knowledge, which is studied and practised in management

institutions.

Management as an Activity:
Management is an activity concerned with getting things done through people and
directing the efforts of individuals towards a common objective. In the words of Harold
Koontz, “Management is the art of getting things done through and with people in
formally organised groups.”

Management gets results from the people by satisfying their needs, and expectations,
and providing them opportunity for their personal growth. Management is a distinct
activity in any organisation which is necessary for the achievement of its objectives.
According to another functional classification management activities are
classified as:

Classification of Management Activities

1. Informational Activities:
Management has to act as a communicative link between subordinates and superiors. On
one hand management receives, requests explanations, statements and suggestions from
their subordinates and on the other hand it also receives orders and instructions from
superiors. In their informational role as managers the requisite information is passed on
to both subordinates and superiors.

2. Decisional Activities:
Management being both administrative and executory has to take routine and strategic
decisions regarding various operational activities so that the organisation work is
executed smoothly. In their decisional role as managers, management can also be termed
as innovators, resource allocators, negotiators and crisis managers.

3. Inter personal Activities:

Management being a team work and group activity requires cooperation, coordination
and harmonious relationship between individuals and departments. In order to integrate
and charrelise best efforts of individuals to attain predetermined objectives of the
enterprise, managers in their interpersonal role act as a figure head of the enterprise, as
a leader and as a liason.

Other Definitions of Management:

Various writers have given various definitions of the management.

The following are some of the important definition: 

According to E.F.L. Brech, “Management is the process of planning and regulating the
activities of an enterprise.”

According to Lawrence A. Appley, “Management is the development of people and not

the direction of things management is personnel administration.”

According to Koontz and O’Donnell, “It is the task of manager to establish and maintain
an internal environment in which people working together in groups can perform
effectively and efficiently towards the attainment of group goals.”

According to Kimball and Kimball, “Management embraces all duties and functions that
pertain to the initiation of an enterprise, its financing, the establishment of all major
policies, the provision of all necessary equipment, the outlining of the general form of
organisation under which the enterprise is to operate and the selection of the principal
officers. The group of officials in primary control of an enterprise is referred to as “the
management.”

According to William Spriegel, “Management is that function of an enterprise, which

concerns itself with the direction and control of the various activities to attain the
business objectives.”

According to Keith and Gubellini, “Management is the force that integrates men and
physical plant into an effective operating unit.”

According to S. George, “Management consists of getting things done through others.

Manager is one who accomplishes the objectives by directing the efforts of others.”

According to Newman, Summer, Warren, “The job of management is to make

cooperative endeavour to function properly. A manager is one who gets things done by
working with people and other resources in order to reach an objective.”

3. Essay on the Characteristics of Management: 

The main characteristics of management are as follows: 
(i) It is Goal-Oriented:
The important goal of all management activities to achieve the objectives of a business
concern. The objectives of the business may be economic, social and humane.

(ii) It is a Process:
When it is used in the sense of a process, it refers to what management does. In other
words, it refers to the process of managing, planning, organising, staffing, guiding,
directing supervising and controlling.

(iii) It is a Group Activity:

For the success of a business, it is necessary that all human and physical resources are
co-ordinated to achieve the maximum levels of productivity. We all know that the
combined productivity of various resources will always be higher than the total
productivity of each resources.

(iv) Management is Universal:

It is required in all types of organisations, e.g., family, club, university, government,
army, business. The basic principles of management are applicable in business as well as
in other organisations. However, these principles are flexible and they can be modified to
suit different situations.

(v) It is an Art and Science:

It consists of both the elements of science and art. The science of management gives a
body of principles or laws for guidance in the solution of specific management problems
and objective evaluation of results. The management as an art consists of this use of skill
and effort for producing desirable results or situations in specific cases.

(vi) It is a Factor of Production:

Not only the land, labour and capital are of effective use for the production of goods and
services but the managerial skills are also used effectively for this purpose.

(vii) Management is Dynamic:

Management denotes is an ever-changing environment, It involves adoption of an
organisation to changes in its environment, and modifying the environment for the
benefit of the organisation. Therefore, management is a constantly growing process.

(viii) Management is a Profession:

Management is considered to be a profession as it possesses all the
attributes of profession as: 
(i) A systematic corpus of knowledge,

(ii) A period of apprenticeship, and

(iii) A code of conduct.

(ix) Management is an Important Organ of Society:
Management has become an important organ of society. Management of large scale
undertakings influence the economic, social, moral, religious, political and institutional
behaviour of the members of the society.

(x) It is a System of Authority: 

In every organised group supreme authority must rest somewhere. There should be a
clear line of authority from the supreme authority to every individual in the group.

4. Essay on the Nature of Management: 

A study of literature of management often gives rise to a question as to whether
management is a science or an art. The brief discussion which follows leads us to the
conclusion that it is both a science and an art.

