UPLB Department of Science and Technology Scholars’ Society

University of the Philippines Los Baños, UP College, Laguna 4031

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Science English Mathematics Enrichment Program

General Compilation of Handouts

English

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PARTS OF SPEECH
1.1 NOUN - is a name of a person, a thing, an animal, an event, or a place, such as John, pencil, horse, Monday, or church. Nouns usually serve as subjects in a sentence, as
objects of verbs, and as complements of verbs and prepositions.
John is the leader of the band. (John is the subject or the one being talked about in the sentence.)
He sharpened the pencil. (Pencil is the receiver of the action word ‘sharpened’.)
We went to church. (Church acts as a complement to the preposition ‘to’.)

1. Concrete Nouns - things you can see, hear, smell, taste, or touch. o scissors, pants, tweezers, binoculars, glasses, pajamas
o mother, music, perfume, chocolate, or fabric 10. Count Nouns - things we can count which can be singular or plural. ‘A’ or
2. Abstract Nouns - things you cannot perceive through any of your five ‘an’ is used for singular countable nouns while ‘many’, ‘several’, ‘ a large
senses; uncountable. number of’, ‘some’ or ‘few’ is used for plural countable nouns. For
o hope, love, improvement, ideas, knowledge, justice, music, energy, questions and negative sentences, ‘any’ is used instead.
3. Collective Nouns - a group or collection of things and people; considered 11. Mass Nouns - things we cannot count but can be measured. Not countable
singular if it acts as a group or a single unit, but plural if it pertains to the because they are too small to count, or they are particles, liquids, gases,
individual members. concepts or activities.
o choir, bunch, class, flock, police, baggage, furniture o Particles: rice, corn, dirt, dust, sugar
4. Common Nouns - any one of a class of people or things. o Liquids: water, coffee, tea, milk
o boy, pencil, country, month, dog o Gases: smoke, pollution, steam
5. Proper Nouns - specific people or things. The first letter is should be We cannot put “s” to mass nouns. The plural form of mass nouns is formed
capitalized. with quantifiers.
o Paul, Mongol, Philippines, July, Pluto o bottles of apple juice, sacks of sand, gallons of water, bowls of rice
6. Compound Nouns - made up of two or more words acting as a single unit. ‘Much’, ‘large amount of’’, ‘a great deal of’ and ‘little’ should be used for
o matchbox, sister-in-law, pay day mass nouns.
7. Singular Nouns - a single person, single thing, or a single unit. o There is too much pepper in the dish; put a little sugar in it.
o meal, bush, baby, knife, alumnus, child, mouse We may also use some and any for mass nouns
o Plural Nouns. These are words that name more than one person, o Did you buy any apple juice? Yes, I bought some apple juice.
one thing or one place. They are formed by adding s, es, ies, ves, i, Here are some of the most commonly misused mass nouns:
or by changing the spelling.meals, bushes, babies, knives, alumni, advice hair furniturehomework
children, mice baggage behavior equipment garbage
8. Plural-looking Nouns - plural in form but singular in meaning. bread data permission vocabulary
o economics, politics, news, measles damage progress scenery food
9. Singular-Looking Nouns. Some nouns pertain to a single object but are traffic weather work
considered plural since they have two identical parts.

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1.2 PRONOUNS - are nouns in disguise, and have the same use as nouns. These are words that take the place of nouns.
o He is the leader of the band. (The pronoun he is the subject in the sentence.)
o He sharpened it. (The pronoun ‘it’ is the receiver of the action.)
o We went there. (The pronoun ‘there’ acts as a complement to the verb.)

1. Personal Pronouns. Pronouns that refer to particular people, places, or o Those are the special guests who need assistance.
things. 5. Relative Pronouns - begin a subordinate clause and connect it to another
o Subjective: I, You, He, She, It, we, they idea in the sentence.
o Possessive: my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, their, o That, which, who, whom
theirs o We will go to store that advertised a sale.
o Objective: me, you, him, her, them, us o We saw a person whose essay had won the prize.
2. Reflexive Pronouns - end in –self or –selves; add information to a sentence 6. Interrogative Pronouns. An interrogative pronoun is used to begin a
by pointing back to a noun or pronoun near the beginning of a sentence; question
usually act as objects of verbs. o What, which, who, whom, whose
o We watched ourselves on the TV monitor. o Who knocked on the door?
3. Intensive Pronouns - end in –self or –selves as well; add emphasis to a noun o Whose pencil is this?
or pronoun in the same sentence instead; usually come after the subject of o Who’s the girl in the red dress?
the sentence. 7. Indefinite Pronouns - refer to people, places, or things, often without
o The President himself admitted his fault. specifying which ones.
4. Demonstrative Pronouns - direct attention to a specific person, place, or o Singular: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either,
thing. everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no
o Singular: This, That one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something
o Plural: These, Those o Plural: both, few, many, others, several
o Of all the colors available, I like this best. o Both: all, any, more, most, none, some

