59

CHAPTER-3

THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
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CHAPTER-3 THEORITICAL ANALYSIS 59-79

S.No. Name of the sub-title Page No.

3.1 Boundary layer 61

3.1.1 Laminar Boundary Layer 61
3.1.2 Turbulent Boundary Layer 64
3.1.3 Laminar Sub Layer 67
3.2 Boundary layer thickness and its characteristics 68
3.3 Hydro dynamically smooth and rough boundaries 72
3.4 Boundary layer on rough surface 73
3.5 Effect of experimental parameters 74
3.5.1 Nusselt Number 75
3.5.2 Reynolds Number 76
3.5.3 Friction Factor 76
3.5.4 Effect of duct aspect ratio, w/h 76
3.5.5 Angle of attack 77
3.5.6 Effect of protrusions on flow structure 78
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3. THEORETICAL ANALYSIS

3.1 Boundary Layer

The phenomenon of boundary layer formation along a flat plate

is essentially governed by the inertial force and the viscous force

which retard the motion of the fluid. Thus it is governed by the free

stream velocity U, characteristic length x measured along the plate

from the leading edge, mass density of fluid  and its dynamic

viscosity . In other words, the Reynolds number, Re = (Ux./),

becomes an important parameter in the study of boundary layers.

3.1.1 Laminar Boundary Layer

When the fluid of small viscosity flows over a flat plate, the flow

in the boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent if Ux/

(Kinematic viscosity, =/) exceeds a certain limit. Any disturbance

created in the boundary layer of laminar flow is ultimately damped.

The laminar boundary layer exhibits the characteristics of both

laminar and turbulent motions, when it becomes unstable after

passing some distance from the leading edge. This is known as

transition region which is usually small.

Outside the boundary layer, the effect of viscous forces on the

flow pattern is negligible. On the other hand, inside the boundary

layer viscous force is a predominant force. Hence it is reasonable to

assume that both inertial force and viscous force are of equal
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magnitude at the edge of the laminar boundary layer. Inertial force per

unit volume is given by u(u/x) which is proportion to U2/x for the

case of flat plate.

Viscous force per unit volume is (/y) which for laminar flow


becomes ( u / y ) i.e. (2u/y2). In the boundary layer (u/y) ~
y
(U/); hence (/y) ~  U/2. If these two forces are proportional, one

gets.

2
U 2 U
 k
x  2
 k

x Ux


Here, k is a constant. By analytical solution, Blasius [109] has

obtained a value of 5.0 for k. Hence,

 5 .0 5 .0
 
x Ux Re x

x
  5
U
Expression for the shear can be obtained in a similar way.

Since in the boundary layer substituting the values above one gets,

 u  U
  y 0 ~
 y  
 u  U
 0     y  0 ~
 y  
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U3  
 0  const.
x
0.664
 0 /(U 2 / 2)  c f 
Rex
The coefficient Cf is known as the local drag coefficient. The

total horizontal force on one side of the plate on which laminar

boundary layer exists can be obtained as follows

L
FD    o Bdx
O

Where FD is the total horizontal force in which B is the width of

the plate and L is the length on which laminar boundary layer exists.

Substituting the value of o from Equation, the average drag

coefficient can be obtained as

FD / BL 1.328
Cf  
U 2 /2 Re L

In which ReL = (UL/). Since the flow in the laminar boundary

layer is laminar, one would expect that the velocity distribution across

the flow follows a parabolic law. This velocity distribution for flow over

a flat plate, must satisfy three basic conditions namely,

1) Since the fluid adheres to the boundary

u = 0, at y = 0

2) Beyond the boundary layer thickness the velocity is constant at

various y values, Hence u = U at y equal to and greater than .

3) At the edge of boundary layer there is no velocity gradient, or

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u 2u
 0 and 2  0 at y  
y y

A typical velocity distribution which satisfies the above

conditions is given by,

3 4
u  y  y  y
 2   2    
U      

3.1.2 Turbulent Boundary Layer

It has been pointed out that in case of flow in the pipes, the

character of the flow diverts from laminar to turbulent as the

Reynolds number UD/ exceeds 2100. To the downstream of this

region, flow becomes turbulent in the boundary layer. If the flow does

not separate from the boundary, there will be a continuous increase in

boundary layer thickness. This section of it is known as the turbulent

boundary layer. It is evident that, for a given flow or fluid

characteristics, the boundary layer may be laminar alone or both

laminar and turbulent which necessarily depends on length of the

plate.

