Calculus (from Latin calculus, literally 'small pebble', used for counting and calculations, as on

an abacus)[1], is the mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the

study of shape and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations.
It has two major branches, differential calculus (concerning instantaneous rates of change and
slopes of curves),[2] and integral calculus(concerning accumulation of quantities and the areas under
and between curves).[3] These two branches are related to each other by the fundamental theorem of
calculus. Both branches make use of the fundamental notions of convergence of infinite
sequences and infinite series to a well-defined limit.
Generally, modern calculus is considered to have been developed in the 17th century by Isaac
Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.[4]Today, calculus has widespread uses
in science, engineering, and economics.[5][better  source  needed]
Calculus is a part of modern mathematics education. A course in calculus is a gateway to other,
more advanced courses in mathematics devoted to the study of functions and limits, broadly
called mathematical analysis. Calculus has historically been called "the calculus of infinitesimals", or
"infinitesimal calculus". The term calculus (plural calculi) is also used for naming specific methods of
calculation or notation as well as some theories, such as propositional calculus, Ricci
calculus, calculus of variations, lambda calculus, and process calculus.

History[edit]
Main article: History of calculus
Modern calculus was developed in 17th-century Europe by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz (independently of each other, first publishing around the same time) but elements of it
appeared in ancient Greece, then in China and the Middle East, and still later again in medieval
Europe and in India.

Ancient[edit]

Archimedes used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under a parabola.

The ancient period introduced some of the ideas that led to integral calculus, but does not seem to
have developed these ideas in a rigorous and systematic way. Calculations of volume and area, one
goal of integral calculus, can be found in the Egyptian Moscow papyrus (13th dynasty, c. 1820 BC),
but the formulas are simple instructions, with no indication as to method, and some of them lack
major components.[6]
From the age of Greek mathematics, Eudoxus (c. 408–355 BC) used the method of exhaustion,
which foreshadows the concept of the limit, to calculate areas and volumes, while Archimedes (c. 
287–212 BC) developed this idea further, inventing heuristics which resemble the methods of
integral calculus.[7]
The method of exhaustion was later discovered independently in China by Liu Hui in the 3rd century
AD in order to find the area of a circle.[8] In the 5th century AD, Zu Gengzhi, son of Zu Chongzhi,
established a method[9][10] that would later be called Cavalieri's principle to find the volume of
a sphere.

Medieval[edit]
In the Middle East, Hasan Ibn al-Haytham, Latinized as Alhazen (c. 965 – c. 1040 CE) derived a
formula for the sum of fourth powers. He used the results to carry out what would now be called
an integration of this function, where the formulae for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers
allowed him to calculate the volume of a paraboloid.[11]
In the 14th century, Indian mathematicians gave a non-rigorous method, resembling differentiation,
applicable to some trigonometric functions. Madhava of Sangamagrama and the Kerala School of
Astronomy and Mathematics thereby stated components of calculus. A complete theory
encompassing these components is now well-known in the Western world as the Taylor
series or infinite series approximations.[12] However, they were not able to "combine many differing
ideas under the two unifying themes of the derivative and the integral, show the connection between
the two, and turn calculus into the great problem-solving tool we have today".[11]

Modern[edit]
"The calculus was the first achievement of modern mathematics and it is difficult to overestimate its importance. I
think it defines more unequivocally than anything else the inception of modern mathematics, and the system of
mathematical analysis, which is its logical development, still constitutes the greatest technical advance in exact
thinking."
—John von Neumann[13]

In Europe, the foundational work was a treatise written by Bonaventura Cavalieri, who argued that
volumes and areas should be computed as the sums of the volumes and areas of infinitesimally thin
cross-sections. The ideas were similar to Archimedes' in The Method, but this treatise is believed to
have been lost in the 13th century, and was only rediscovered in the early 20th century, and so
would have been unknown to Cavalieri. Cavalieri's work was not well respected since his methods
could lead to erroneous results, and the infinitesimal quantities he introduced were disreputable at
first.
The formal study of calculus brought together Cavalieri's infinitesimals with the calculus of finite
differencesdeveloped in Europe at around the same time. Pierre de Fermat, claiming that he
borrowed from Diophantus, introduced the concept of adequality, which represented equality up to
an infinitesimal error term.[14] The combination was achieved by John Wallis, Isaac Barrow,
and James Gregory, the latter two proving the second fundamental theorem of calculus around
1670.
Isaac Newton developed the use of calculus in his laws of motion and gravitation.

The product rule and chain rule,[15] the notions of higher derivatives and Taylor series,[16] and

of analytic functions[citation needed] were introduced by Isaac Newton in an idiosyncratic notation which he
used to solve problems of mathematical physics. In his works, Newton rephrased his ideas to suit
the mathematical idiom of the time, replacing calculations with infinitesimals by equivalent
geometrical arguments which were considered beyond reproach. He used the methods of calculus
to solve the problem of planetary motion, the shape of the surface of a rotating fluid, the oblateness
of the earth, the motion of a weight sliding on a cycloid, and many other problems discussed in
his Principia Mathematica(1687). In other work, he developed series expansions for functions,
including fractional and irrational powers, and it was clear that he understood the principles of
the Taylor series. He did not publish all these discoveries, and at this time infinitesimal methods
were still considered disreputable.

Isaac Newton developed the use of calculus in his laws of motion and gravitation.

T
considered disreputable.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was the first to publish his results on the development of calculus.

These ideas were arranged into a true calculus of infinitesimals by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who
was originally accused of plagiarism by Newton.[17] He is now regarded as an independent inventor of
and contributor to calculus. His contribution was to provide a clear set of rules for working with
infinitesimal quantities, allowing the computation of second and higher derivatives, and providing
the product rule and chain rule, in their differential and integral forms. Unlike Newton, Leibniz paid a
lot of attention to the formalism, often spending days determining appropriate symbols for concepts.
Today, Leibniz and Newton are usually both given credit for independently inventing and developing
calculus. Newton was the first to apply calculus to general physics and Leibniz developed much of
the notation used in calculus today. The basic insights that both Newton and Leibniz provided were
the laws of differentiation and integration, second and higher derivatives, and the notion of an
approximating polynomial series. By Newton's time, the fundamental theorem of calculus was
known.
When Newton and Leibniz first published their results, there was great controversy over which
mathematician (and therefore which country) deserved credit. Newton derived his results first (later
to be published in his Method of Fluxions), but Leibniz published his "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et
Minimis" first. Newton claimed Leibniz stole ideas from his unpublished notes, which Newton had
shared with a few members of the Royal Society. This controversy divided English-speaking
mathematicians from continental European mathematicians for many years, to the detriment of
English mathematics.[citation needed] A careful examination of the papers of Leibniz and Newton shows that
they arrived at their results independently, with Leibniz starting first with integration and Newton with
differentiation. It is Leibniz, however, who gave the new discipline its name. Newton called his
calculus "the science of fluxions".
Since the time of Leibniz and Newton, many mathematicians have contributed to the continuing
development of calculus. One of the first and most complete works on both infinitesimal and integral
calculus was written in 1748 by Maria Gaetana Agnesi.[18][19]
Maria Gaetana Agnesi

Foundations[edit]
In calculus, foundations refers to the rigorous development of the subject from axioms and
definitions. In early calculus the use of infinitesimal quantities was thought unrigorous, and was
fiercely criticized by a number of authors, most notably Michel Rolle and Bishop Berkeley. Berkeley
famously described infinitesimals as the ghosts of departed quantities in his book The Analyst in
1734. Working out a rigorous foundation for calculus occupied mathematicians for much of the
century following Newton and Leibniz, and is still to some extent an active area of research today.
Several mathematicians, including Maclaurin, tried to prove the soundness of using infinitesimals,
but it would not be until 150 years later when, due to the work of Cauchy and Weierstrass, a way
was finally found to avoid mere "notions" of infinitely small quantities.[20] The foundations of
differential and integral calculus had been laid. In Cauchy's Cours d'Analyse, we find a broad range
of foundational approaches, including a definition of continuity in terms of infinitesimals, and a
(somewhat imprecise) prototype of an (ε, δ)-definition of limit in the definition of differentiation.[21] In
his work Weierstrass formalized the concept of limit and eliminated infinitesimals (although his
definition can actually validate nilsquare infinitesimals). Following the work of Weierstrass, it
eventually became common to base calculus on limits instead of infinitesimal quantities, though the
subject is still occasionally called "infinitesimal calculus". Bernhard Riemann used these ideas to
give a precise definition of the integral. It was also during this period that the ideas of calculus were
generalized to Euclidean space and the complex plane.
In modern mathematics, the foundations of calculus are included in the field of real analysis, which
contains full definitions and proofs of the theorems of calculus. The reach of calculus has also been
greatly extended. Henri Lebesgue invented measure theory and used it to define integrals of all but
the most pathological functions. Laurent Schwartzintroduced distributions, which can be used to take
the derivative of any function whatsoever.
Limits are not the only rigorous approach to the foundation of calculus. Another way is to
use Abraham Robinson's non-standard analysis. Robinson's approach, developed in the 1960s,
uses technical machinery from mathematical logic to augment the real number system
with infinitesimal and infinite numbers, as in the original Newton-Leibniz conception. The resulting
numbers are called hyperreal numbers, and they can be used to give a Leibniz-like development of
the usual rules of calculus. There is also smooth infinitesimal analysis, which differs from non-
standard analysis in that it mandates neglecting higher power infinitesimals during derivations.

