Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 81–96 www.brill.

nl/ah

Geckos in traditional medicine: forensic implications

Aaron M. Bauer
Department of Biology, Villanova University, 800 Lancaster Avenue, Villanova,
Pennsylvania 19085-1699, USA
e-mail: aaron.bauer@villanova.edu

Abstract
At least 14 species of geckos are utilized as ingredients in the pharmacopia of traditional medicine systems
around the world. Chinese Traditional Medicine uses two types of geckos, large tokay geckos (Gekko gecko)
and small geckos (Gekko spp., Hemidactylus spp.) to treat a diversity of ailments including asthma, tuber-
culosis, diabetes and cancer, and current research in China focuses on the identification of active ingredients
in geckos and the verification of their efficacy. The actual number of species involved in the Chinese Tradi-
tional Medicine trade may be higher than currently realized due to the fraudulent sale of counterfeit geckos
and accidental misidentification. The potential pool of species includes at least 37 species from throughout
the broad area in which geckos and other wildlife are collected for use in China. Although powders and
tablets pose difficulties for identification, the whole dried form in which geckos are often sold permits the
identification of most species. A key is provided to the 12 species of geckos most likely to be encountered
in the trade of Asian traditional medicine.
© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2009

Key words
Conservation, geckos, identification, international trade, traditional medicine.

Introduction
Gekkotan lizards (geckos and pygopods) constitute one of the most species-rich,
diverse, and geographically widespread lineages of squamate reptiles, with approx-
imately 1250 species currently recognized in over 100 genera and seven families
(Kluge, 2001; Bauer, 2002; Han et al., 2004; Gamble et al., 2008a, 2008b). They
are nearly ubiquitous in the tropics and subtropics and occur on all continents ex-
cept Antarctica, from southern Europe, Central Asia, and the American Southwest
south to the Straits of Magellan, southernmost Africa, Australia (except Tasmania)
and New Zealand. Although most species have highly restricted distributions and
narrow habitat preferences (Bauer, 2002), some have become human commensals
and are familiar sights in and around human habitations throughout much of their
range. Geckos are also among the most distinctive of lizards and are the possi-
ble sister group to all other squamates (Townsend et al., 2004; Wiens et al., 2006;
© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2009 DOI:10.1163/157075408X397509
82 A. M. Bauer / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 81–96

Hugall et al., 2007). During their long history, geckos have evolved a wide variety
of derived traits including several that make them both distinctive from other lizards
and conspicuous to human observers — most notably nocturnal habits, a complex
adhesive digital system that permits them to climb vertical or inverted surfaces, and
the ability to vocalize.
Perhaps because of their strange traits, geckos are considered to be mysterious
and have been associated by many cultures with special powers or abilities. As
such they have played, and continue to play, an important role in human belief sys-
tems around the world. In the Mediterranean they are often considered poisonous
(Henkel and Schmidt, 1991), but in East and Southeast Asia they are typically as-
sociated with good luck and increased fertility (Frazer, 1951). In South Asia they
may be harbingers of either good or bad luck, although often the latter (Sherriffs,
1916; Mahendra, 1936). They have also been blamed for the spread of disease,
specifically leprosy, leukoderma (vitiligo) and other skin conditions. This belief is
widespread in parts of the Arab world (Flower, 1933; Wranik, 1993) through to
India (Frembgen, 1996). These beliefs, in part, form the basis for the use of geckos
in traditional medicine. Not surprisingly, geckos are most prevalent in the materia
medica of societies in which geckos are perceived in a positive light, such as China,
and are rarely used as such in areas where they are considered harmful or danger-
ous. Or, if they are used, it may be to treat the very conditions they are believed
to cause (e.g., skin disorders). Alternatively, some cultures attempt to harness the
perceived negative characteristics of geckos to their own benefit. For example, in
parts of Pakistan and Afghanistan the tail, skin, and blood of geckos are used in the
preparation of potions to weaken one’s enemies (Frembgen, 1996).
International trafficking in geckos for both the pet trade and medicinal uses oc-
curs on a grand scale. The number of geckos annually imported into the United
States alone is measured in the millions (Schlaepfer et al., 2005) and the demand
for tokay geckos (Gekko gecko) to meet the requirements of the Chinese Traditional
Medicine market has caused localized habitat destruction (Anonymous, 2005) and
regional extirpations of the species (Zhao, 1998; Thongsa-Ard and Thongsa-Ard,
2003) across a broad swath of Southeast Asia. While the diversity of geckos in the
traditional medicine trade is small in comparison with that in the pet trade, in which
hundreds of species have become established, identification is complicated by the
fact that geckos for medicinal use are usually processed to a greater or lesser ex-
tent, rendering many standard diagnostic features unusable. In this paper I give an
assessment of the known use of geckos in traditional medicine and provide a re-
vised list of the species of geckos that may be encountered in the inspection and
regulation of wildlife-based medicinal goods.