Management as a Science:
Science is by definition a body of knowledge gathered by experimentation and
observation, artificially tested and expressed in the form of general principles.

Following are the essential features of science:- 

1. Systematised Body of Knowledge:
Science being ‘systematic’ is based on cause and effect relationship. It consists of theories
and principles which have the capacity to give reasons for past happenings and at the
same time, can be used to predict the result of specification in future.

2. Scientific Methods being used:

Personal opinions and individual likes and dislikes don’t influence scientific principles.
They are obtained through scientific investigation and reasoning. They are critically
tested and can be scientifically proved at any time.

3. Principles based on Experiments:

Observation and testing the validity and truth through experimentation makes a
statement, a principle.

4. Universally applicable:
Scientific princAples may be applied in all situations and at all times, exceptions though
may be logically explained. These principles, under required given conditions never fail
at any place or point of time.
Steps: 
The debate about whether or not managing is a science continues. The answer to this
question depends largely on the degree to which the scientific method is used to
determine managing principles and solve managing problems.

Management satisfies many of the scientific principles, for e.g.: 

1. Management is a systematised body of knowledge. Its principles explaining cause and
effect relationship between various variables, e.g., Principle of Unity of Command if not
followed leads to inefficiency, confusion and duplication of work.

2. Management principles are evolved on the basis of observation and repeated

experimentation. For instance, it is being observed through experiments that if stability
in tenure of an employee is not there, his working efficiency decreases.

But, at the same time, there exists many scientific features which do not coincide with
those of management.

Briefly, the method of science consists of the following steps: 

1. Facts or data are collected in an objective manner.

2. These facts are classified in some way, usually on the basis of similarities or
dissimilarities, in an attempt to make the data more meaningful.

3. From the classifications, hypotheses are formulated establishing cause and effect
relationships between various given factors.

4. The hypotheses are then tested to determine their reliability and validity.

5. After the hypotheses are verified and if they stand the test of time, they then have
interpretive or predictive value when applied to similar phenomena.

In referring to the hope of dream that a true science of management may someday be
achieved. Professor Mee states, “This hope probably will be realized in another
chapter in another book in another century.” Perhaps the best that can be said is
that a science of management is just beginning to emerge.
It has often been stated that even when management attempts to use the method of
science (from which managing principles are also derived), management is neither as
precise nor as comprehensive as the natural and social sciences.

There are several reasons why this is true: 

1. The rational approach and the application of the method of science are relatively new
in business and industry. As a result, managing has not developed the
comprehensiveness found in other disciplines that have used the scientific approach for
a much longer time.

In fact, one of the more significant developments in the last seventy-five years in the field
of management has been the tendency toward using the rational approach in solving
management problems.

2. Relatively few managers are trained or experienced in using the method of science.
Those who are trained may find it too time-consuming and, because of this as well as
other limiting factors, seek other ways to reach decisions and to solve problems.

3. Precision measuring instruments and tools are not always available in management. A
manager is forced to use relative measurement where absolute measurement is not
possible or feasible. To evaluate the performance of a group of supervisors, for example,
he may have to use a relative measuring device such as a carefully prepared rating scale.
For his purposes, however, the relative measuring technique is just as useful and
effective.

4. In the physical sciences, the researcher works with a single variable, holding all other
factors constant. Managers can seldom do this. They almost always deal with people, the
human element with all its weaknesses. The human element can never be treated as a
constant; hence precision is less than in the physical sciences, though equal to that of the
social sciences. Businessmen are always dealing with the unpredictable: people,
governments and nature.

5. Most importantly, managerial decision-making, unlike problem solving in the

sciences, stresses action rather than truth. A manager’s decisions must have practical
application. Managers strive for reasonable results under uncertain conditions rather
than for perfection. A method, technique, or device only has to be “good enough” to get
the job done.

Management as an Art:
Art refers to the skill to put into action a systematized body of knowledge for the
achievement of a given task. To get mastery in any skill it is necessary to have the
thorough knowledge of the principles of doing the particular task. At the same time it is
necessary to possess the tact, the care to be taken, the discretion and proper judgement
in applying the principles involved.
Presence of mind, promptness to react to the given situation and correct response
demanded by the prevailing condition are all essential to perform skillfully the task
undertaken.

Experiences and judgement add to this skill. Management is also an art as it is necessary
to apply the principles of management in planning, organising, staffing, directing and
controlling the whole series of activities all through the managerial process.

Throughout the stages of the process of decision-making and execution of these

decisions all the individuals occupying various positions at different levels of
management need all the skills involved.

Briefly, these skills are called the planning skills, the organising skills, the staffing skills,
the directing skills (how to motivate, to communicate, and to lead) and the controlling
skills. Sometimes it is said that a good manager is born and not made. But it has been
now established and accepted that it is through learning and training process that skilled
managers are developed.

As Koontz and O’Donnell have rightly pointed out the work of managing a business or
any group activity is an art. But for this the organised body of knowledge is required. It is
certainly a science. Thus art and science are not exclusive terms but complementary
ones.