Once the boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent,

there is considerable mixing between different layers of the fluid in the

boundary layer. In turbulent flow there is a continuous exchange of

fluid mass from a layer of lower velocity to a layer of higher velocity

and vice versa. This brings about an equalizing effect on the velocity
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distribution. As a result, in a turbulent boundary layer the velocity

distribution is more uniform than in the laminar boundary layer. The

velocity distribution in the major portion of the turbulent boundary

layer follows a logarithmic law i.e. u ~ log y. It can also be represented

by power law i.e. (u/U) = (y/)m. The value of the exponent m was

originally found to be 1/7; however, m changes from about 1/6 to

1/10 with the increase of Reynolds number. In the case of laminar

sub-layer, the velocity distribution is parabolic. However, since the

laminar sub layer thickness ‘’ is very small, the velocity distribution

can be approximated by a straight line relationship.

The expressions of , cf and Cf for the turbulent boundary layer

are as follows
 1/ 5
 0.377 / Rex
x

cf = 0.059/Rex1/5

Cf = 0.074/ReL1/5

It can be seen from the above Equations that the boundary layer

thickness increases as x1/2 for laminar case while it increases as x4/5

for turbulent case. Hence the turbulent boundary layer thickness

increases much faster than the laminar boundary layer thickness.

Another characteristic of the turbulent boundary layer is that, near

the boundary large velocity change occurs in a relatively small vertical

distance. As a result (u/y)y=0 is much larger for turbulent boundary

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layer than for the laminar boundary layer. Hence the shear stresses

are large in turbulent boundary layer. In fact there is a steep rise in o

as boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent and then it

decreases, with increase in x values.

Equation for the average drag coefficient CDf for laminar flow is

applicable, if the provided Reynolds number is less than 5 x 105.

Equation of drag co-efficient for turbulent flow CDf is applicable with

the Reynolds number ranging from 5 x 105 to 2 x 107 and also

provided that from leading edge, the boundary layer is turbulent. This

means that some special measures must be taken to make the

boundary layer turbulent right from the leading edge, or the length of

plate over which laminar boundary layer exists is small as compared

to the total length of plate over which laminar boundary layer slightly

exceeding 5 x 105, an appreciable fraction of the upstream flat plate is

covered with laminar boundary layer and this decreases the drag. This

reduction in drag is considered by introducing a subtractive term in

Equation for Turbulent flow drag coefficient. In such cases, where the

plate is covered with laminar and turbulent boundary lavers, Drag

coefficient determined by Prandtal can be used.

It may be mentioned that the constant 1700 is dependent on

the Reynolds number at which the laminar boundary layer becomes

turbulent. Below are given the values of this constant for various

critical Reynolds numbers.

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1/ 5
 0.074   1700 
C Df      
 Re L   Re L 

3.1.3 Laminar Sub Layer

If the plate is smooth, then even though the boundary layer is

turbulent, there is a very thin layer near the boundary in which the

flow is still laminar. This layer is commonly known as the laminar-sub

layer. Even for a turbulent boundary layer, the flow in the immediate

vicinity of the smooth boundary possesses the characteristics of

laminar flow. Thickness of turbulent boundary layer in which the flow

is laminar is known as the laminar sub layer‘’.

The logarithmic velocity distribution law in the turbulent

boundary layer has a peculiarity that at y = 0 it gives minus infinite

velocity and at a certain distance above the boundary, y = y’, it gives

zero velocity. This can be explained if the existence of laminar sub

layer is accepted. Since the flow in the laminar sub layer is laminar, it

will follow a parabolic velocity distribution law (which can be

approximated by a straight line if the thickness  is small); hence

logarithmic law cannot be applied within this thickness. Indeed there

is a gradual change from parabolic to logarithmic law. Arbitrarily the

intersection of parabolic and logarithmic curves can be taken as the

limit of laminar sub layer. Experimental results have shown that

11.6 11.6
'  
o u*

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u* = o / 

In which u* is known as shear velocity and o is the average

shear stress on the boundary there. The concept of laminar sub-layer

is quite useful in classification of boundaries. It may be added that

detailed flow structure within the laminar sub-layer is much more

complex and is a subject of investigation in recent times. Detailed

observations of flow within the laminar sub-layer have conclusively

shown that the sub-layer exhibits a remarkably regular and almost

periodic variation in velocity across the flow. It has also been noticed

that the sub-layer consists of lengthwise vortices.