Significance[edit]
While many of the ideas of calculus had been developed earlier in Greece, China, India, Iraq, Persia,
and Japan, the use of calculus began in Europe, during the 17th century, when Isaac
Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz built on the work of earlier mathematicians to introduce its
basic principles. The development of calculus was built on earlier concepts of instantaneous motion
and area underneath curves.
Applications of differential calculus include computations involving velocity and acceleration,
the slope of a curve, and optimization. Applications of integral calculus include computations
involving area, volume, arc length, center of mass, work, and pressure. More advanced applications
include power series and Fourier series.
Calculus is also used to gain a more precise understanding of the nature of space, time, and motion.
For centuries, mathematicians and philosophers wrestled with paradoxes involving division by
zero or sums of infinitely many numbers. These questions arise in the study of motion and area.
The ancient Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea gave several famous examples of such paradoxes.
Calculus provides tools, especially the limit and the infinite series, that resolve the paradoxes.

Principles[edit]
Limits and infinitesimals[edit]
Main articles: Limit of a function and Infinitesimal
Calculus is usually developed by working with very small quantities. Historically, the first method of
doing so was by infinitesimals. These are objects which can be treated like real numbers but which
are, in some sense, "infinitely small". For example, an infinitesimal number could be greater than 0,
but less than any number in the sequence 1, 1/2, 1/3, ... and thus less than any positive real number.
From this point of view, calculus is a collection of techniques for manipulating infinitesimals. The
symbols  and  were taken to be infinitesimal, and the derivative  was simply their ratio.
The infinitesimal approach fell out of favor in the 19th century because it was difficult to make the
notion of an infinitesimal precise. However, the concept was revived in the 20th century with the
introduction of non-standard analysis and smooth infinitesimal analysis, which provided solid
foundations for the manipulation of infinitesimals.
In the 19th century, infinitesimals were replaced by the epsilon, delta approach to limits. Limits
describe the value of a function at a certain input in terms of its values at nearby inputs. They
capture small-scale behavior in the context of the real number system. In this treatment, calculus is a
collection of techniques for manipulating certain limits. Infinitesimals get replaced by very small
numbers, and the infinitely small behavior of the function is found by taking the limiting behavior for
smaller and smaller numbers. Limits were the first way to provide rigorous foundations for calculus,
and for this reason they are the standard approach.

Differential calculus[edit]
Main article: Differential calculus
Tangent line at (x, f(x)). The derivative f′(x) of a curve at a point is the slope (rise over run) of the line tangent
to that curve at that point.

Differential calculus is the study of the definition, properties, and applications of the derivative of a
function. The process of finding the derivative is called differentiation. Given a function and a point in
the domain, the derivative at that point is a way of encoding the small-scale behavior of the function
near that point. By finding the derivative of a function at every point in its domain, it is possible to
produce a new function, called the derivative function or just the derivative of the original function. In
formal terms, the derivative is a linear operator which takes a function as its input and produces a
second function as its output. This is more abstract than many of the processes studied in
elementary algebra, where functions usually input a number and output another number. For
example, if the doubling function is given the input three, then it outputs six, and if the squaring
function is given the input three, then it outputs nine. The derivative, however, can take the squaring
function as an input. This means that the derivative takes all the information of the squaring function
—such as that two is sent to four, three is sent to nine, four is sent to sixteen, and so on—and uses
this information to produce another function. The function produced by deriving the squaring function
turns out to be the doubling function.
In more explicit terms the "doubling function" may be denoted by g(x) = 2x and the "squaring
function" by f(x) = x2. The "derivative" now takes the function f(x), defined by the expression "x2", as
an input, that is all the information —such as that two is sent to four, three is sent to nine, four is sent
to sixteen, and so on— and uses this information to output another function, the function g(x) = 2x,
as will turn out.
The most common symbol for a derivative is an apostrophe-like mark called prime. Thus, the
derivative of a function called f is denoted by f′, pronounced "f prime". For instance, if f(x) = x2 is the
squaring function, then f′(x) = 2x is its derivative (the doubling function g from above). This notation
is known as Lagrange's notation.
If the input of the function represents time, then the derivative represents change with respect to
time. For example, if f is a function that takes a time as input and gives the position of a ball at that
time as output, then the derivative of f is how the position is changing in time, that is, it is
the velocity of the ball.
If a function is linear (that is, if the graph of the function is a straight line), then the function can be
written as y = mx + b, where x is the independent variable, y is the dependent variable, b is the y-
intercept, and:
This gives an exact value for the slope of a straight line. If the graph of the function is not a
straight line, however, then the change in y divided by the change in x varies. Derivatives give
an exact meaning to the notion of change in output with respect to change in input. To be
concrete, let f be a function, and fix a point a in the domain of f. (a, f(a)) is a point on the graph
of the function. If h is a number close to zero, then a + h is a number close to a.
Therefore, (a + h, f(a + h)) is close to (a, f(a)). The slope between these two points is
This expression is called a difference quotient. A line through two points on a curve is called
a secant line, so m is the slope of the secant line between (a, f(a)) and (a + h, f(a + h)).
The secant line is only an approximation to the behavior of the function at the
point a because it does not account for what happens between a and a + h. It is not
possible to discover the behavior at a by setting h to zero because this would
require dividing by zero, which is undefined. The derivative is defined by taking
the limit as h tends to zero, meaning that it considers the behavior of f for all small values
of h and extracts a consistent value for the case when h equals zero:
Geometrically, the derivative is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at a. The
tangent line is a limit of secant lines just as the derivative is a limit of difference
quotients. For this reason, the derivative is sometimes called the slope of the function f.
Here is a particular example, the derivative of the squaring function at the input 3.
Let f(x) = x2 be the squaring function.

The derivative f′(x) of a curve at a point is the slope of the line tangent to that curve at that
point. This slope is determined by considering the limiting value of the slopes of secant lines.
Here the function involved (drawn in red) is f(x) = x3 − x. The tangent line (in green) which
passes through the point (−3/2, −15/8) has a slope of 23/4. Note that the vertical and
horizontal scales in this image are different.

The slope of the tangent line to the squaring function at the point (3, 9) is 6, that is
to say, it is going up six times as fast as it is going to the right. The limit process just
described can be performed for any point in the domain of the squaring function.
This defines the derivative function of the squaring function, or just the derivative of
the squaring function for short. A computation similar to the one above shows that
the derivative of the squaring function is the doubling function.

Leibniz notation[edit]
Main article: Leibniz's notation
A common notation, introduced by Leibniz, for the derivative in the example above
is
In an approach based on limits, the symbol dy/dx is to be interpreted not as the
quotient of two numbers but as a shorthand for the limit computed above.
Leibniz, however, did intend it to represent the quotient of two infinitesimally
small numbers, dy being the infinitesimally small change in y caused by an
infinitesimally small change dx applied to x. We can also think of d/dx as a
differentiation operator, which takes a function as an input and gives another
function, the derivative, as the output. For example:
In this usage, the dx in the denominator is read as "with respect to x".
Another example of correct notation could be:
Even when calculus is developed using limits rather than infinitesimals, it is
common to manipulate symbols like dx and dy as if they were real
numbers; although it is possible to avoid such manipulations, they are
sometimes notationally convenient in expressing operations such as
the total derivative.