Management as an art has the following features:

(a) Personal Skill: 
Human beings apart, there are other factors which vary in their effect and role in the
achievement of the managerial tasks. Managers have to apply their skill to deal with
them.

(b) Practical Knowledge:

Business enterprises involve risks. Only those who have experience can deal effectively
with such risks.
(c) Result Oriented Approach:
Management as an process aims at achieving concrete goals. It aims at utilising available
resources optimally by creating a congenial atmosphere.

(d) Personal Judgement: 
No doubt there are useful principles of management, but it needs individual judgement
to apply them properly and at appropriate time. It means art is necessary.

(e) Continuous Practice:
The art of management is much older than the science of management which as an
organised body of knowledge is hardly about ninety to hundred years old.

Management: Both Science and Art:

Management is a combination of an organised body of knowledge and skillful application
of this knowledge. According to Brech, “A systematic body of knowledge underlies the
competent practice of management”.
Much of this knowledge are to be found in various academic disciplines. Competent
performance of various management functions necessarily needs an adequate basis of
knowledge and a mature scientific approach.

Thus management is both a science and an art. It is a science because it uses certain
principles. It is an art because it requires continuous practice to ensure the best possible
result. Thus science and art in management are not mutually exclusive. Both of them
exist together in every function of management.

Management as a Profession:
Profession is defined as a composite of intellectual and executive qualities applied to
carry out successfully the specified activities for the benefit of others. It is an intellectual
field. One enters into it to work without any expectation of a direct share in the profits
earned out of the activities to carry out which one might be contributing his specialist
knowledge or intellect.

According to George, “Profession is that which has a well-defined body of knowledge,

which is learned, intellectual and organised, to which entry is restricted by examination,
or education and which is primarily concerned with service to others above self-award.”

Features of Profession: 
The above statement makes the following features of profession clear: 
1. Existence of a body of knowledge, techniques, skills and specialised knowledge.

2. Formalised methods of acquired training and experience.

3. The establishment of a representative organisation with professionlisation as its goal.

4. The formation of an ethical code for the guidance of its conduct.

5. The charging of fees based on the nature of service extended.

In the light of what has been said above management can be said to be a profession.

The arguments in favour of this statement are given below: 

1. Body of knowledge:
All over the world there is marked growth of an organised systematic body of knowledge
about management as a process.

2. Formal methods of teaching:

The establishment of professional schools of management in which management as a
body of knowledge can be taught is seen everywhere. India is no exception to it as is clear
from the establishment of Indian Institutes of Management at Ahmedabad, Calcutta,
Bangalore, Lucknow and Postgraduate Departments of Management as well as
Institutes/Colleges of Management being established in different parts of the country.

3. Fee as remuneration:
The number of management consultants is increasing Even a large number of well
reputed firms are establishing their consultancy agencies.

4. Existence of ethical code:

There is growing emphasis on the ethical basis of management behaviour.

5. Establishment of representative organizations:

Both at the national and international levels management associations have been formed
with their membership rules, codes of conduct, etc. All India Management Association,
New Delhi.

National Institute of Personnel Management, Calcutta, Institute of Marketing and

Management, Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, New Delhi, Institute of Costs
and Works Accountants of India, Calcutta are the well established associations in India.
And many more organisations in the specialised fields/ branches of management are
being organised.

Management as Profession: A Controversy:

However, there is no agreement on this point. Questions are asked: Is management a
profession? Is it becoming a profession? As it is well known, a large number of business
units are operating as sole traders and single entrepreneurship enterprises. By definition
and in practice they are managed by proprietor-managers. So is the case with
partnership firms and joint Hindu family firms.

But company form of business enterprises in India and corporate organisations in USA
and other countries are even by definition the enterprises in which ownership is divorced
from management. Even then question remains if all of them are managed by
professional managers. As things stand, under law it is the shareholders who elect the
Board of Directors from amongst themselves.

Thus the topmost group at the top level management of a company or corporate body are
not professional managers. But all the big companies operating on large scale do appoint
executives and managers on salary-cum-perks basis. Thus they are the professional
managers.

In large companies even the Vice Presidents of marketing, finance, etc. who are on the
Board of Directors are the professional managers. So are all those working at the middle
level and lower level of management. In case of public undertakings management is in
effect with the professional managers. Exceptions to it are Departmental Undertakings
such as Railways. Posts & Telegraphs etc. which are controlled by the various
departments of the Government.

But there also other than the Minister-in-charge all those looking after the management
are professionals. A new trend is becoming more and more marked. Proprietary
managers are becoming more interested in acquiring the latest knowledge and technique
of management. They are sending their own sons, daughters and other close relatives
abroad to acquire degrees and diplomas in management.