3.2 Boundary Layer Thickness and its Characteristics

The change of boundary layer from laminar to turbulent is

primarily governed by the Reynolds number Ux/ and other factors

such as roughness of the plate, plate curvature, pressure gradient and

the intensity and scale of turbulence. In general, this critical Reynolds

number varies between 3 x 105 to 6 x 105. In exceptional cases, where

the ambient flow is free from any disturbances, value of critical

Reynolds number can reach 106 or even higher. However, for practical

purposes the value of critical Reynolds number Rex can be taken as 5

x 105.
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Consider a thin flat plate held parallel to the flow in a uniform

stream of velocity U and consider the velocity distribution at any


U *   (U  u ) dy
O

 u  u
*   1   dy   1   dy
O
 U O
 U
vertical. Theoretically, the transition of the velocity from zero to U

(many times known as ambient velocity, free stream velocity or

potential velocity) takes place asymptotically. Hence, there is difficulty

in defining the boundary layer thickness. This difficulty is overcome

by arbitrarily defining the boundary layer thickness as that distance

from the plate where the velocity differs by one per cent from the

ambient velocity U. In other words at y = , u = 0.99 U in which  is

the boundary layer thickness. This is many times known as nominal

thickness of boundary layer.

Two other definitions of boundary layer thickness are used in

the development of boundary layer theory. The displacement

thickness* is defined as the distance the actual boundary would have

to be displaced in order that the actual discharge under potential flow

condition through * would be the same as decreases in flow rate

caused by friction. In other words, since beyond y values greater than

 the local velocity is almost equal to U. The momentum thickness  is

defined as the distance from the actual boundary such that the

momentum flux through this distance  at ambient velocity is the

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same as the deficit of momentum flux due to boundary layer

formation. In other words,

It can be seen that displacement thickness is smaller than

nominal boundary layer thickness while momentum thickness is

smaller than the displacement thickness; or 0 <* <.


 U2    u (U  u ) dy
O

 u  u  u  u
    1   dy    1   dy
O U U O U U

Suppose a thin flat plate held parallel to the flow (sometimes

called as held at zero incidence), in a stream of uniform velocity U. As

the fluid reaches the plate, the velocity of fluid at the boundary

becomes zero and hence a velocity gradient is set up while develops

shear resistance. Near the leading edge of the plate, it is only in a very

thin layer that the fluid is retarded. As this retarded layer moves

downstream, continued action of shear resistance causes retardation

in increasing quantities of the fluid. As a result, thickness of the

boundary layer  goes on increasing in the downstream direction. This

figure also shows the velocity distributions at successive sections

along the flat plate. Since the boundary layer thickness is increasing

in the downstream direction and since  represents the vertical

distance in which velocity change from 0 to 0.99 U, it is evident that

the velocity gradient (u/y)y=0 decreases in the downstream direction

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of the flow. Consequently the shear stress at the wall

0=(u/y)y=0 decreases in the direction of the flow.

In the boundary layer there is a small velocity component at

right angles to the direction of flow and the vertical velocity

component is zero.

Following are the important factors which influence the

boundary layer thickness  on a flat smooth plate

 As discussed earlier, the thickness of the boundary layer

increases with the increase in distance between the leading edge

and the plate.

 Greater the ambient or free stream velocity, smaller is the

boundary layer thickness at any section.

 Greater the kinematic viscosity, greater is the boundary layer

thickness.