Zootherapy and traditional medicine

As much as 80% of the global human population relies on medicines derived from
animal and plant products (Costa-Neto, 2005) and one third of the world’s popula-
 A. M. Bauer / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 81–96 83

tion has no access to western drugs and depends exclusively on traditional or folk
remedies (World Health Organization, 2001). Although plants and plant-derived
materials make up the majority of ingredients used in most traditional medical
systems globally, whole animals, animal parts, and animal-derived products (e.g.,
urine, fat, etc.) also constitute important elements of the materia medica. Indeed,
zootherapy, the use of animal products in healing, is an ancient and widespread
practice across most cultures (World Health Organization, 2001; Costa-Neto, 2005;
Alves and Rosa, 2005).
By far the most significant demand for wildlife comes from Chinese Traditional
Medicine, which dates back to at least the 8th century B.C. (World Health Orga-
nization, 2001), but may be as much as 5000 years old (Sodhi et al., 2004). The
demand for animals for use in traditional Chinese medicine has been cited as a
major factor in the biodiversity crisis in Southeast Asia (Sodhi et al., 2004). To-
day Chinese Traditional Medicine is practiced all over the world, both by members
of far-flung Chinese communities, and by converts to medical practices that are
complementary or alternative to western allopathic medicine (World Health Orga-
nization, 2001). In addition, Chinese Traditional Medicine has also given rise to,
or strongly influenced, traditional medicine throughout East and Southeast Asia. In
Japan, Chinese Traditional Medicine has been locally adapted as Kampō. Korean
traditional systems involve both Chinese Traditional Medicine and an indigenous
component, referred to as Korean Oriental Medicine. Vietnamese Traditional Medi-
cine has also been heavily influenced by the Chinese system and shares much the
same pharmacopia. Although Kampō treatments are primarily herbally-based, Ko-
rean (Kang and Phipps, 2003) and Vietnamese traditional medicine (Nguyen, 1993)
are more similar to Chinese Traditional Medicine in their reliance on a diversity of
animal, as well as plant products.
Animal products are also used in folk or traditional medicine throughout the
rest of Asia. The Ayurvedic tradition practiced in India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal,
as well as in Pakistan and Bangladesh, for example, also includes zootherapeutic
practices (Unnikrishnan, 1998), although whole dead animals are relatively un-
commonly used. Traditional medicine systems in Myanmar, Bhutan, Laos, Tibet,
and Mongolia are largely derived from, or are similar to, Ayurveda and are con-
sistent with a Buddhist world view. Thai traditional medicine represents a mixture
of Ayurvedic and Chinese medical practices, but like those of the other primarily
Buddhist cultures, medicinal preparations are chiefly herbal. Likewise, traditional
Unani medicine — practiced in much of the Middle East and in India — is similar
to Ayurveda, but has been influenced by Islam. Malay and Indonesian traditional
medicine are similar to one another and have been influenced by Ayurvedic, Unani,
and Chinese practices (Connett and Lee, 1994).
Aside from these ‘national’ traditional medical practices, folk medicinal use
of animals is also practiced around the world at the regional or tribal level.
Tribal groups in parts of India utilize animal-based treatments that are outside the
Ayurvedic and Unani traditions (Negi and Palyal, 2007). Other examples include
84 A. M. Bauer / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 81–96