Others are joining short- term courses in management run by organisations like
Administrative Staff College, Hyderabad. All India Management Association etc. Such
persons are now occupying positions at the topmost layers of the managerial hierarchy.

Are these persons to be regarded as proprietary managers or professional managers ? No

doubt all the features of profession are not applicable to them. But they do possess other
features.

In conclusion, it may be said that all the requirements of profession are not satisfied by
managers at the top. But management is, by and large, becoming professionalised, it is
more so in the developed nations. But even in India large number of managerial cadres
are getting professionalised.

This is applicable to both the public and private sectors. Even the case of smaller
enterprises, which are run by proprietary managers, assistance of professionals such as
chartered accountants, cost accountants and lawyers are being utilised to a great extent.

5. Essay on the Objectives of Management: 

Objectives can be divided into three categories: Individual, Social and Organisational.
Recognising the three categories and reacting appropriately to each is a challenge for all
modern managers.
(I) Individual Objectives:
Individual objectives are the personal goals each organisation member would like to
reach through activity within the organisation. These objectives might include high
salary, personal growth and development, peer recognition, and societal recognition.

(II) Social Objectives:

Social objectives deal with the goals of an organisation toward society. Included are
obligations to abide by requirements established by the community, such as those
pertaining to health, safety, labour practices and price regulation.

Further, they include goals intended to further social and physical improvement of the
community and to contribute to desirable civic activities.

It should be noted that most business houses in achieving their primary goals also
contribute to their respective communities by creating needed economic wealth,
employment and financial support to the community.

(III) Organisational Objectives: 

Drucker indicates that the very survival of management may be endangered if managers
emphasize only a profit objective. This single-objective emphasis encourages managers
to take action that will make money today with little regard for how a profit will be made
tomorrow.

In practice, managers should strive to develop and attain variety of objectives in all
management areas where activity is critical to the operation and success of the system.
Following are the eight key areas in which Drucker advises managers to set management
objectives.

1. Market Standing:
Management should set objectives indicating where it would like to b£ in relation to its
competitors.

2. Innovation: 
Management should set objectives outlining its commitment to the development of new
methods of operation.

3. Productivity: 
Management should set objectives outlining the target levels of production.

4. Physical and Financial Resources:

Management should set objectives with regard to the use, acquisition and maintenance
of capital and monetary resources.

5. Profitability:
Management should set objectives that specify the profit the company would like to
generate.

6. Management Performance and Development: 

Management should set objectives that specify rates and levels of managerial
productivity and growth.

7. Worker Performance and Attitude:

Management should set objectives that specify rates of worker productivity as well as the
attitudes workers possess.

8. Public Responsibility:
Management should set objectives that indicate the company’s responsibilities to its
customers and society and the extent to which the company intends to live up to those
responsibilities.

6. Essay on the Levels of Management: 

More of the authors have conceived of three levels of management in any fairly-sized
business undertaking.

These are as follows: 

1. Top Level Management

2. Middle Level Management

3. Lower level Management

Management is considered as a Three-tier activity. The top tier centres round the
determination .of objectives and policies, the middle tier concerned with implementation
of policies through the assistance of lower tier of the organisation.

The various tasks in a business enterprise “become structured somewhat like a pyramid,
with the highest level of management centred at its apex”.
The managerial set-up of any undertaking, therefore consists of three levels – Top
Management, Middle Management and Operating Management or Lower Level
Management.

The following chart illustrates Levels of Management in a company form of

enterprise of fairly large size: 

This gradation of level of management is not a watertight arrangement but represents a

hierarchy of authority and responsibility designed to secure a systematic sequence of
operations. Each level is blended into another through its functions and all the layers of
authority constitute an integrated arrangement.
The demarcation of the levels is only to analyse the range of responsibility and span of
control and it underlines the principle of specialisation in administrative executive
processes.

A. Top Level Management: 

Top level management is made up of Board of Directors, its Chairman, Managing
Director or General Manager and other key officers responsible for smooth and
systematic conduct of the affairs of the enterprise.

The top level management is a concept of functions concerning the manner in which the
enterprise should be shaped.

In view of large size of modern companies, the key functions cannot be performed by a
single person, and hence a compact group of elected office-bearers, experts and
executives form the top management level of enterprises these days. Board of Directors
is assisted by Managing Director, General Manger etc. in directing the company’s
operations.

Top level management’s work is a creative process and it also involves commitments of
high order of responsibility. As Allen observes “top-management work is a work which
must be performed at the apex of the organisational pyramid because it cannot be
carried out effectively at lower levels.”

Top management is also described “as the policy-making group responsible for the
overall direction and success of all company activities.” It is a chief custodian of the
property of the enterprise. It is the main mobiliser of resources in men and materials
essential for the inception, maintenance, operations and expansion of the undertaking.

It is more basically a panel of planning the company’s operations and in due course shall
develop into an evaluating and controlling medium for securing the maximum possible
performance. It is concerned with the problems and policies of the entire enterprise.