Integral calculus[edit]
Main article: Integral
Integral calculus is the study of the definitions, properties, and applications
of two related concepts, the indefinite integral and the definite integral. The
process of finding the value of an integral is called integration. In technical
language, integral calculus studies two related linear operators.
The indefinite integral, also known as the antiderivative, is the inverse
operation to the derivative. F is an indefinite integral of f when f is a
derivative of F. (This use of lower- and upper-case letters for a function and
its indefinite integral is common in calculus.)
The definite integral inputs a function and outputs a number, which gives
the algebraic sum of areas between the graph of the input and the x-axis.
The technical definition of the definite integral involves the limit of a sum of
areas of rectangles, called a Riemann sum.
A motivating example is the distances traveled in a given time.
If the speed is constant, only multiplication is needed, but if the speed
changes, a more powerful method of finding the distance is necessary.
One such method is to approximate the distance traveled by breaking
up the time into many short intervals of time, then multiplying the time
elapsed in each interval by one of the speeds in that interval, and then
taking the sum (a Riemann sum) of the approximate distance traveled
in each interval. The basic idea is that if only a short time elapses, then
the speed will stay more or less the same. However, a Riemann sum
only gives an approximation of the distance traveled. We must take the
limit of all such Riemann sums to find the exact distance traveled.

Constant velocity
 Integration can be thought of as measuring the area under a curve, defined
by f(x), between two points (here a and b).

When velocity is constant, the total distance traveled over the given
time interval can be computed by multiplying velocity and time. For
example, travelling a steady 50 mph for 3 hours results in a total
distance of 150 miles. In the diagram on the left, when constant velocity
and time are graphed, these two values form a rectangle with height
equal to the velocity and width equal to the time elapsed. Therefore, the
product of velocity and time also calculates the rectangular area under
the (constant) velocity curve. This connection between the area under a
curve and distance traveled can be extended to any irregularly shaped
region exhibiting a fluctuating velocity over a given time period. If f(x) in
the diagram on the right represents speed as it varies over time, the
distance traveled (between the times represented by a and b) is the
area of the shaded region s.
To approximate that area, an intuitive method would be to divide up the
distance between a and b into a number of equal segments, the length
of each segment represented by the symbol Δx. For each small
segment, we can choose one value of the function f(x). Call that
value h. Then the area of the rectangle with base Δx and height h gives
the distance (time Δx multiplied by speed h) traveled in that segment.
Associated with each segment is the average value of the function
above it, f(x) = h. The sum of all such rectangles gives an
approximation of the area between the axis and the curve, which is an
approximation of the total distance traveled. A smaller value for Δx will
give more rectangles and in most cases a better approximation, but for
an exact answer we need to take a limit as Δx approaches zero.
The symbol of integration is , an elongated  S (the S stands for "sum").
The definite integral is written as:
and is read "the integral from a to b of f-of-x with respect to x." The
Leibniz notation dx is intended to suggest dividing the area under
the curve into an infinite number of rectangles, so that their
width Δx becomes the infinitesimally small dx. In a formulation of
the calculus based on limits, the notation
is to be understood as an operator that takes a function as an
input and gives a number, the area, as an output. The
terminating differential, dx, is not a number, and is not being
multiplied by f(x), although, serving as a reminder of
the Δx limit definition, it can be treated as such in symbolic
manipulations of the integral. Formally, the differential indicates
the variable over which the function is integrated and serves as
a closing bracket for the integration operator.
The indefinite integral, or antiderivative, is written:
Functions differing by only a constant have the same
derivative, and it can be shown that the antiderivative of a
given function is actually a family of functions differing only
by a constant. Since the derivative of the
function y = x2 + C, where C is any constant, is y′ = 2x,
the antiderivative of the latter given by:
The unspecified constant C present in the indefinite
integral or antiderivative is known as the constant of
integration.

Fundamental theorem[edit]
Main article: Fundamental theorem of calculus
The fundamental theorem of calculus states that
differentiation and integration are inverse operations.
More precisely, it relates the values of antiderivatives
to definite integrals. Because it is usually easier to
compute an antiderivative than to apply the definition
of a definite integral, the fundamental theorem of
calculus provides a practical way of computing definite
integrals. It can also be interpreted as a precise
statement of the fact that differentiation is the inverse
of integration.
The fundamental theorem of calculus states: If a
function f is continuous on the interval [a, b] and if F is
a function whose derivative is f on the interval (a, b),
then
Furthermore, for every x in the interval (a, b),
This realization, made by
both Newton and Leibniz, who based their
results on earlier work by Isaac Barrow, was
key to the proliferation of analytic results after
their work became known. The fundamental
theorem provides an algebraic method of
computing many definite integrals—without
performing limit processes—by finding
formulas for antiderivatives. It is also a
prototype solution of a differential equation.
Differential equations relate an unknown
function to its derivatives, and are ubiquitous in
the sciences.

Applications[edit]

The logarithmic spiral of the Nautilus shell is a

classical image used to depict the growth and
change related to calculus.

Calculus is used in every branch of the

physical sciences, actuarial science, computer
science, statistics, engineering, economics,
business, medicine, demography, and in other
fields wherever a problem can
be mathematically modeled and
an optimal solution is desired. It allows one to
go from (non-constant) rates of change to the
total change or vice versa, and many times in
studying a problem we know one and are
trying to find the other.
Physics makes particular use of calculus; all
concepts in classical
mechanics and electromagnetism are related
through calculus. The massof an object of
known density, the moment of inertia of
objects, as well as the total energy of an object
within a conservative field can be found by the
use of calculus. An example of the use of
calculus in mechanics is Newton's second law
of motion: historically stated it expressly uses
the term "change of motion" which implies the
derivative saying The change of momentum
of a body is equal to the resultant force acting
on the body and is in the same
direction. Commonly expressed today as
Force = Mass × acceleration, it implies
differential calculus because acceleration is
the time derivative of velocity or second time
derivative of trajectory or spatial position.
Starting from knowing how an object is
accelerating, we use calculus to derive its
path.
Maxwell's theory
of electromagnetism and Einstein's theory
of general relativity are also expressed in the
language of differential calculus. Chemistry
also uses calculus in determining reaction
rates and radioactive decay. In biology,
population dynamics starts with reproduction
and death rates to model population changes.
Calculus can be used in conjunction with other
mathematical disciplines. For example, it can
be used with linear algebra to find the "best fit"
linear approximation for a set of points in a
domain. Or it can be used in probability
theory to determine the probability of a
continuous random variable from an assumed
density function. In analytic geometry, the
study of graphs of functions, calculus is used
to find high points and low points (maxima and
minima), slope, concavity and inflection points.
Green's Theorem, which gives the relationship
between a line integral around a simple closed
curve C and a double integral over the plane
region D bounded by C, is applied in an
instrument known as a planimeter, which is
used to calculate the area of a flat surface on a
drawing. For example, it can be used to
calculate the amount of area taken up by an
irregularly shaped flower bed or swimming
pool when designing the layout of a piece of
property.
Discrete Green's Theorem, which gives the
relationship between a double integral of a
function around a simple closed rectangular
curve C and a linear combination of the
antiderivative's values at corner points along
the edge of the curve, allows fast calculation of
sums of values in rectangular domains. For
example, it can be used to efficiently calculate
sums of rectangular domains in images, in
order to rapidly extract features and detect
object; another algorithm that could be used is
the summed area table.
In the realm of medicine, calculus can be used
to find the optimal branching angle of a blood
vessel so as to maximize flow. From the decay
laws for a particular drug's elimination from the
body, it is used to derive dosing laws. In
nuclear medicine, it is used to build models of
radiation transport in targeted tumor therapies.
 In economics, calculus allows for the
determination of maximal profit by providing a
way to easily calculate both marginal
cost and marginal revenue.
Calculus is also used to find approximate
solutions to equations; in practice it is the
standard way to solve differential equations
and do root finding in most applications.
Examples are methods such as Newton's
method, fixed point iteration, and linear
approximation. For instance, spacecraft use a
variation of the Euler method to approximate
curved courses within zero gravity
environments.

Varieties[edit]
Over the years, many reformulations of calculus have been investigated for different purposes.