the traditional medicine of Australian aboriginals (Low, 1990; Symons and Symons,
1994), indigenous peoples of Brazil (Costa-Neto, 1999), and many African cultures
(Simelane and Kerley, 1997, 1998; Sodeinde and Soewu, 1999; El-Kamali, 2000).

Reptiles in traditional medicine

Many of the animal ingredients in traditional medicine are derived from domestic
species such as cattle, which offer a constant and reliable source of raw materials.
However, wild-caught animals are also important and, indeed, the relative diffi-
culty of obtaining such animals often contributes to their perceived efficacy and
thus desirability as therapeutic agents. Among the most well-publicized examples
of animal species that have been, and continue to be used in traditional medicine,
are large, charismatic mammals, such as bears and tigers (Kang and Phipps, 2003;
Li and Wilcove, 2005). However, reptiles are also exploited for the same purpose.
For example, much of the root cause for the decline of freshwater turtles through-
out Asia can be attributed to their consumption, partly for health-related reasons
(Van Dijk, 2000; Shi et al., 2007). Although turtle populations have declined partic-
ularly precipitously and are at special risk because of their life history traits, such as
a long period to maturation (Gibbons et al., 2000), the commercial trade in reptiles
is much more widespread taxonomically.
Alves et al. (2008) summarized the use of reptiles in traditional folk medicine
worldwide and documented the use of 165 species, but they suggested that this
was an underestimate. The widespread use of reptiles in traditional medicine, the
increasing reliance on such approaches among those in developing countries who
cannot afford western health care (Alves and Rosa, 2007) and the interest in the
developed world in alternative medicine have contributed to the great demand for
reptiles and reptile products. Among the most widely employed reptiles, at least in
the East and Southeast Asian medical traditions, are geckos.
Alves et al. (2008) listed only five species of geckos among the 165 species of
reptiles used in traditional medicine: Hemidactylus mabouia (Moreau de Jonnes,
1818), H. frenatus (Duméril and Bibron, 1836), Gekko gecko (Linnaeus, 1758),
G. subpalmatus Günther, 1864, and Tarentola mauritanica (Linnaeus, 1758).
A careful review of the literature, however, reveals at least 14 species of geckos,
representing three gekkotan families, the Eublepharidae (Goniurosaurus), Phyl-
lodactylidae (Tarentola), and Gekkonidae (Gekko, Hemidactylus), have been ex-
plicitly reported to be used in traditional medicine (table 1). However, this must
be regarded as a minimum as (1) local usage patterns in traditional medicine
outside China and neighboring areas have not been thoroughly investigated, and
(2) misidentifications in the traditional medicine trade are common. An overview
of these geckos and their uses, organized geographically, follows:
South America. Zootherapy is important in many areas of South America, in-
cluding Brazil, where Hemidactylus spp. are among the many reptile species used
(Costa-Neto, 1999; Costa-Neto and Resende, 2004; Alves et al., 2007). Costa-Neto
 A. M. Bauer / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 81–96 85

Table 1.
Gecko species used in traditional medicine as identified explicitly in the literature. Although some of
these taxa are afforded local protection and are national Red Data Book listed, none are CITES listed
(the only CITES listed geckos are Cyrtodactylus serpensinsula, Phelsuma spp., and Uroplatus spp. —
Appendix II and Hoplodactylus spp. and Naultinus spp. — Appendix III).