1.3 PREPOSITIONS - are again mostly little words. They typically come before noun phrases and pronouns, and tell you something about place, time, reason, and so on.
o on the bus, at home, opposite the table, until Tuesday, after Christmas
PREPOSITION OF TIME
IN  We use IN to designate a time in the future or to indicate the duration of an
 We use IN for long periods of time such as months, seasons, years, decades, action.
centuries. o The train will leave in a few minutes.
o I was born in August. o I learned to drive in four weeks.
o The war began in 1982. ON
o Technology boomed in the 21st century.  We use ON before days, date and holidays.
o We just stay at home in winter. o I will see you on Friday.
 We can also use IN for parts of the day o We will celebrate on the 25th of July.
o I take my vitamins in the morning. o We exchange gifts on Christmas Day.
o I watch TV in the evening. AT
 We use AT for specific time of the day.

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o My work starts at 7:00 in the morning.  We use ON for specific directions like:
o We read a story at bedtime. o on the left, on the right
 We use ON for vehicles with surfaces where we can navigate.
FOR o on the plane, on the bus, on the ship
 We use FOR when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months,  We use ON to indicate that something is on top of another thing
years). o I will ride on his motorcycle.
o He held his breath for seven minutes. o I haven’t ridden on a horse.
SINCE AT
 We use since with a specific date or time.  We use At to refer to a particular spot or building.
She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-thirty. o I will be waiting for you at the bus stop.
PREPOSITION OF LOCATION o There is a store at the corner of the street.
IN o Put you name at the bottom of your paper.
 We use IN for an enclosed area or container. o I am at the mall right now.
o He is swimming in the pool.  We use AT to refer to places where you do something or where an event takes
o There is a garden in front/back of our house. place
ON o I am reading at the library.
 We use ON for surfaces. o I am at the concert.
o There is an old painting on the wall. o I will stay at home.
o We saw the advertisement on the television.

PREPOSITION OF PLACE
IN ON
 town, province, city, country, village  to designate names of streets, avenues, and roads
o in Sta. cruz o Her house is on Lopez Avenue.
o in Laguna AT
o In the Philippines  for specific addresses including the house number
o John Smith lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.

PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT
TO TOWARD/TOWARDS
 We use to in order to express movement toward a place.  Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. These
o She's going to the dentist's office this morning. are simply variant spellings of the same word; use whichever sounds better to
you.
o This is a big step towards the project's completion.

NO PREPOSITION
 With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we do not use preposition.
o Grandma went upstairs

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1.4 VERBS - are words that do not only express action or what is being done in a sentence, but also time or when the action takes place.
1. Action Verbs -tell what action someone/something is doing; usually refer to o The door was locked.
visible actions or movements. o She has dimples.
o Singular/ s-form: jumps, runs Plural linking verbs:
o Plural/Base form: jump, run o The houses are the same.
2. Abstract Verbs - suggest actions but not necessarily movement. They are usually o The doors were locked.
not visible. o You have dimples too.
o Singular: learns, thinks, imagine 4. Auxiliary Verbs - do not exist on their own; combination of a linking verb and
o Plural: learn, think, imagine another verb.
3. Linking Verbs - do not suggest action but connects the subject to its predicate o The baby has slept all afternoon.
Singular linking verbs: o The man is crying for help.
o The house is empty.

Transitive Verbs - direct action towards someone or something; need a direct object that will receive the action.
o She read the whole book.
o She sang an old song.
Intransitive Verbs. These are verbs that do not need a direct object or person.
 She reads every day.
 She sang badly.
VERBALS
1. Gerunds - verbs that are used as nouns; formed by adding ‘-ing’ to the base form o The man was so frightened.
of the verb (present participle); used as subjects in sentences. o The frightened man ran quickly.
o Writing is time consuming. 3. Infinitives - verbs that are used as nouns and adverbs as well; formed with TO
o The tree planting was successful. and the main verb.
2. Participles - verbs that are used as adjectives. They can either be the present o To jog is useful.
participle or the past participle o He has some work to complete.