Non-standard calculus[edit]
Main article: Non-standard calculus
Imprecise calculations with infinitesimals were widely replaced with the rigorous (ε, δ)-definition of
limit starting in the 1870s. Meanwhile, calculations with infinitesimals persisted and often led to
correct results. This led Abraham Robinson to investigate if it were possible to develop a number
system with infinitesimal quantities over which the theorems of calculus were still valid. In 1960,
building upon the work of Edwin Hewitt and Jerzy Łoś, he succeeded in developing non-standard
analysis. The theory of non-standard analysis is rich enough to be applied in many branches of
mathematics. As such, books and articles dedicated solely to the traditional theorems of calculus
often go by the title non-standard calculus.

Smooth infinitesimal analysis[edit]

Main article: Smooth infinitesimal analysis
This is another reformulation of the calculus in terms of infinitesimals. Based on the ideas of F. W.
Lawvere and employing the methods of category theory, it views all functions as
being continuous and incapable of being expressed in terms of discrete entities. One aspect of this
formulation is that the law of excluded middle does not hold in this formulation.

Constructive analysis[edit]
Main article: Constructive analysis
Constructive mathematics is a branch of mathematics that insists that proofs of the existence of a
number, function, or other mathematical object should give a construction of the object. As such
constructive mathematics also rejects the law of excluded middle. Reformulations of calculus in a
constructive framework are generally part of the subject of constructive analysis.
Calculus Summary
Calculus has two main parts: differential calculus and integral calculus. Differential
calculus studies the derivative and integral calculus studies (surprise!) the integral.
The derivative and integral are linked in that they are both defined via the concept of
the limit: they are inverse operations of each other (a fact sometimes known as the
fundamental theorem of calculus): and they are both fundamental to much of
modern science as we know it.

Derivatives
The limit of a function f(x) as x approaches a is equal to b if for every desired
closeness to b, you can find a small interval around (but not including) a that acheives
that closeness when mapped by f. Limits give us a firm mathematical basis on which
to examine both the infinite and the infinitesmial. They are also easy to handle
algebraically:

where in the last equation, c is a constant and in the first two equations, if both limits
of f and g exist.

One important fact to keep in mind is that

doesn't depend at all on f(a) -- in fact, f(a) is frequently undefined. In the happy case
where

we say that f is continuous at a. It is also sometimes useful to talk about one-sided

(left or right) limits, where we only care about the values of x that are less than or
greater than a.

The derivative of f(x) at x=a (or f´(a) ) is defined as

wherever the limit exists. The derivative has many interpretations and applications,
including velocity (where f gives position as a function of time), instantaneous rate of
change, or slope of a tangent line to the graph of f. Using the algebraic properties of
limits, you can prove these extremely important algebraic properties of derivatives:
These rules, for example, allow you to calculate the derivative of any rational (= ratio
of two polynomials) function. The chain rule in particular has many applications. For
one thing, if you have two inverse functions f and g, that is if f(g(x)) = x, then the chain
rule implies that f´(g) = 1/g´(x).

Also, if you have an implicitly defined function between x and y like x2 - 2 x y + y2 = 1,

then you can perform implicit differentation (basically, just taking the derivative of
everything with respect to both xand y are tacking on dxs and dys to indicate which) to
get 2x dx - 2 x dy - 2 y dx + 2 y dy = 0. Then if you solve for dy/dx, this will be equal (by
the chain rule) to y´ and if you solve for dx/dy, this will be equal to x´. Note that in this
case, either derivative will be in terms of both x and y.

You may be wondering about the derivatives of your favorite trigonometric functions.

Well,

These two facts, combined with the rules above, allow one to calculate easilythe
derivatives of the rest of the trigonometric functions and their inverses. The
derivatives of the hyperbolic functions are similar, except that
Many physical applications of derivatives reduce to finding solutions to differential
equations: equations relating a function and its derivatives. For example, both sine
and cosine satisfy the differential equation f´´(x) = -f(x), which models ideal
pendulums, springs, and other examples of simple harmonic motion. The equation f
´(x) = k  f(x) comes up in modeling population growth and radioactive decay, and is
solved by the function f(x) = ekx, where

is called Euler's constant and is defined to be the unique real number e such that (ex)´
= ex. The inverse of the exponential function ex is the natural logarithm function log(x),
which has many useful and interesting properties, including:

 log(ab) = log a + log b 

[This way logarithms turn multiplications into into additions was why log
tables (and their analog cousins, slide rules) were used to do long
multiplications before computers came along.]
 log(a/b) = log a - log b
 e(log x ) = x and log ex  = x
 log xa  = a log x
 ax  = e(x log  a)
 (log(x))´ = 1/x
 log 1 = 0 Closely related to the natural logarithm is the logarithm to the base b,
(logb  x), which can be defined as log(x)/log(b).

Finally, derivatives can be used to help you graph functions. First, they give
you the slope of the graph at a point, which is useful. Second, the points where
the slope of the graph is horizontal (f´(x) = 0) are particularly important,
because these are the only points at which a relative minimum or maximum can
occur (in a differentiable function). These points where f´(x)) = 0 are called
critical points. To determine whether a critical point is a minimum or
maximum, or more generally to determine the concavity of a function, second
derivatives can be used; f´´(x) < 0 means a relative maximum/concave down, f
´´(x) > 0 means a relative minimum /concave up. Finally, taking the limit
as x goes to positive or negative infinity gives information about the function's
asympotitic behavior. Towards that end, derivatives can help you out with
some difficult limits: by L'Hôpital's rule, if lim f(x) and lim g(x) are both zero,
then lim f(x)/lim g(x) = lim f´(x)/lim g´(x). The proof of L'Hôpital's rule relies on
the Mean Value Theorem: that for any function f(x) differentiable
between a and b, there is some point c between a and b such that the derivative
of f at c is the same as the average slope between a and b:

Integrals
The integral of f(x) from a to b with respect to x is noted as

and gives the area under the graph of f and above the interval [a,b]. It can be
defined formally as a Riemann sum: the limit of the areas of rectangular
approximations to the area as the approximations get better and better.

As stated before, integration and differentiation are inverse operations. To be

precise, the fundamental theorem of calculus states that

More generally, using an application of the Chain Rule,

Knowing these facts, we now know a tremendous number of integrals: just flip
the sides of any table of derivatives. Here are some further facts about
integrals:

For c a constant,

The integral of a positive, continuous function from a to b with b > a is greater

than zero.

The integral from a to b of f(x)-g(x), with f(x) > g(x) in the interval [a,b] gives the
area between f(x) and g(x). 

If those properties aren't enough to solve your integral, and if you can't find it
in any table, then here are some further tricks of the trade:

o Substitution (the ``inverse'' of the Chain Rule):

 o Integration by parts (the ``invserse'' of the Product Rule):

o Partial fractions: Every rational function with a denomminator which

can be broken up into the sum of fractions of the form

where A, B, C, D and E are constants (of course not the same constants in

the two forms) may be (more) easily integrated.

o Numerical approximation. This may not give you give you an exact
answer, but approximating the area under f(x) with rectangles,
trapezoids, or even more complicated shapes can give you a value near
the integral when no other method will work. For a brief explanation of
the use of an application available to MIT students, see Definite
Integrals on Maple, part of Using Maple for ESG Subjects, used as part
of the MIT subject 18.01A at ESG.

Integrals are defined to find areas, but they can also be used to calculate other
measure properties such as length or volume. For instance, the integral
 gives the arclength of the graph of f(x) between x=a and x=b. The integral

gives the volume contained by revolving the graph of f(x)

between x=a and x=b about the x-axis. The integral

gives the volume contained by revolving the graph of f(x)

between x=a and x=b about the y-axis. Finally, the surface area of the surface
formed by revolving the graph of f(x) between x=a and x=b about the x-axis can
be found by the integral

Sometimes you will wish to take an integral over an unbounded interval such
as from 1 to infinity, or to take an integral of a function that is undefined at
some points (such as 1/x1/2). These are improper integrals, and can be found by
taking the limit of an integral over an interval that either grows towards
infinity or towards the points where the function is undefined.

ST OF IMPORTANT MATHEMATICIANS
This is a chronological list of some of the most important mathematicians in history and
their major achievments, as well as some very early achievements in mathematics for
which individual contributions can not be acknowledged.