The functions of top management include: 

“Identifying key factors for the survival and growth of the company and devising basic
objectives, policies and programmes for dealing with these factors: being sensitive to the
inter-dependence of the numerous actions and maintaining a strategic balance in these
actions; and keeping an eye on how current activities of the company will cutting with
predicted changes-social, political, technological and competitive-and adopting company
plans to the anticipated environment.”
Functions of the Managers at the Top Level Management:
The fundamental functions of mangers of the top management may be
classified into the following categories: 
(1) Determining the objectives.

(2) Framing the policies and making plans to carry out the objectives and policies.

(3) Setting up an organisational framework to conduct the operations as per plans.

(4) Assembling the resources needed to put the plans into operation.

(5) Controlling the operations through organisation.

1. Determining the Objectives:

Objectives are goals which every enterprise seeks to achieve. Most of the companies
describe in detail the nature of their activities in the objects clause of their Memoranda
of Association. But by and large the general objectives which top management should
aim at are survival, profit, business growth, prestige or status and social acceptance.

Production of particular product of specific quality, satisfaction of customer’s needs,

earning of profit by production and sales, looking out for expansion and diversification
of business, building up an image or reputation of the company in the eyes or estimation
of the society are the broad objectives set up by top management.

Objectives also may be specific. They relate to types of activities. Specialty in

workmanship, competitive pricing, marketing method, widening the area of sales
abroad, relations with the workers, customers, public, government, etc.

2. Framing of Policies:
The objectives are realised through policies framed by the management. Policies signify
the decisions taken by the management on different strategic aspects of company’s
operations or activities.

Production policy indicates the schedules of production to meet the market demand.

Product policy lays down the standards, specifications, size, design, colour shapes etc. of
the product.
Marketing policy describes the channels of selling the product (direct sale or dealership,
agency etc.), advertising and sales promotions techniques to be adopted, the sales targets
to be attained etc.

Pricing policy emphasises the quality aspect of the product as well as the comparative
competitive nature of the rates quoted, discounts allowed etc.

Personnel policy deals with recruitment, placement, training, remuneration, promotion,

rewarding and regulating the productivity of the personnel.

Financial policy is concerned with procuring funds required for investment in fixed
assets or required to be held over for working capital needs, sources of finance, e.g.,
borrowing, self-financing, issuing additional capital etc.

Top management has also to devise plans and schemes for precise execution of policies
within a given time. Plans set out the course along which operations in different
departments are to be conducted as per the criteria laid down in the respective policies.

production schedule, sales campaign, financial arrangements, personnel motivation have

to be drawn as to focus and guide the activities of the company in the direction of the
realisation of the basic objectives.

3. Organising: 
Organisation means division of functions, allocation of duties to the personnel, fixation
of range of their responsibility and the scope of their authority and coordination of the
activities of the departments of the undertaking. Standardisation of administrative
procedures is the main task of organising the enterprise.

Systems and procedures are the methods intended to govern the departmental activities
of a company. Organisation ensures smooth flow of work from one stage to another, or
from one department to another, so that the whole undertaking is enabled to achieve the
targets to the benefit of the company and satisfaction of customers.

4. Assembling the Resources: 

Prior to the launching of the plans, the resources of money, men and materials have to be
assembled. Executives and operatives are appointed after careful selection on the basis
of their merits and the nature of jobs to be handled.

Money capital has to be raised through issue of shares, debentures, etc. and arrangement
for working capital has to be made through reserves, bank advance etc.
Then the physical resources-machinery, tools, furniture, buildings, water supply, power,
other ancillary equipment-have to be collected as per estimated needs. The management
has to find out the sources of finance for implementing the plans and programmes.

5. Controlling:
Top level management does not directly execute work. But the Chief Executive in the top
management has the responsibility of exercising supervision over all the departments to
make sure that the middle and lower managements are functioning as per the plans.

By controlling we mean instituting checks or comparisons of actual results with the

planned targets. It implies evaluation or measurement of the work turned out in each
section or department with reference to the goals envisaged in the basic plans and
policies of the company.

The top level management lays down the standards of performance for the purpose of
comparison of the actual results with the planned performance. Standard cost per unit,
sales quotas, net profit per unit of sales are some of the reliable criteria for comparison.

Top level management finds out to what extent the performance has been upto the mark
and identifies in the course the sources of strength and weakness in the different phases
of organisation and operations.

Top level management has to act as coordinator and regulator of the activities of the
undertaking in its different dimensions. It will call for reports, statistical data, special
studies, accounting records to know the position of performance and to apply regulatory
checks wherever and whenever necessary.

B. Middle Level Management: 

Middle level management is concerned with the task of implementing the policies and
plans chalked out by the top management. Middle management comprises departmental
heads and other executive officers attached to different departments.