 The pressure gradient p/x significantly affects the thickness of

boundary layer in the direction of flow. In the case of a flat plate

in a stream of uniform velocity U. p/x = 0 i.e. the free stream

velocity U does not depend on x. If the pressure decreases in the

direction of flow (i.e., if the p/x is negative) as in the case of

converging flows, the resulting pressure force acts in the

direction of flow and it accelerates the decelerated fluid in the

boundary layer. As a result, the boundary layer growth is

retarded in the presence of negative pressure gradient. The case

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of positive pressure gradient is more important. In the flows

with positive pressure gradient (i.e. diverging flows) the fluid in

the boundary layer is further decelerated, and can give rise to

separation and reverse flow near the boundary.

3.3 Hydro Dynamically Smooth and Rough Boundaries

If any surface over which the fluid flows is closely examined

through a microscope, it will be found to consist of innumerable

irregularities of various sizes. Assume that the average height of these

irregularities is k. Then, in conventional sense, a boundary with large

values of k will be called a rough boundary and the one with smaller k

value will be called smooth. However, in fluid mechanics the

boundaries are classified as smooth or rough by taking into

consideration the flow and the fluid characteristics in addition to the

boundary characteristics.

Consider the case of a boundary of roughness height k, where

the laminar sub layer of thickness ‘’ is much greater than k. Since

the flow outside the laminar sub layer is turbulent, eddies of various

sizes are present in it. These eddies try to penetrate through the

laminar sub layer and reach the roughness elements. However,

because of the larger thickness of laminar sub layer and the inherent

stability of laminar flow, the eddies cannot reach the roughness

elements or surface irregularities and as such, these elements are not

exposed to the turbulent flow. Hence the boundary acts as a smooth

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boundary and is known as ‘hydro dynamically smooth boundary. The

resistance in such a case is dependent only on Reynolds number.

With increase in Reynolds number the thickness of the laminar

sub layer decreases and it can be much smaller than ‘k’ and the

laminar sub layer is completely destroyed since most of roughness

elements protrude through it. Wakes are formed behind each

roughness element and there is considerable energy loss. Once the

laminar sub layer is destroyed, the resistance no longer depends on

Reynolds number, but depends on the relative roughness defined as

roughness height divided by characteristic length. In the case of pipes

the relative roughness parameter is k/D where D is the diameter of

the pipe; for flat plates the corresponding parameter is k/L where L is

the length of the plate. Experiments have shown that when k/’ is less

than 0.25 the boundary acts as a hydro dynamically smooth

boundary. If k/’ is less than 6.0 the boundary is hydro dynamically

rough. For 0.25 < k/’ < 6.0, the boundary is classified as boundary in

transition in which the resistance depends both on Reynolds number

as well as on relative roughness.

3.4 Boundary Layer on rough Surface

In most practical applications connected with boundary layer

development on a flat plate e.g. ships, airplane wings etc., the surface

cannot be considered hydro dynamically smooth.

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In the case of rough pipes, k/D is taken as the relative

roughness. This is now replaced by k/ where  is the thickness of

boundary layer. However, whereas k/D for pipe remains constant, k/

for a flat plate will decrease in the downstream direction because of

increase in . As a result the front portion of the plate will behave

differently from its rear portion as far as the influence of roughness on

drag in considered. If one assumes that the boundary layer is

turbulent from the leading edge, the front portion of the plate will act

as rough followed by the transition region and the downstream portion

of the plate will be hydro dynamically smooth if it is sufficiently long.

The limits between these three regions are determined by the value of

u* k
.If is less than 5.0 the boundary is smooth, if it is greater than

70, it acts as rough and for the intermediate values it is in transition.

In the completely rough region the local drag coefficient cf and

average drag coefficient Cf are given by the equations

 2 .5
 x 
C f   2 . 87  1 . 58 log 10 
 k 
 2 .5
 L 
C f   1 . 87  1 . 52 log 10 
 K 

These formulae are valid for 102< L/k < 106.

3.5 Effect of Experimental Parameters

A Solar air heater is such a device whose absorber plate gets

heated due to the radiant thermal energy emitted by the sun. The air

gets heated by the available heat energy of the absorber plate through
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the process of forced convection that takes place between both the

media. In this chapter how various factors influence the process of

forced convection and thus the thermo-hydraulic performance of the

apparatus is studied. Those parameters include

1. Nusselt number

2. Reynolds number

3. Friction factor

4. Effect of Duct aspect ratio

5. Angle of Attack

6. Effect of protrusions on flow structure

3.5.1 Nusselt Number

It is a dimensionless parameter which is the ratio of convective

heat transfer co-efficient to the conductivity of the fluid. It is used to

determine the convective ability of the fluid to take heat from the

absorber plate effectively and account it for the thermal performance

and viability of the apparatus. It can also be defined as the amount of

heat transfer taken place by convection for unit conduction of heat

within the fluid itself at unit temperature gradient.