Species Country of use References

Gekko chinensis China Liu, 1993; Zhu and Ren, 1999

Gekko gecko
Gekko japonicus
Gekko liboensis
Gekko subpalmatus
Gekko swinhonis
Goniurosaurus araneus
Goniurosaurus catbaensis
Goniurosaurus lichtenfelderi
Goniurosaurus luii
Hemidactylus bowringii
Hemidactylus frenatus
Hemidactylus mabouia
Hemidactylus spp.
Tarentola mauritanica
Gecko, undetermined
China; Vietnam; Laos; Liu, 1993; Nguyen, 1993; Zhu and Ren,
Cambodia; Bangladesh 1999; Stuart, 1999; B. Stuart, in litt.;
IUCN Bangladesh, 2000
China Zhu and Ren, 1999
China Zhu and Ren, 1999
China Alves et al., 2008
China Wu et al., 2006; Zhu and Ren, 1999
China Grismer et al., 1999
China This paper
China Liu, 1993
China Grismer et al., 1999
China Jiang, 1983
Vietnam Nguyen, 1993; Alves et al., 2008
Brazil Costa-Nota and Resende, 2004;
Alves et al., 2008
Uttaranchal, India Negi and Palyal, 2007
Azerbaijan Alakbarli, 2006; Alves et al., 2008
(historical use only)
Zimbabwe Goebel, 2002

and Resende (2004) identified the species involved as Hemidactylus mabouia, and
reported that it can be variously cooked whole, powdered in tea, or used to make
a broth to treat measles, sore throat, chickenpox, heart and liver ailments and stroke.
Africa. Lizards are employed for medical uses in many areas of Africa, but the
use of geckos specifically appears to be rare, at least in those societies in which tra-
ditional medicine has been studied. In Nigeria agamids, chameleons and varanids
have been reported in the traditional medicine trade (Sodeinde and Soewu, 1999)
and in Sudan the last two types of lizards are used in folk medicine (El-Kamali,
2000), while in South Africa only varanids have been reported to be used by tra-
ditional Xhosa healers (Simelane and Kerley, 1998). However, unspecified gecko
species have been identified as occurring in some ‘husband taming’ preparations in
Zimbabwe (Goebel, 2002).
Europe/Southwest Asia. Tarentola mauritanica was used as an ingredient in me-
dieval medical treatments in Azerbaijan (Alakbarli, 2006), which straddles the
border between southeastern Europe and Asia, but no records of gecko use are
otherwise recorded from Europe.
86 A. M. Bauer / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 81–96