VERB CONJUGATION
Verb + Present Participle Verb + Infinitive
enjoy avoid stop delay offer agree refuse decide
finish consider quit imagine plan arrange hope aim
postpone admit mind deny learn deserve afford need
suggest miss risk involve attempt manage fail mean
practice allow intend forget promise threaten
 Everybody stopped talking. seem tend pretend dare
 I have finished cleaning the house.  We decided to take a taxi home.
 Karen failed to make a good impression.

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1.5 ADJECTIVES - are words that describe or modify a noun or a pronoun; usually come before noun or after linking verbs including seem, taste, feel, look, grow, remain, stay,
sound and appear, become; usually end in –able, -ly, -ic, -ive, -ful.
 Which?
 What kind of?
 How many?
o He has an elegant handwriting.
o It sounds stupid.
TYPES OF ADJECTIVES
1. Adjective of Number 4. Adjective of Age
 a, an, the, many, few, much, little, one, dozen, hundreds  young, old, new
 a – used before a singular noun that starts with a consonant sound 5. Adjective of Color
o a flower, a unit  red, black
 an – used before a singular noun that starts with vowel sound 6. Adjective of Origin
o an apple, an honest man  Filipino, Australian, Japanese
 the – used for particular things or people, for plural nouns, one kind of 7. Adjective of Material
something  wooden, plastic, cotton
o the sun, the world, the Philippines, the Filipinos  Examples:
 many/ few – countable nouns o a tall young man
 little/much – mass nouns o long black hair
2. Adjective of Quality o a small plastic bag
 beautiful, dirty, clean, strong, hard o a large wooden table
3. Adjective of Size, Length, Shape and Width o an old Filipino song
 big, short, round, fat o an old white cotton shirt
o big round blue eyes

VERBS AS ADJECTIVES
Present Participle Past Participle
 used to describe something  used to describe someone
o The news was shocking. o I was shocked when I heard the news.

DEGREES OF COMPARISON
Comparatives Superlatives
 used for comparing two things or places  used for emphasizing one thing or one person among other things or other
 formed by adding r/er/ier/more to the positive form of the verb people
 usually followed by than  formed by adding st/est/iest/most to the positive form of the verb
 you may use much, a little, slightly, and a lot before comparatives  use the before superlatives
o He is older than John. o Peter is the oldest among the three brothers.
o Can you walk a little faster? o You are the fastest runner I have ever met.

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1.6 ADVERBS - are words that modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. They tell how, how often, why, when and where the action takes place; usually end in –ly. They
come before or after the verb and before adjectives and adverbs.
o He plays well.
o They arrived late.
o Don’t sit there.
o He was very happy.
1. Adverbs of Place - refer to the direction or place where the action takes place;  usually, always, seldom, sometimes
answer the question where? o She never eats vegetables.
 Down, towards, there 4. Adverbs of Manner - describe the manner by which the action is done. They
o The balloon floated up. answer the question how?
2. Adverbs of Time - refer to the time when the action happened. They answer the  quickly, slowly, carefully, beautifully
question when? o Time passed quickly.
 later, tomorrow, soon, last year, next month 5. Adverbs of Degree - refer to the degree of the condition. They answer the
o The letter was delivered today. question to what extent?
3. Adverbs of Frequency - refer to how frequent the action happens. They answer  very, so, extremely
the question how often? o He is so smart.

CONFUSIONS WITH ADVERBS

Good and Well  hard is an adjective while hardly gives a negative meaning
 good is an adjective while well is an adverb o He tried hard to find a job.
o Susan is a good pianist. She plays the piano well. o He hardly tried to find a job.
Late and Lately So and Such
 late is the opposite of early while lately means recently  so comes before an adjective while such comes before a noun/ a noun
o Haven’t I told you lately that you should not be late for work again? phrase
o The room is so messy.
o It’s such a messy room.
Hard and Hardly

1.7 CONJUNCTIONS - are words that connect parts of the sentence or clauses.
o And, but, or because, when
o I am learning English so that I can get a better job.
o You look as if you have seen a ghost.
o We were late because the car broke down.

1. Coordinating Conjunctions. These are conjunctions that join two items of equal
importance. They include for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. When using a
conjunction to join two sentences, use a comma before the conjunction.
o This is a useful rule, but difficult to remember.
o I wanted to sit in the front of the balcony, so I ordered my tickets early.
o We are not allowed to bring a dictionary nor a calculator in the
examination room.
2. Correlative Conjunctions. These are conjunctions that are always used in pairs.
They join equal elements. They include both – and, not only- but also, neither –
nor, either – or and whether – or.