Where the mathematicians have individual pages in this website, these pages are
linked; otherwise more information can usually be obtained from the general page
relating to the particular period in history, or from the list of sources used. A more
detailed and comprehensive mathematical chronology can be found at http://www-
groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Chronology/full.html.

Date Name Nationality   Major Achievements

35000 African First notched tally bones
BCE
3100 Sumerian Earliest documented counting and measuring system
BCE
2700 Egyptian Earliest fully-developed base 10 number system in use
BCE
2600 Sumerian Multiplication tables, geometrical exercises and division
BCE problems
2000- Egyptian Earliest papyri showing numeration system and basic
1800 arithmetic
BCE
1800- Babylonian Clay tablets dealing with fractions, algebra and equations
1600
BCE
1650 Egyptian Rhind Papyrus (instruction manual in arithmetic, geometry, unit
BCE fractions, etc)
1200 Chinese First decimal numeration system with place value concept
BCE
1200- Indian Early Vedic mantras invoke powers of ten from a hundred all
900 the way up to a trillion
BCE
800- Indian “Sulba Sutra” lists several Pythagorean triples and simplified
400 Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a square and a
BCE rectangle, quite accurate approximation to √2
650 Chinese Lo Shu order three (3 x 3) “magic square” in which each row,
BCE column and diagonal sums to 15
624- Thales Greek Early developments in geometry, including work on similar and
546 right triangles
BCE
570- Pythagoras Greek Expansion of geometry, rigorous approach building from first
495 principles, square and triangular numbers, Pythagoras’
BCE theorem
500 Hippasus Greek Discovered potential existence of irrational numbers while
BCE trying to calculate the value of √2
490- Zeno of Elea Greek Describes a series of paradoxes concerning infinity and
430 infinitesimals
BCE
470- Hippocrates of Greek First systematic compilation of geometrical knowledge, Lune of
410 Chios Hippocrates
BCE
460- Democritus Greek Developments in geometry and fractions, volume of a cone
370
BCE
428- Plato Greek Platonic solids, statement of the Three Classical Problems,
348 influential teacher and popularizer of mathematics, insistence
BCE on rigorous proof and logical methods
410- Eudoxus of Greek Method for rigorously proving statements about areas and
355 Cnidus volumes by successive approximations
BCE
384- Aristotle Greek Development and standardization of logic (although not then
322 considered part of mathematics) and deductive reasoning
BCE
300 Euclid Greek Definitive statement of classical (Euclidean) geometry, use of
BCE axioms and postulates, many formulas, proofs and theorems
including Euclid’s Theorem on infinitude of primes
287- Archimedes Greek Formulas for areas of regular shapes, “method of exhaustion”
212 for approximating areas and value of π, comparison of infinities
BCE
276- Eratosthenes Greek “Sieve of Eratosthenes” method for identifying prime numbers
195
BCE
262- Apollonius of Greek Work on geometry, especially on cones and conic sections
190 Perga (ellipse, parabola, hyperbola)
BCE
200 Chinese “Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art”, including guide to
BCE how to solve equations using sophisticated matrix-based
methods
190- Hipparchus Greek Develop first detailed trigonometry tables
120
BCE
36 BCE Mayan Pre-classic Mayans developed the concept of zero by at least
this time
10-70 Heron (or Hero) Greek Heron’s Formula for finding the area of a triangle from its side
CE of Alexandria lengths, Heron’s Method for iteratively computing a square root
90-168 Ptolemy Greek/Egyptian    Develop even more detailed trigonometry tables
CE
200 CE Sun Tzu Chinese First definitive statement of Chinese Remainder Theorem
200 CE Indian Refined and perfected decimal place value number system
200- Diophantus Greek Diophantine Analysis of complex algebraic problems, to find
284 CE rational solutions to equations with several unknowns
220- Liu Hui Chinese Solved linear equations using a matrices (similar to Gaussian
280 CE elimination), leaving roots unevaluated, calculated value
of π correct to five decimal places, early forms of integral and
differential calculus
400 CE Indian “Surya Siddhanta” contains roots of modern trigonometry,
including first real use of sines, cosines, inverse sines,
tangents and secants
476- Aryabhata Indian Definitions of trigonometric functions, complete and accurate
550 CE sine and versine tables, solutions to simultaneous quadratic
equations, accurate approximation for π (and recognition
that π is an irrational number)
598- Brahmagupta Indian Basic mathematical rules for dealing with zero (+, - and x),
668 CE negative numbers, negative roots of quadratic equations,
solution of quadratic equations with two unknowns
600- Bhaskara I Indian First to write numbers in Hindu-Arabic decimal system with a
680 CE circle for zero, remarkably accurate approximation of the sine
function
780- Muhammad Al- Persian Advocacy of the Hindu numerals 1 - 9 and 0 in Islamic world,
850 CE Khwarizmi foundations of modern algebra, including algebraic methods of
“reduction” and “balancing”, solution of polynomial equations
up to second degree
908- Ibrahim ibn Arabic Continued Archimedes' investigations of areas and volumes,
946 CE Sinan tangents to a circle
953- Muhammad Al- Persian First use of proof by mathematical induction, including to prove
1029 Karaji the binomial theorem
CE
966- Ibn al-Haytham Persian/Arabic Derived a formula for the sum of fourth powers using a readily
1059 (Alhazen) generalizable method, “Alhazen's problem”, established
CE beginnings of link between algebra and geometry
1048- Omar Khayyam Persian Generalized Indian methods for extracting square and cube
1131 roots to include fourth, fifth and higher roots, noted existence of
different sorts of cubic equations
1114- Bhaskara II Indian Established that dividing by zero yields infinity, found solutions
1185 to quadratic, cubic and quartic equations (including negative
and irrational solutions) and to second order Diophantine
equations, introduced some preliminary concepts of calculus
1170- Leonardo of Italian Fibonacci Sequence of numbers, advocacy of the use of the
1250 Pisa Hindu-Arabic numeral system in Europe, Fibonacci's identity
(Fibonacci) (product of two sums of two squares is itself a sum of two
squares)
1201- Nasir al-Din al- Persian Developed field of spherical trigonometry, formulated law of
1274 Tusi sines for plane triangles
1202- Qin Jiushao Chinese Solutions to quadratic, cubic and higher power equations using
1261 a method of repeated approximations
1238- Yang Hui Chinese Culmination of Chinese “magic” squares, circles and triangles,
1298 Yang Hui’s Triangle (earlier version of Pascal’s Triangle of
binomial co-efficients)
1267- Kamal al-Din al- Persian Applied theory of conic sections to solve optical problems,
1319 Farisi explored amicable numbers, factorization and combinatorial
methods
1350- Madhava Indian Use of infinite series of fractions to give an exact formula for π,
1425 sine formula and other trigonometric functions, important step
towards development of calculus
1323- Nicole Oresme French System of rectangular coordinates, such as for a time-speed-
1382 distance graph, first to use fractional exponents, also worked
on infinite series
1446- Luca Pacioli Italian Influential book on arithmetic, geometry and book-keeping,
1517 also introduced standard symbols for plus and minus
1499- Niccolò Italian Formula for solving all types of cubic equations, involving first
1557 Fontana real use of complex numbers (combinations of real and
Tartaglia imaginary numbers), Tartaglia’s Triangle (earlier version of
Pascal’s Triangle)
1501- Gerolamo Italian Published solution of cubic and quartic equations (by Tartaglia
1576 Cardano and Ferrari), acknowledged existence of imaginary numbers
(based on √-1)
1522- Lodovico Italian Devised formula for solution of quartic equations
1565 Ferrari
1550- John Napier British Invention of natural logarithms, popularized the use of the
1617 decimal point, Napier’s Bones tool for lattice multiplication
1588- Marin French Clearing house for mathematical thought during 17th Century,
1648 Mersenne Mersenne primes (prime numbers that are one less than a
power of 2)
1591- Girard French Early development of projective geometry and “point at infinity”,
1661 Desargues perspective theorem
1596- René French Development of Cartesian coordinates and analytic geometry
1650 Descartes (synthesis of geometry and algebra), also credited with the first
use of superscripts for powers or exponents
1598- Bonaventura Italian “Method of indivisibles” paved way for the later development of
1647 Cavalieri infinitesimal calculus
1601- Pierre de French Discovered many new numbers patterns and theorems
1665 Fermat (including Little Theorem, Two-Square Thereom and Last
Theorem), greatly extending knowlege of number theory, also
contributed to probability theory
1616- John Wallis British Contributed towards development of calculus, originated idea
1703 of number line, introduced symbol ∞ for infinity, developed
standard notation for powers
1623- Blaise Pascal French Pioneer (with Fermat) of probability theory, Pascal’s Triangle of
1662 binomial coefficients
1643- Isaac Newton British Development of infinitesimal calculus (differentiation and
1727 integration), laid ground work for almost all of classical
mechanics, generalized binomial theorem, infinite power series
1646- Gottfried German Independently developed infinitesimal calculus (his calculus
1716 Leibniz notation is still used), also practical calculating machine using
binary system (forerunner of the computer), solved linear
equations using a matrix
1654- Jacob Bernoulli Swiss Helped to consolidate infinitesimal calculus, developed a
1705 technique for solving separable differential equations, added a
theory of permutations and combinations to probability theory,
Bernoulli Numbers sequence, transcendental curves
1667- Johann Swiss Further developed infinitesimal calculus, including the “calculus
1748 Bernoulli of variation”, functions for curve of fastest descent
(brachistochrone) and catenary curve
1667- Abraham de French De Moivre's formula, development of analytic geometry, first