South Asia. Zootherapy is more widespread in tribal areas of South Asia than
in other parts of society where Ayurvedic and Unani medicine predominate. Doc-
umented use of geckos occurs among the Shoka tribes of the Kumaon Himalayas
of Uttaranchal, India, who use Hemidactylus spp. for the treatment of eczema. The
entire animal is boiled in oil which is then applied to the affected region of the body
(Negi and Palyal, 2007). Tokay geckos, Gekko gecko, are employed (specific use
unspecified) in traditional medicine in Bangladesh (IUCN Bangladesh, 2000).
China. Gecko derived preparations have been used in Chinese Traditional Medi-
cine for at least hundreds of years (Yang and Qi, 2001), but may date back millennia.
In Chinese Traditional Medicine geckos have historically been used to treat a va-
riety of ailments including coughs, kidney stones, fractures, asthma, diabetes, and
sexual dysfunction (Read, 1934). More recently, gecko products have been used
for the treatment of cancer as well, and there is much study regarding the rele-
vant active ingredients, pharmacological effects, and clinical applications of gecko
products (Chen and Huang, 2001).
Two different major types of gecko are recognized in Chinese Traditional Medi-
cine, tokay geckos (Gekko gecko; gejie), and small geckos (pi-hu). Gekko gecko
is used to invigorate the kidneys and lungs and is often prescribed for treating dia-
betes (Li et al., 2004) and has been shown to be effective in reducing hyperglycemia
in diabetic mice (You and Wang, 2000). It is also traditional treatment for asthma
(Sheu, 1977; Chuang et al., 1999). Small geckos (pi-hu) are used in treatments for
epilepsy and are thought to be useful for internal wind. Although tokays are eas-
ily recognizable by their large size and distinctive coloration, most smaller gecko
species are likely to be confused and therefore the number of species utilized may
be quite large. Liu (1993) listed Gekko chinensis, G. gecko, and Goniurosaurus
lichtenfelderi. Hemidactylus bowringii is also used in traditional medicine (Jiang,
1983), as is G. swinhonis (Wu et al., 2006). Gekko swinhonis and G. chinensis
have been implicated as anti-tumor agents, presumably by inhibiting cell growth,
reducing micro-vessel growth, and promoting apoptosis of cancerous cells (Song et
al., 2004, 2006; Yang et al., 2007a, 2007b), in mice. In human liver cells Gepsin
(Gekko sulfated polysaccharide) derived from whole dried or powdered G. swin-
honis has been demonstrated to suppress proliferation and induce differentiation of
tumor cells, but does not have these effects on normal cells (Wu et al., 2006). Gekko
swinhonis has also recently been proposed as an effective agent in preventing os-
teoporosis (Liu et al., 2007).
All geckos are commonly prepared by eviscerating, stretching and drying (Liu,
1993; fig. 1). The animal is then ground into a powder that can be made into an
infusion, or it can be mixed with other foods to make it more palatable, as for ex-
ample, mashed banana, as used in Singapore (Connett and Lee, 1994). ‘Gecko’ is
also commercially available as a freeze-dried powder or as tablets. For example, the
website www.fertilitynow.net offers either 100% Ge Jie (gecko) or Gecko-A tablets
(13% gecko, along with a diversity of other ingredients), or Gecko and Ginseng —
all recommended to fight fatigue, asthma, impotence, back-pain, and lung infec-
 A. M. Bauer / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 81–96 87

Figure 1. Dried eviscerated tokay gecko, Gekko gecko, obtained in Chinese market in Calgary,
Canada. Tokays are typically sold in this form (although in pairs) for medicinal use in much of the
world. Collection of the author.

Figure 2. Chinese gecko rice wine. Note the stylized Gekko gecko on label. Geckos are used in the
manufacture of this product, but unlike comparable Vietnamese and Laotian wines, the body is not
retained in the bottle. Collection of the author.

tion. Gekko swinhonis is also used in combination with other traditional medicine
components, as in WRCP (warming and relieving cold phlegm) where it is com-
bined with extracts of the plants Acontium charmichaeli, Rhizoma bolbostemmatis,
Phytolacca acinosa, and Panax notoginseng (Yan et al., 2007). Gecko rice wine
products with supposed health benefits are also produced (fig. 2).
Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Gekko gecko is used in Vietnam, where it is typ-
ically gutted and dried and prepared as a powder for use in pills or elixirs that are
88 A. M. Bauer / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 81–96

used to treat premature ejaculation, neurasthenia, and persistent coughing (Nguyen,

1993). In addition, Hemidactylus frenatus is used in the treatment of tuberculosis
adenitis, and in some cases it is ingested alive (Nguyen, 1993). Vietnamese rice
wine, or ruou, sometimes is also sold with a tokay gecko suspended in it (Stuart,
2004), and is purported to provide some of the same benefits of dried gecko prepa-
rations. Similar wines are commercially produced and consumed in Laos (Stuart,
1999; Nooren and Claridge, 2001) and are also available in Cambodia (B. Stuart, in
litt.).