These departmental managers and officers are expected to take concrete steps for actual
realisation of the objectives and operational results visualised in the plans finalised by
the top officers of the organisation. “This group is responsible for the execution and
interpretation of policies throughout the organisation and for the successful operation of
assigned division or departments.”

Managers at the middle level management level exercise the usual functions of
management in respect of their own departments. They have to plan the operations,
issue instructions to their assistants, collect the resources required and control the work
of the men under them and evaluate the results achieved by their department with
reference to the plans formulated by the top management.

If the top management is endowed with the authority of policy-making, middle

management is entrusted with the programming of efforts essential for implementing
the basic pre-determined policies.

Functions of Managers at the Middle Level Management:

The functions of the managers at the middle level management can be
broadly summarised as follows: 
(i) Interpretation of policies framed by top level management.

(ii) Preparing the organisational set-up in their departments for fulfilling the objective
implied in various business policies.

(iii) Finding out the suitable personnel and assigning duties and responsibilities to them
for the execution of the plans of the concerned departments.

(iv) Compiling detailed instructions regarding operations and issuing them to the
assistants and operatives to focus and guide their efforts accordingly.

(v) Motivating the personnel for higher productivity and rewarding them for their merit,
capacity or calibre.

(vi) Cooperating with other departments so as to evolve a smoothly functioning

organisation.

(vii) Collecting reports, statistical information and other records about the work turned
out in respective departments and forwarding the same with their observations to the
top level management.

(viii) Recommending to the top management, new or revised policies for their
departments to secure better performance.

Middle level management managers are responsible for all the leading functions within
each department. They provide “the guidance and the structure for a purposeful
enterprise”.
The top management’s plans and ambitious expectations cannot be fruitfully realised
without the key officers at the middle level management.

Managerial Structure at the Middle Level Management:

Generally the following functions at the middle level management are performed
through the various departments under the departmental managers or heads.

1. Production department headed by works manager is concerned with the

following functions: 
(i) To collect the work orders and issue them to concerned sections.

(ii) To guide the foremen, and prescribe methods and process to be followed in execution
of the work allotted.

(iii) To devise a system of inspection of factory functioning, the components, semi-

finished and finished products.

(iv) Assembling the tools, equipment, plant, qualified personnel etc. to execute the
production’s plan.

(v) Controlling the factory expenses.

2. Engineering Department headed by chief engineer has to perform the

following functions: 
(i) Production-planning, routing, scheduling.

(ii) Plant layout suited to the execution of production plans.

(iii) Designing the products, their specifications, standards, quality, workmanship etc.

(iv) Research in methodology of production for improving technical efficiency.

(v) Plant and tools maintenance and development of the full capacity of production.

(vi) Economy in production costs and resource consumption.

3. Personnel Department: 
It is headed by the chief personnel officer, labour officer. He has to devise selection
procedure and training schemes: he has to maintain service records of the staff and
formulate methods of remuneration in conformity with the productivity and cost of
living. He has to assure wholesome working conditions to the personnel and look after
their social and economic security and welfare.

4. Stores Department headed by stores manager is concerned with systematic

organisation of purchasing raw materials, stores articles, tools, equipment, spare parts,
etc. and proper custody of the materials with the responsibility of issuing them to the
requisitioning departments.
He has to sort and arrange neatly the stockpile of materials etc. and keep an up to date
record of materials, stores, tools, etc. received, issued, consumed, balance held in stock,
etc.

5. Office Manager is in-charge of secretarial work of correspondence, filing, indexing,

use of office appliances, maintenance of records and reports pertaining to the different
departments.
6. Accounts Department: 
The chief Accountant is responsible for maintaining up-to-date accounts of financial
transactions and recording sales, purchases, receipts and payments.

He is also required to compile periodically the Trading Account, Profit and Loss Account
and Balance sheet of the firm.

He should ensure that monthly financial statements indicating the position of the firm
are placed before the Board and other top management officials.

7. Costing Department: 
In bigger enterprises a separate department for costing is constituted and cost
accountant is appointed to administer the functions of the section.

Costing department is entrusted with the main functions of ascertaining the prime and
supplementary costs and submission of cost-sheets to the top level management for
appraisal.

Costing department keeps detailed records of costs of completed jobs in progress, costs
of materials, labour, factory overhead costs and sales on cost. It helps the management
to find out the disparity between estimated costs and actual costs and the reason thereof
so that remedial measures can be adopted.

8. Sales Department: 
This section is the life-blood of the enterprise because the sales are the barometer of
business profits and reputations of the firm. The work of the department is to create
demand for the goods for promoting maximum possible sales at quick pace in wider
markets.

The vital functions of the department are as follows: 

(i) Market research to find out the needs, tastes and buying habits of the consumers.

(ii) Looking out for new markets for the goods.

(iii) Organising advertisement campaigns and other sales promotion activities for
creating, maintaining and expanding the demand.

(iv) Collecting orders from the customers through agents, dealers or salesmen.

(v) Executing the orders by timely despatch of goods.