1754 Moivre statement of the formula for the normal distribution curve,
probability theory
1690- Christian German Goldbach Conjecture, Goldbach-Euler Theorem on perfect
1764 Goldbach powers
1707- Leonhard Euler Swiss Made important contributions in almost all fields and found
1783 unexpected links between different fields, proved numerous
theorems, pioneered new methods, standardized mathematical
 notation and wrote many influential textbooks
1728- Johann Swiss Rigorous proof that π is irrational, introduced hyperbolic
1777 Lambert functions into trigonometry, made conjectures on non-
Euclidean space and hyperbolic triangles
1736- Joseph Louis Italian/French Comprehensive treatment of classical and celestial mechanics,
1813 Lagrange calculus of variations, Lagrange’s theorem of finite groups,
four-square theorem, mean value theorem
1746- Gaspard French Inventor of descriptive geometry, orthographic projection
1818 Monge
1749- Pierre-Simon French Celestial mechanics translated geometric study of classical
1827 Laplace mechanics to one based on calculus, Bayesian interpretation
of probability, belief in scientific determinism
1752- Adrien-Marie French Abstract algebra, mathematical analysis, least squares method
1833 Legendre for curve-fitting and linear regression, quadratic reciprocity law,
prime number theorem, elliptic functions
1768- Joseph Fourier French Studied periodic functions and infinite sums in which the terms
1830 are trigonometric functions (Fourier series)
1777- Carl Friedrich German Pattern in occurrence of prime numbers, construction of
1825 Gauss heptadecagon, Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, exposition
of complex numbers, least squares approximation method,
Gaussian distribution, Gaussian function, Gaussian error
curve, non-Euclidean geometry, Gaussian curvature
1789- Augustin-Louis French Early pioneer of mathematical analysis, reformulated and
1857 Cauchy proved theorems of calculus in a rigorous manner, Cauchy's
theorem (a fundamental theorem of group theory)
1790- August German Möbius strip (a two-dimensional surface with only one side),
1868 Ferdinand Möbius configuration, Möbius transformations, Möbius
Möbius transform (number theory), Möbius function, Möbius inversion
formula
1791- George British Inventor of symbolic algebra (early attempt to place algebra on
1858 Peacock a strictly logical basis)
1791- Charles British Designed a "difference engine" that could automatically
1871 Babbage perform computations based on instructions stored on cards or
tape, forerunner of programmable computer.
1792- Nikolai Russian Developed theory of hyperbolic geometry and curved spaces
1856 Lobachevsky independendly of Bolyai
1802- Niels Henrik Norwegian Proved impossibility of solving quintic equations, group theory,
1829 Abel abelian groups, abelian categories, abelian variety
1802- János Bolyai Hungarian Explored hyperbolic geometry and curved spaces
1860 independently of Lobachevsky
1804- Carl Jacobi German Important contributions to analysis, theory of periodic and
1851 elliptic functions, determinants and matrices
1805- William Irish Theory of quaternions (first example of a non-commutative
1865 Hamilton algebra)
1811- Évariste Galois French Proved that there is no general algebraic method for solving
1832 polynomial equations of degree greater than four, laid
groundwork for abstract algebra, Galois theory, group theory,
ring theory, etc
1815- George Boole British Devised Boolean algebra (using operators AND, OR and
1864 NOT), starting point of modern mathematical logic, led to the
development of computer science
1815- Karl German Discovered a continuous function with no derivative,
1897 Weierstrass advancements in calculus of variations, reformulated calculus
in a more rigorous fashion, pioneer in development of
mathematical analysis
1821- Arthur Cayley British Pioneer of modern group theory, matrix algebra, theory of
1895 higher singularities, theory of invariants, higher dimensional
geometry, extended Hamilton's quaternions to create octonions
1826- Bernhard German Non-Euclidean elliptic geometry, Riemann surfaces,
1866 Riemann Riemannian geometry (differential geometry in multiple
dimensions), complex manifold theory, zeta function, Riemann
Hypothesis
1831- Richard German Defined some important concepts of set theory such as similar
1916 Dedekind sets and infinite sets, proposed Dedekind cut (now a standard
definition of the real numbers)
1834- John Venn British Introduced Venn diagrams into set theory (now a ubiquitous
1923 tool in probability, logic and statistics)
1842- Marius Sophus Norwegian Applied algebra to geometric theory of differential equations,
1899 Lie continuous symmetry, Lie groups of transformations
1845- Georg Cantor German Creator of set theory, rigorous treatment of the notion of infinity
1918 and transfinite numbers, Cantor's theorem (which implies the
existence of an “infinity of infinities”)
1848- Gottlob Frege German One of the founders of modern logic, first rigorous treatment of
1925 the ideas of functions and variables in logic, major contributor
to study of the foundations of mathematics
1849- Felix Klein German Klein bottle (a one-sided closed surface in four-dimensional
1925 space), Erlangen Program to classify geometries by their
underlying symmetry groups, work on group theory and
function theory
1854- Henri Poincaré French Partial solution to “three body problem”, foundations of modern
1912 chaos theory, extended theory of mathematical topology,
Poincaré conjecture
1858- Giuseppe Italian Peano axioms for natural numbers, developer of mathematical
1932 Peano logic and set theory notation, contributed to modern method of
mathematical induction
1861- Alfred North British Co-wrote “Principia Mathematica” (attempt to ground
1947 Whitehead mathematics on logic)
1862- David Hilbert German 23 “Hilbert problems”, finiteness theorem,
1943 “Entscheidungsproblem“ (decision problem), Hilbert space,
developed modern axiomatic approach to mathematics,
formalism
1864- Hermann German Geometry of numbers (geometrical method in multi-
1909 Minkowski dimensional space for solving number theory problems),
Minkowski space-time
1872- Bertrand British Russell’s paradox, co-wrote “Principia Mathematica” (attempt
1970 Russell to ground mathematics on logic), theory of types
1877- G.H. Hardy British Progress toward solving Riemann hypothesis (proved infinitely
1947 many zeroes on the critical line), encouraged new tradition of
pure mathematics in Britain, taxicab numbers
1878- Pierre Fatou French Pioneer in field of complex analytic dynamics, investigated
1929 iterative and recursive processes
1881- L.E.J. Brouwer Dutch Proved several theorems marking breakthroughs in topology
1966 (including fixed point theorem and topological invariance of
dimension)
1887- Srinivasa Indian Proved over 3,000 theorems, identities and equations,
1920 Ramanujan including on highly composite numbers, partition function and
its asymptotics, and mock theta functions
1893- Gaston Julia French Developed complex dynamics, Julia set formula
1978
1903- John von Hungarian/ Pioneer of game theory, design model for modern computer
1957 Neumann American architecture, work in quantum and nuclear physics
1906- Kurt Gödel Austria Incompleteness theorems (there can be solutions to
1978 mathematical problems which are true but which can never be
proved), Gödel numbering, logic and set theory
1906- André Weil French Theorems allowed connections between algebraic geometry
1998 and number theory, Weil conjectures (partial proof of Riemann
hypothesis for local zeta functions), founding member of
influential Bourbaki group
1912- Alan Turing British Breaking of the German enigma code, Turing machine (logical
1954 forerunner of computer), Turing test of artificial intelligence
1913- Paul Erdös Hungarian Set and solved many problems in combinatorics, graph theory,
1996 number theory, classical analysis, approximation theory, set
theory and probability theory
1917- Edward Lorenz American Pioneer in modern chaos theory, Lorenz attractor, fractals,
2008 Lorenz oscillator, coined term “butterfly effect”
1919- Julia Robinson American Work on decision problems and Hilbert's tenth problem,
1985 Robinson hypothesis
1924- Benoît French Mandelbrot set fractal, computer plottings of Mandelbrot and
2010 Mandelbrot Julia sets
1928- Alexander French Mathematical structuralist, revolutionary advances in algebraic
2014 Grothendieck geometry, theory of schemes, contributions to algebraic
topology, number theory, category theory, etc
1928- John Nash American Work in game theory, differential geometry and partial
2015 differential equations, provided insight into complex systems in
daily life such as economics, computing and military
1934- Paul Cohen American Proved that continuum hypothesis could be both true and not
2007 true (i.e. independent from Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory)
1937- John Horton British Important contributions to game theory, group theory, number
Conway theory, geometry and (especially) recreational mathematics,
notably with the invention of the cellular automaton called the
"Game of Life"
1947- Yuri Russian Final proof that Hilbert’s tenth problem is impossible (there is
Matiyasevich no general method for determining whether Diophantine
equations have a solution)
1953- Andrew Wiles British Finally proved Fermat’s Last Theorem for all numbers (by
proving the Taniyama-Shimura conjecture for semistable
elliptic curves)
1966- Grigori Russian Finally proved Poincaré Conjecture (by proving Thurston's
Perelman geometrization conjecture), contributions to Riemannian
geometry and geometric topology
Famous Mathematicians
Mathematics is a field that many people shy away from, but there are some who had a
passion for numbers and making discoveries regarding equations, measurements, and
other numerical solutions in history. They looked for ways to understand the world as it
relates to numbers and their contributions have been very important for their generation
and beyond. Below is a list of names and accomplishments of the greatest
mathematicians of all time. You can read through the list and learn more about these
people and how they used their mathematical abilities to make their mark on the world.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