Gecko identification
Geckos are of sufficient importance in Chinese Traditional Medicine that wide-
spread counterfeiting exists to meet demand. Recently, allele-specific diagnos-
tic PCR methods have been used to authenticate gecko in traditional Chinese
medicine products (Liu et al., 2001). Zhu and Ren (1999) discovered that 89%
of ‘Gekko gecko’ samples obtained in markets were identifiable as counterfeits.
These included other geckos: G. chinensis, G. japonicus, G. swinhonis, G. li-
boensis, and Eublepharis (= Goniurosaurus) lichtenfelderi; as well as agamids:
Agama (= Laudakia) himalayana, Calotes versicolor, Leiolepis belliana rubritae-
niata (= L. reevesii rubritaeniata), Phrynocephalus vlangalii, P. theobaldi; a skink,
Eumeces (= Plestiodon) chinensis; and five species of salamanders (Batrachupe-
rus pinchonii, Tylototriton verrucosus, T. kweichowensis, Paramesotriton chinensis,
and Cynops orientalis).
Unintentional misidentifications in the traditional medicine trade are also likely
to be widespread. For example, Liu (1993) illustrated dried specimens of a eu-
blepharid gecko he identified as Goniurosaurus lichtenfelderi, but based on color
pattern the specimens involved appear to be referable to the recently described
G. catbaensis (Ziegler et al., 2008). Indeed, it is likely that all regional (south-
ern China and Vietnam) Goniurosaurus, G. luii, G. hainanensis, G. lichtenfelderi,
G. araneus, G. bawanglingensis, and G. catbaensis are treated identically in the
trade and that the actual species involved is a function of availability only.
Many geckos are similar in general appearance and in most instances it is likely
that the collectors, medicinal dealers, doctors, and patients through whose hands
geckos pass, are uncertain as to the specific identity of the animals. Thus, it is
highly likely that many gecko species that occur in particular areas where geckos
are harvested for medicinal uses could also be taken.
In Brazil, only the widespread Hemidactylus mabouia has been recorded to be
used in local medicine (Costa-Nota and Resende, 2004; Alves et al., 2008). In the
State of Bahia, where its use has been stated explicitly (Costa-Nota and Resende,
2004), it is the only member of the genus occurring, but the similar H. palaichthus
co-occurs with H. mabouia further west in northern Amazonia and the Guianan
Shield (Avila-Pires, 1995) and might be expected to be used similarly if similar
traditional medical practices exist.
 A. M. Bauer / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 81–96 89

Estimating the possible number of species that could be involved, as either pri-
mary ingredients or counterfeits, in the Asian traditional medicine trade is far more
difficult. As Zhu and Ren (1999) demonstrated, virtually any lizard (or salamander)
may be sold as a tokay gecko. In addition, the fact that many small geckos (pu-hi)
are also believed to have medicinal value, suggests that virtually all geckos occur-
ring in China, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, and at least western Indonesia
may, at least occasionally, enter the trans-border traditional medicine trade.
In China alone, 12 species of the genus Gekko have been recorded (Zhou and
Wang, 2008) and at least 21 species of other genera are known to occur there (Zhao
et al., 1999). In the Southeast Asian countries supplying Chinese Traditional Medi-
cine, the number of gecko species is well over 80 (Manthey and Grossmann, 1997;
Nabhitabhata et al., ‘2000’ 2004; Nguyen et al., 2005), with new taxa being de-
scribed almost monthly (Nguyen, 2006; Ngo and Bauer, 2008; Bauer et al., 2008).
However, many of the newly described species from Southeast Asia are in the gen-
era Cyrtodactylus and Cnemaspis, both padless geckos that have not been reported
in the gecko medicinal trade. If these and the members of other genera that have
not previously been documented as being used in traditional medicine are excluded
from consideration, this still leaves a substantial list of 37 species with trade poten-
tial (table 2). This is complicated further by the fact that a number of the widespread
species are probably actually species complexes of morphologically similar forms.
This applies to Hemidactylus bowringii, H. frenatus, H. brookii, and H. platyurus
(Carranza and Arnold, 2006; McMahan and Zug, 2007) and to Gekko gecko (see
review of literature in Bauer et al., 2008).
As an identification aid, the following key to the 12 species of Asian geckos
known to be used in Asian traditional medicine uses characteristics of the dorsal
side of the body that are typically retained and visible in whole, dried and flattened
specimens. Goniurosaurus portion of key modified after Ziegler et al. (2008).