Nu=hDh/k

3.5.2 Reynolds Number

It is also a dimensionless parameter defined as the inertial force

of the flowing fluid to be in motion against unit viscous force that

resists the flow of motion. Inertial force is such force according to

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Newton that keeps a body in same state unless an external force is

applied to change the state of the body; viscous force is the force that

always tries to reduce the relative velocity between two fluid layers

inherently. So it can be understood as the ability of a fluid to

overcome viscous force and remain in the state of motion.

Re=VDh/

3.5.3 Friction Factor

It is also a dimensionless parameter defined as the pressure

energy due to viscous force acting against the kinetic energy caused

due to inertial force. It is a flow parameter similar to Reynolds number

used to determine the hydraulic performance of the apparatus. It

mainly depends on the pressure gradient that varies in the duct

length for different plates. Increase in frictional factor leads to

reduction in flow there by Reynolds number also reduces.

f= pDh/2LV2

3.5.4 Effect of Duct Aspect Ratio (W/H)

The square channel provides a better heat transfer performance

(for the same pumping power) of 15% better at 900 and 40% better at

300 angle attack compared to the rectangular channels with similar

roughness. Further, it is observed that the best heat transfer

performance in the rectangular channels at 300 and 450 angle of

attack was only 5% higher than that 900 angle of attack on a constant

pumping power basis.

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The roughness function R, and heat transfer function g, depend

on the aspect ratio (W/H) of the duct. It can be seen that the value of

roughness function decreases as the aspect ratio of the rectangular

duct increases from 0.25 to approximately 7 and thereafter only a

slight increase in the value of the roughness function takes place with

increase in aspect ratio up to 12. However, the heat transfer function

decreases first and after attaining the lowest value at an aspect ratio

of 1, it increases with further increase in the value of aspect ratio. In

general, a low value of the heat transfer function indicates a high

value of the Stanton number. Similarly, a lower value of the

roughness function indicates higher value of friction factor.

Gupta and Koushik have presented the friction factor and

Nusselt number correlations for transverse wire roughness in

transitionally rough flow region for rectangular ducts with roughness

on the broad wall. The dependence friction factor and Nusselt number

on the duct aspect ratio is given as,

f  ( W/H )0.237

Nu  (W/H)0.288 5<e+<35

Nu  (W/H)0.245 35<=e+<70

3.5.5 Angle of Attack

It has substantial influence on the flow pattern. The triangular

protrusions give a higher heat transfer rate than the smooth surface
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because of the secondary flow induced by the roughness elements, in

addition to breaking the viscous sub-layer and producing local wall

turbulence. This turbulence brings in cooler channel fluid in contact

with leading end, raising the heat transfer rate while the trailing end

heat transfer is relatively lower. This phenomenon therefore results in

strong span wise variation of heat transfer apart from the effect of

protrusion height and pitch.

3.5.6 Effect of Protrusions on Flow Structure

Fig 3.1 shows the flow behaviour is discussed which passes

through the solar air heater while absorbing the heat from absorber

plate of rectangular duct. From research it is evident that the flow

pattern could greatly influence the heat transfer rate. So in order

change the flow from laminar to turbulent and eliminate the laminar

sub layer formed on the surface of heating plate, protrusions are

inscribed on the absorber plate.

Fig: 3.1 Flow behaviors passing through protrusions

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The flow velocity increases from the entry section until it

reaches the upstream edge of triangular protrusions of absorber plate.

When the flow passes past the protrusions, it separates forming a

recirculation region at the downstream edge. The reattachment of flow

is made by the series of protrusions placed in the successive row and

the process continues along the test section. The process taken place

is visualized in the figure – below. The turbulence created by the

protrusion plates with various configurations is calculated to measure

the thermo hydraulic performance of the experimental setup.