(vi) Supervision of salesmen’s efforts, training and stimulation of salesmen.

(vii) Organising after-sale service and similar sales promotion efforts.

(viii) Looking after proper warehousing, packing and despatch of goods.

(ix) Attending to customers’ complaints and suggestions.

C. Lower Level Management (Operating Management):

It is described as the lowest level in the administrative framework and actual operations
are the responsibility of the rank and file constituting this level of management.

Foremen, supervisors and sub-departmental executives assisted by a number of workers,

clerks etc. carry out the actual operations as per schedule. Their authority and
responsibility is limited and they have to follow the lines drawn by the higher levels of
management.

The plans and policies of the top level management will fail if the foremen and operatives
do not fully realise the spirit of sustained work. The quality of the workmanship and
quantity of output will depend on the hard labour, discipline and loyalty of the operating
personnel. The foremen or supervisors are responsible for executing the work orders
allotted to their respective sections.

They pass on the instructions of middle level management to the working force, procure
the materials, tools etc. required for the jobs, assign specific duties to individual
workmen and guide them in acting upon the instructions and handling the job on hand
with ability and accuracy.

They seek to maintain precise standards of quality, prevent wastage of materials by

negligent workmen, look to the safety of machines and equipment and ensure steady
flow of output as per plans and programmes prescribed by the top level and middle level
managements.

They are also responsible for maintaining discipline among the respective batches of
workers, preserving and boosting their morale and fostering the team spirit in them.

7. Essay on Theo Haimann’s Three Notions about

Management: 
According to Theo Haimann management is used in three different senses:
(i) It is used as a noun. It refers to the group of managerial personnel of an enterprise.

(ii) It refers to the processes of managing, planning, organising, staffing, guiding,

directing, supervising and controlling.

(iii) It is used apart from the above two—personnel and activity- but it describes the
subject, the body of knowledge and the whole practice, the discipline.

I. Management is an art of getting things done through

other people:
It is a process of activity consisting of some basic techniques for getting the objective of
an enterprise fulfilled through the efforts of people. It is the activating element in any
concern for getting things done through people. But today it is thought to be against
humanity. At present: “It is the art of getting things done through and with the people
informally organized groups.”

The job of management is to give active leadership that unites the productive but passive
resources into a fruitful organization.

As per E. Peterson and E.G. Plowman: 

“It is a technique by means of which the purposes and objectives of a particular human
group are determined, clarified and effectuated.”

As per E.F.L. Breach it has been said as: 

“A social process entailing responsibility for the effective of efficient planning and
regulation of the operations of an enterprise, such responsibility involving a judgement
and decision in determining plan and using data to control performances and progress
against plans. The guidance, integration, inspiration and supervision of the personnel
comprising enterprise and carrying out its operations.”

Breach signifies that it is not possible to take management in relation to things or

mechanical operations of machines but only in relation to the people who are employed
to operate or use such things.

As per Prof. Harold Koontz it is: 

“The art of getting things done through and with people informally organized groups. It
is the art of creating an environment in which people can perform as individuals and yet
co-operate towards attainment of groups’ goals. It is art of removing blocks to such
performance, a way of optimizing efficiency in reaching goals.”

II. Management is what management does:

The three functions of management are: 
(i) Planning,

(ii) Implementing, and

(iii) Controlling.

Planning includes formation of policy and its translation into plans. Implementing
includes the execution. Controlling means exercising administrative control over the
plans.

In the words of Dr. James Lundy: 

“Management is principally a task of planning, co-ordinating, motivating and controlling
the efforts of others towards a specific objective. It involves the combining of the
traditional factors of production (land, labour and capital) in an optimum manner,
paying dues attention, of course, to the particular goals of the organization.”

This definition includes three major management activities of: 

(i) Planning,

(ii) Implementing, and

(iii) Controlling.
(1) Planning is the ascertainment of the course or objectives of a business, division or
department to attain maximum profit effectiveness, the establishment of policies and
continuous seeking and finding out new and better ways to do things.

(2) Implementing seeks to the doing phases, after preparation of plans, personnel attend
their jobs with training of motivation not do rightly. Activities must run to the planning,
supervision and direction of the subordinates and at the same time groups efforts are
coordinated.

(3) Lastly, controlling seeks to evaluate acts of those who are responsible for executing
the plans agreed upon. It consists of: (a) Controlling adherence to plans (b) appraising
performance.

III. Management is the development of the people:

Business is not the management of things. As Appley Lowrence puts it: “The
development of people and not the direction of things.” It is the selection, training
supervision and development of people. These days most of the large as well as medium-
sized enterprises are managed by the professional managers i.e., the managers who have
got either little or no share in the ownership of the enterprise. They take management as
a career.