Key to the geckos definitely known to be used in Asian traditional medicine

1a. Digits narrow, without broadly dilated subdigital lamellae . . Goniurosaurus 2

1b. Digits broadly dilated, with adhesive toe pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2a. Enlarged row of supraorbital tubercles present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2b. No enlarged row of supraorbital tubercles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3a. No internasal scales separating supranasal scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. catbaensis
3b. Internasal scales separate supranasals from one another . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. luii
4a. Three wide transverse dorsal bands between limb insertions . . . . . G. araneus
4b. Two narrow transverse dorsal bands between limb insertions G. lichtenfelderi
5a. Subdigital lamellae of each toe divided, claws on all digits . . Hemidactylus 6
5b. Subdigital lamellae not divided, claws on digits II-V only . . . . . . . . . . Gekko 7
6a. Digit I of pes half or less the length of digit II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. frenatus
6b. Digit I of pes more than half the length of digit II . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. bowringii
90 A. M. Bauer / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 81–96

7a. Very large (>100 mm SVL); rostral does not enter nostril . . . . . . . . . G. gecko
7b. Small (<80 mm SVL); rostral enters nostril . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8a. Body dorsum atuberculate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. subpalmatus
8b. Dorsal tubercles present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
9a. Fore- and hindlimbs atuberculate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. liboensis
9b. Limbs bearing tubercles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
10a. Digits with interdigital webbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. chinensis
10b. Digits without interdigital webbing, or with very weakly developed webs 11
11a. Dorsum with tubercles more-or-less regularly arranged, extending on to oc-
ciput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. japonicus
11b. Dorsal tubercles scattered, not extending on to occiput . . . . . . . . G. swinhonis

Geckos in the international wildlife trade

Overexploitation, in large part for traditional medicines, is the predominant threat to
reptiles and other animals in China (Li and Wilcove, 2005). In Gaungxi, China, for
example, hundreds of thousands of locally collected Gekko gecko were purchased
every year (a maximum of 1163 014 in 1958) until the supply was depleted (Zhao,
1998). The implications for conservation are staggering, given the huge quantities
of animals, including reptiles, being removed from the wild to fuel these demands
(Li and Wilcove, 2005; Alves et al., 2008). This problem is particularly acute in
Vietnam, where reptiles, especially tokay geckos, are both used in local traditional
medicine and exported to China for use there (Martin, 1992; Nash, 1997; Li and
Li, 1998; Compton and Le, 1998; Li and Wang, 1999; Ziegler, 2002; Nguyen et al.,
2003; Stuart, 2004). Wildlife trade networks extend from Vietnam into Laos and
Cambodia as well (Compton and Le, 1998; Nash, 1997; Stuart, 2004). The catch-
ment region for the Chinese market in geckos also extends more widely. Between
November 1993 and October 1994 over 36 000 tokay geckos were imported from
Thailand into Hong Kong alone (Lau et al., 1995) and dried tokays from Indonesia,
supposedly East Java, are currently available online in quantities in the hundreds of
thousands. Geckos from Myanmar are probably also exported to China but docu-
mentation is lacking.
Demand for geckos for use in Chinese Traditional Medicine threatens wild pop-
ulations and results in habitat destruction, as trees are often felled to obtain arboreal
geckos (Anonymous, 2005). Local extirpations due to this trade have been reported
in countries exporting geckos (Thongsa-Ard and Thongsa-Ard, 2003) and within
China tokays have been protected since 1988 and are currently considered endan-
gered and are listed in the Chinese Red Data Book (Zhao, 1998), although they are
not CITES listed. Likewise, Goniurosaurus luii (China) and G. araneus (Vietnam)
are both used in traditional medicine and are in the herpetocultural trade as well
(Grismer et al., 1999). Although the take for the pet trade may now be ameliorated
by the availability of cheap and healthy captive-bred animals (Kratochvil, 2006), it
 A. M. Bauer / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 81–96 91

Table 2.
List of gecko species of the genera Gekko, Hemidactylus, and Goniurosaurus occurring in China,
Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and eastern Indonesia. EX = also occurs extralimitally. ∗ = use
in traditional medicine documented (see table 1).