Nationality: German, American
Famous For: E=m*c2
Albert Einstein excelled in mathematics early in his childhood.
He liked to study math on his own. He was once quoted as
saying, “I never failed in mathematics…before I was fifteen I had
mastered differential integral calculus.”
Nationality: English
Famous For:Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy 
The book of Sir Isaac Newton, Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy, became the catalyst to understanding
mechanics. He is also the person credited for the development
of the binomial theorem.

Leonardo Pisano Bigollo (1170-1250) Thales (c. 624 – c.547/546 BC)

Nationality: Italian
Famous For: Fibonacci sequence
Heralded as “the most talented western mathematician of the
middle ages,” Leonardo Pisano Bigollo is better known as
Fibonacci. He introduced the Arabic-Hindu number system to
the western world. In his book, Liber Abaci(Book of Calculation),
he included a sequence of numbers that are known today as
“Fibonacci numbers.”
Nationality: Greek
Famous For: Father of science & Thales’ theorem
Thales used principles of mathematics, specifically geometry, to
solve everyday problems. He is considered as the “first true
mathematician”. His deductive reasoning principles are applied
in geometry that is a product of “Thales’ Theorem.”
 Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BC) René Descartes (1596-1650)
Nationality: Greek Nationality: French
Famous For: Pythagorean theorem Famous For: Cartesian coordinate system
Pythagoras is best known in mathematics for the Pythagorean The “Cartesian coordinate system” in mathematics is named
Theorem. after Rene Descartes. As a mathematician, he is seen as the
father of analytical geometry in addition to explaining
“infinitesimal calculus and analysis.”

Archimedes (c. 287 – c. 212 BC)
Nationality: Greek
Famous For: Greatest mathematician of antiquity
Archimedes provided principles and methods used in
mathematics today. He provided the exact numerical value
of pi, developed a system for large numbers to be expressed,
and the method of exhaustion.
John Forbes Nash, Jr. (1928)
Nationality: American
Famous For: Nash embedding theorem
The work of American mathematician John Nash includes
studies in differential geometry, game theory, and partial
differential equations. He is best known for the Nash
embedding theorem. His work in algebraic geometry is also seen
as milestone in mathematics.

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) Euclid (c. 365 – c. 275 BC)

Nationality: French
Famous For: Pascal’s Triangle
Pascal is recognized for two mathematical areas of study,
projective geometry and probability theory. He describes in his
paper, Treatise on the Arithmetical Triangle, an easy to
understand table of “binomial coefficients” known as Pascal’s
Triangle
Nationality: Greek
Famous For: Father of geometry
The earliest known “math books” is one written by Greek
mathematician Euclid, Elements is its title. It serve as a textbook
to teach geometry and mathematics. His mathematical system
is known as “Euclidean geometry.”
 Aryabhata (c. 476 – c. 550)
Nationality: Indian
Famous For: Writing  Āryabhaṭīya and the Arya-siddhanta
Indian mathematician Aryabhatta’s contribution include his
work on providing an approximate value to pi. He likewise
touched on the concepts of sine, cosine, and the place-value
system.
Ada Lovelace (1815-1852)
Nationality: English
Famous For: Work on the Analytical Engine
English mathematician Ada Lovelace is recognized as the worlds
first computer programmer. Her mathematical skills were
evident at an early age. As part of her work, she produced a
mathematical algorithm that would be later used in computers.
Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887-1920)
Nationality: Indian
Famous For: Landau-Ramanujan constant
Ramanujan was a genius in mathematics. He helped expand
mathematical theory, particularly in continued fractions, infinite
series, mathematical analysis, and number theory. He
conducted mathematical research in seclusion.
Ptolemy (c. 90 – c. 168 AD)
Nationality: Greco-Roman
Famous For: Almagest
Ptolemy was a mathematician of the highest order. In his
book Almagest, or The Mathematical Compilation, Ptolemy
provides mathematical theories related to the solar system.
Alan Turing (1912-1954)
Nationality: British
Famous For: Father of computer science
Turing’s fame as a mathematician can be attributed to his
formulating of algorithms and computations for a computer,
the Turing Machine. His mathematical background helped
device techniques in code breaking, specifically in world war 2.
In 1948 Turing became interested in mathematical biology.
Benjamin Banneker (1731-1806)
Nationality: African American
Famous For: Calculating a solar eclipse
Benjamin Banneker was a self-taught mathematician. He used
his mathematical skills to predict an eclipse and the seventeen-
year cycle of locusts.
 Omar Khayyám (1048-1131)
Nationality: Persian
Famous For: Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra
Omar Khayyam wrote one of the most important books in
mathematics, Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of
Algebra from which most algebraic principles have been drawn
from. In the area of geometry, Khayyam worked on the “theory
of proportions.”
John von Neumann (1903-1957)
Nationality: Hungarian
Famous For: Operator theory and quantum mechanics
The mathematical evaluation of self-replication by John von
Neumann came before the DNA model was introduced. Other
mathematical subjects he tackled include the “mathematical
formulation of quantum mechanics”, “game theory,”
mathematical statistics and mathematical economics. His
contribution to the study of the “operator theory” is equally
important.
John Napier (1550-1617)
Nationality: Scottish
Famous For: Inventing “logarithms”
John Napier is responsible for manufacturing logarithms. It was
also he who applied the everyday use of the decimal point in
mathematics and arithmetic. Napier’s bones was an abacus
created by John. The device was used mainly for multiplication
problems.
Eratosthenes (276 – 194 BC)
Nationality: Greek
Famous For: Sieve of Eratosthenes
Eratosthenes provided the concept of a simple algorithm as a
way to locate prime numbers. The Sieve of Eratosthenes that
has been used to find prime numbers.
Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665)
Nationality: French
Famous For: Fermat’s Last Theorem
As an amateur mathematician, de Fermat is given recognition
for his work that has led to infinitesimal calculus. He applied the
use of “adequality” in explaining his mathematical constructs.
De Fermat’s also contributed to the math fields of analytic
geometry, differential calculus, and number theory.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)
Nationality: German
Famous For: Infinitesimal calculus
The work of Leibniz on infinitesimal calculus was one
completely separate from Isaac Newton. His mathematical
notation continues to be in use. He also proposed the
mathematical principle known as the Transcendental Law of
Homogeneity. His refining of the binary system has become