Mcforland has noted following characteristics of a profession:

1. A body of principles, techniques, skills and specialised knowledge.

2. Formal methods of acquiring training.

3. Laying down of certain ethical codes of guidance of conduct.

4. Charging of fees according to the nature of services rendered.

And management is truly a profession in the sense that it fulfills all these conditions.
Management these days is very much a systematised body of knowledge (science) and is
an identifiable discipline. It has also developed a number of its tools and techniques.

In India, now there are a number of management institutes and university departments
imparting formal management training. But management still, at last so in our country,
does not fulfill the last time requirements of being a profession. There is, for example,
still no unified ethical code of conduct for the managers as is there for the doctors and
lawyers.
8. Essay on the Functions of Management: 
Various authors have given various functions of management according to the time and
development of the management science.

All these can be classified into the following categories: 

(i) Planning

(ii) Organisation

(iii) Direction

(iv) Co-ordination

(v) Control.

These functions of management have been discussed in detail in the

following paragraphs: 
(i) Planning:
It is deciding in advance what is to be done, how it is to be done and when it is to be
done. Planning involves projecting the future course of action for the business as a whole
and also for the different sections within it. It helps in bridging the gap between the
present and the future.

Planning is possible whenever there is a question of choosing and planning process is

possible only when alternatives are there. In fact planning is an intellectual process. It
signifies use of rational approach to the solution of problems. The important aspects of
planning process are defining and establishing objectives, policies, procedures methods,
rules, budgets, programmes and strategies.

(ii) Organisation:
Organisation is the structural relationship in an enterprise between the various factors
i.e., men, material and management which combine to achieve the objectives set by the
enterprise. In a dynamic society like ours, the organisation is not fixed. If it does not
promote the objectives of the enterprise, it must be modified.

(iii) Direction:
Direction consists of command, execution, control, supervision and motivation i.e.,
achieving the good results. It is concerned with to use Lawrence H. Appley’s
maxim “that management is essentially getting things done through the
efforts of other people.” 
It needs the personal touch. A good manager has to see that his orders are properly
carried out and have achieved the desired results. It will need proper supervision by him
and control of all the levels below him.

Moreover, his order must always create motivation among subordinates. It is only
possible when his orders are of the right type and at the right moment. For it, more of
initiative, sincere and tact is required than aggressiveness. A good executive must always
be a good leader.

(iv) Co-Ordination:
Co-operation permeates all operating organisations and makes their entire structure
more effective by harmonizing and property timing the various activities. It means
synchronising the activities of all persons and functions in the enterprise and rooting out
personal prestige and vested interests.

Proper co-ordination presupposes a number of conditions which can be

summed up as:
(i) Fixed responsibility

(ii) Adequate authority at each executive level

(iii) Organisational structure facilitating

(iv) Co-ordination.

(v) Control:
This includes the setting of the targets or standards and comparing the actuals with
standards in order to know the deviations, analysis and probing the reasons for such
deviations, fixing of responsibility in terms of persons responsible for negative deviation,
and correction of employees performance so that group goals, and plans devised to
achieve them are accomplished.

9. Essay on the Importance of Management: 

Management is absolutely essential if human efforts are to be effective to meet all round
development of the society through productive activity, occupation or profession. It is
essential in all organisations and at all levels of organisation in an enterprise. Without
the enlightened guidance and leadership made available by management “the productive
resources will remain resources and shall never become production”.

Management is a dynamic element which gives life to a business enterprise. The

productive resources such as materials, men, and money are entrusted to the
administrative ability, enterprising initiative and organising skill of management.

In short, management is important for the following reasons: 

(i) Provides Effectiveness to Human Efforts: 
It helps achieve better equipment, plants, offices, products, services, human relations. It
keeps abreast of changing conditions, and it supplies foresight and imagination.
Improvement and progress are its constant watch-words.

(ii) Critical Ingredient in Nation’s Growth:

An underdeveloped nation usually lacks adequate managerial know-how. National
development is not solely one of transferring capital, technology, and education to
citizens of an undeveloped nations. It is also supplying or developing management which
provides the generation and direction of effective human energies. Management know-
how utilizes the available resources effectively toward achievement of basic needs.

(iii) Brings Order to Endeavours:

By means of management, apparently isolated events or factual information or beliefs
are brought together and significant relationships discerned. These relationships bear on
the immediate problem, point out future hurdles to be overcome, and assist in
determining a solution to the problem.

(iv) Provides Judgement and Courage:

To determine worthwhile goals, carefully select and utilize resources efficiently by means
of applying planning, organising, directing and controlling require a high degree of
judgement and the exercise of great courage.

From time to time, gadgets and aids are offered to replace management, but actually at
best they assist and do not represent management. Serious consideration of such devices
usually points out the need for more management judgement and courage to be used.
Nothing takes the place of management.

(v) Helps in Achieving Group Goals: 

Management touches and influences the life of nearly every human being. Management
makes us aware of our potentials, shows the way toward better accomplishment, reduces
obstacles, and causes us to achieve goals that we probably would not otherwise attain.