Species Countries of native occurrence

Eublepharidae
Goniurosaurus araneus∗ Vietnam
Goniurosaurus bawanglingensis China
Goniurosaurus catbaensis∗ Vietnam
Goniurosaurus hainanensis China
Goniurosaurus lichtenfelderi∗ Vietnam
Goniurosaurus luii∗ China, Vietnam
Gekkonidae
Gekko auriverrucosus China
Gekko badenii Vietnam
Gekko chinensis∗ China, Vietnam
Gekko gecko∗ Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos, Thailand,
Vietnam, EX
Gekko grossmanni Vietnam
Gekko hokouensis China, EX
Gekko japonicus∗ China, Vietnam, EX
Gekko kikuchii China (Lanyu Island)
Gekko liboensis∗ China
Gekko melli China
Gekko monarchus Indonesia, Thailand, EX
Gekko nutaphandi Thailand
Gekko palmatus China, Vietnam
Gekko petricolus Cambodia, Laos, Thailand
Gekko scabridus China
Gekko scientiadventura Vietnam
Gekko siamensis Thailand
Gekko similignum China
Gekko smithii Indonesia, Thailand, EX
Gekko subpalmatus∗ China
Gekko swinhonis∗ China
Gekko taibaiensis China
Gekko ulikovskii Vietnam
Gekko wenxianensis China
Hemidactylus bowringii∗ China, Vietnam, EX
Hemidactylus brookii China, Thailand, EX
Hemidactylus frenatus∗ Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos, Thailand,
Vietnam, EX
Hemidactylus garnotii China, Indonesia, Laos, Thailand, EX
Hemidactylus platyurus Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos, Thailand,
Vietnam, EX
Hemidactylus stejnegeri China (Taiwan), Vietnam, EX
Hemidactylus vietnamensis Vietnam
92 A. M. Bauer / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 81–96

is likely that the local medicinal trade still exists and that some animals may be ex-
ported to meet overseas demands for traditional medicines. Recent calls have been
made to include both G. luii and the newly-described G. catbaensis in the Red Data
Book of Vietnam (Vu et al., 2006; Ziegler et al., 2008).
The trans-border trade in geckos is not limited to East Asia. Gecko products
are exported, both from China and other parts of tropical Asia, around the world
to meet the global demand for Chinese traditional medicines. For example, dur-
ing the period 1998–2002 8503 kg of dried Gekko gecko were imported into the
United States of America for use in traditional medicine (Schlaepfer et al., 2005).
The accurate identification of geckos is thus not only a problem for the traditional
medicine industry and for conservationists at the national or regional level, but for
those monitoring and regulating the international trade in wildlife as well. Although
authentic tokay geckos, Gekko gecko, are the mainstay of this trade, other species
may be involved.
The identification of the origin of gecko-derived powders and tablets may be
extremely difficult, depending upon the degree of processing and blending with
other ingredients. However, there are possibilities for identification using DNA-
sequencing or other genetic markers, although this requires data from comparative
material of known origin. Whole dried geckos are substantially easier and cheaper
to identify and many of the diagnostic features of gecko species are retained in these
types of preparations, which remain mainstays in the traditional medicine trade.
Acknowledgements
I thank Barry Baker for inviting me to prepare this paper and for providing literature. Bryan Stuart and
Rômulo Alves provided valuable comments on the manuscript. This research was supported by National
Science Foundation grant DEB-0515909.

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Accepted: 17 September 2008.