Andrew Wiles (1953)
Nationality: Proving “Fermat’s Last Theorem”
Famous For: British
Andrew Wiles was successful in proving “Fermat’s Last
Theorem”. He also used the “Iwasawa theory” to identify
elliptic curves using its complex multiplication system. Wiles,
with a colleague, worked on rational numbers under the
“Iwasawa theory”.
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782)
Nationality: Swiss
Famous For: Bernoulli principle
Hydrodynamica by Daniel Bernoulli was a book that touched on
mathematical principles applied in other sciences.
Georg Cantor (1845-1918)
Nationality: German
Famous For: Inventor of set theory
One of the basic theories in mathematics is the set theory,
thanks to the work of Georg Cantor. He helped define the
importance of the “one-to-one correspondence” principle as
well as introduce cardinal and ordinal numbers.
foundational in mathematics.
David Hilbert (1862-1943)
Nationality: German
Famous For: Hilbert’s basis theorem
In cumulative algebra, the use of “Hilbert’s basis theory” has
produced varying results. David Hilbert explored and improved
on ideas such as “axiomatization of geometry” and the
“invariant theory.” Functional analysis, a branch of
mathematical analysis, is based on the formulation of “Hilbert’s
spaces theory.”
Luca Pacioli (1445-1517)
Nationality: Italian
Famous For: Father of accounting
Fifteenth century friar and mathematician Luca Pacioli
developed an accounting or bookkeeping methods that are still
in use today. Because of this, Pacioli is viewed by many as the
“father of accounting.”
George Boole (1815-1864)
Nationality: English
Famous For: Boolean algebra
George Boole and his ideas on mathematics were in the field of
algebraic logic and differential equations. He is the source of
what is known as “Boolean logic” in algebra. This and other
mathematical concepts are part of his bookThe Laws of
 Thought.

Évariste Galois (1811-1832) Sophie Germain (1776-1831)

Nationality: French Nationality: French
Famous For: Theory of Equations Famous For: Sophie Germain prime numbers
Galois worked on abstract algebra and the theory of equations. Sophie Germain worked extensively in the mathematical field of
He also set forth a solution to the polynomial equation which is number theory and differential geometry. She helped lay
know as the “Galois theory.” possible solutions to “Ferrats Last Theorem.” Sophie’s work
with number theory earned her recognition and having
numbers named after her, “Sophie Germain prime.”

Emmy Noether (1882-1935) Edward Witten (1951)

Nationality: German Nationality: American
Famous For: Abstract algebra Famous For: String theory
Emmy Noether and her work on abstract algebra makes her one Edward Witten specialized in the field of mathematical physics.
of the most important mathematicians of her time. She He brought together math concepts and basic physics.
introduced theories on algebraic variants and number fields. In
Noether’s paper, Theory of Ideals in Ring Domains, she
presented her ideas on the “commutative ring”, an abstract
algebra sub area.

The greatest scholar of the ancient era, Archimedes made phenomenal contribution in
the field of mathematics. His works include finding various computation techniques to
determine volume and area of several shapes, including the conic section.
Euclid
Euclid, the 'father of Geometry', wrote the book ,"Euclid's Elements", that is considered
to be the greatest piece of historical works in mathematics. The book is divided into 13
parts and in it, Euclid has discussed in details about geometry (what is now called
Euclidean geometry). His works are also well-known in the fields of spherical geometry,
conic sections, and number theory.
Aryabhatta
Aryabhatta, the greatest Indian scholar in the field of maths, has been famous for his
theorems on astronomical bodies that have been found to be very accurate in terms of
modern calculations. "Aryabhatiya", his only work to have survived has given the world
innumerable theorems and research subjects. His two other major contributions are the
introduction of zero to the world and calculating the approximate value of pi. His works
are also spread in fields, like algebra, arithmetic, trigonometry.
Ramanujam
Srinivasa Ramanujan Iyengar, the greatest Indian mathematician of 20th century,
contributed immensely in fields like number theory, mathematical analysis, string theory,
and crystallography. His genius has been admired by some greatest contemporaries of
his time. He is hailed to be one of the most famous in the field of number theory.
Although he lived for a short span of 32 years, he compiled nearly 3900 phenomenal
results that leave even the best mathematical brains of today in sheer awe!

The French philosopher and scholar, Rene Descartes, was well-known for his method
of expressing geometric shapes in the form of algebraic equation. It was because of
Rene Descartes that we got introduced to the beautiful branch of co-ordinate geometry.
The Cartesian coordinates, in fact, refer to his name. Besides this, Rene has
contributed significantly in the field of optics and energy conservation.
Carl F. Gauss
Carl F. Gauss, a German expert, known as Princeps mathematicorum meaning, "the
Prince of Mathematicians" or "the foremost of mathematicians" was a child prodigy and
a genius. Carl F. Gauss made path-breaking contributions in fields, like set theory,
statistics, differential analysis, geophysics, electrostatics, number theory, and
astronomy. He proved the fundamental theorem of Algebra and also contributed to
number theory.
Blaise Pascal
Blaise Pascal, a French philosopher, mathematician, and physicist, contributed in
several areas of mathematics, but he is widely known for Pascal's triangle. He invented
the first mechanical adding machine in the year 1642. The unit of atmospheric pressure,
Pascal (Pa) has been named in his honor. He also contributed to the field of computers,
and the programming language Pascal was named after him, in 1972.
Pythagoras
The Greek philosopher, known as the 'father of numbers', is famous for the discovery of
Pythagorean theorem formula, which states that in a right angled triangle, the square of
the hypotenuse (z), is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides, x and y -
that is, x2 + y2 = z2.

Sir Isaac Newton was one of the greatest contributors in the field of maths and physics.
His works are spread in almost every field. He developed Calculus, both differential and
integral, that are still the most important aspects of higher mathematics. Using Calculus,
he made it easier to find the area bounded by closed curves. In physics, his most world-
changing work was the discovery of existence of gravitational force in our surrounding.
Benjamin Banneker
A child prodigy, a watch designer, and an intellectual in maths, Banneker discovered
many puzzles in fields of trigonometry. He was a genius in logarithms and used them
extensively in trigonometry.
John Von Neumann
The Hungarian-American physicist, John has contributed significantly in several fields,
like set theory, functional analysis, quantum mechanics, ergodic theory, continuous
geometry, and statistics. His operator theory in mechanics is still regarded as one of his
most pioneering works. He was also a key figure in the development of game theory.
Joseph Fourier
The Fourier's law and Fourier transform are named after him. He is also accredited with
the discovery of the green house effect. He is popular for discovering Fourier series and
its uses in determining its application of real life examples in heat transfer and
vibrations.

Euler, a Swiss physicist and an expert in maths, is widely acclaimed for his works in the
field of function notation. His mathematical genius has been proved in the fields of
infinitesimal calculus and graph theory. His mathematical works and research in optics,
mechanics, and fluid dynamics have been hailed to be very influential.
Sophie Germain
Especially known for her work on 'Fermat's Last Theorem', Sophie was one of the
initiators of the elasticity theory and also contributed to number theory and philosophy.
She was regarded as the 'the revolutionary mathematician' of her times.
Amalie Emmy Noether
She gave path-breaking theorems in algebra field. The most popular, "Noether's
Theorem" connects symmetry and conservation laws in Physics. She also contributed to
the theories of algebraic invariants and number fields.
Fibonacci
Leonardo of Pisa, the greatest European Italian scholar, popularly known as Fibonacci,
was the first to introduce the Hindu - Arabic system in Europe, i.e., the positional system
of using ten digits with a decimal point and zero. He is popular for using Fibonacci
number sequence, i.e., 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ... in the book authored by him, known as
Book of Calculation, the Liber Abaci.

The scientific world was amused by the Einstein's theory of relativity. Although Albert
Einstein was physicist, his applied mathematical theorems to reach to apt conclusions.
Known as "father of Physics", he can be best described as a mathematical physicist. He
also won the Nobel Prize in 1921 for his works in physics and the discovery of law of
photoelectric effect.
Certainly, talking in detail about the works of each of these geniuses is not possible right
here, as a book can be compiled about this topic. However, we can definitely say that
the mathematical world has immensely benefited from the works of these geniuses!