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o Both my sister and my brother play the piano. 3.
o Either Debbie or Nelson will wash the dishes.
o Neither the students nor teacher witnessed the incident
o Not only does Sue raise money for the symphony, but she also ushers at
all of their concerts.
o Whether you win this race or lose, it doesn't matter as long as you do
your best.
Subordinating Conjunctions. These are conjunctions that introduce a dependent
clause. English examples include after, although, if, unless, so that, therefore and
because.
o He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment
all his life.
o Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the
movies.
o Unless we act now, all is lost.

1.8 Interjections - are words or phrases used to exclaim. They usually express different emotions. They sometimes stand by themselves, but they are often contained within
larger structures. They are usually accompanied by an exclamation point, but a comma can also be used.
 Wow! I won the lottery!
 Oh, I don't know anything about that.

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AGREEMENT
Subject and Verb Agreement
Rule 1. Agreement in Number If the compound subject joined by and equals one thing, a singular verb is
 A singular subject takes a singular verb. required.
 The DOG growls when he is angry.  Macaroni and cheese is an easy dish to make.
 A plural subject takes a plural verb.  The accountant and clerk of the office is my brother.
 The DOGS growl when they are angry. A singular verb is needed when each and every modified singular subjects
Rule 2. Intervening Clauses are joined by and.
 A phrase or a clause that interrupts the subject and its verb does not affect  EACH man and woman was waving a flag.
the agreement.  EVERY boy and girl has come to the party.
 The CLOWN with the sad eyes looks pathetic. Rule 7. Subject after the Verb
 ONE of the girls is absent.  A subject that comes after its verb must still agree with it in number.
 Your theory, as well as his, lacks support.  There is a PROBLEM with the balance sheet.
Rule 3. Positive and Negative Subjects  Here are the PAPERS you requested.
 In compound sentences having one positive and one negative subject, the  Does your PET usually eat grass?
verb should agree with the positive subject.  Where are the PIECES of this puzzle?
 JOE, not the other men, was sent home. Rule 8. Linking Verbs
 The DOGS, not the trainer, were making the noise.  A linking verb must agree with its subject, regardless of the number of its
Rule 4. One of and Only One of predicate nominative.
 In using one of, the verb agrees with the antecedent of the relative  Orange BLOSSOMS are one sign of spring.
pronoun.  One SIGN of spring is orange blossoms.
 She was one of the LADIES who were always dressed up. Rule 9. Collective Nouns
 In using only one of, the verb agrees with the singular antecedent ONE.  A collective noun takes a singular verb when the group it names acts as a
 He was only ONE of the men who was ready to argue the matter. single unit. It can also take a plural verb if it refers to the members of the
Rule 5. OR/NOR group.
 For compound subjects joined by or/nor, the verb must agree with the  The JURY has reached a decision. (action is done by the whole
closest subject. group)
 Does a FLAGSTONE or a brick make a good?  The team are tying their shoe laces. (action is done by the
 Chopped apples or NUTS make a good topping. individuals)
 Neither pins nor TAPE was holding the pieces. Rule 10. Uncountable Nouns.
Rule 6. AND  Some abstract nouns are uncountable and do not have plural forms. They
 A compound subject joined by and is generally plural and must have a plural should take singular verbs.
verb.  “Love is blind.”
 PINS and TAPE were holding the pieces.  “Honesty is the best policy.”
 COOKING and GARDENING are my hobbies.  Mass nouns also take singular verbs. You can make them plural by using
 TO BALANCE in a rope and TO JUGGLE balls require great skill. quantifiers.
 Exceptions with AND :  Money makes the world go round.
 The gallons of water were poured into the dry field.
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Rule 11. Confusing Nouns Rule 14. Amounts and Measurements

 Nouns that are plural in form but singular in meaning take singular verbs.  Expressions stating amount of time, money, weight, volume are plural in
 Physics is a challenging subject. form but take a singular verb as in:
 The news was very interesting.  THREE WEEKS is a long time.
 Words such as eyeglasses, pants, pliers, and scissors, though they name  TWO HUNDRED DOLLARS is a lot of money.
single items, take plural verbs. They are considered plural since they have  TWO CUPS of flour is needed for the cake.
two identical parts. The singular form of these nouns is formed by using ‘a Rule 15. Fractions
pair of.’  A fraction of singular nouns takes a singular verb.
 My lost eyeglasses were behind the sofa.  Half of the BUILDING is lighted.
 My pants are a perfect fit.  A fraction of plural nouns takes a plural verb.
Rule 12. Indefinite Pronouns  Half of the INVITATIONS were mailed today.
 Singular indefinite pronouns include each, someone, anybody, everything, Rule 16. Titles
nobody etc., they take singular verbs.  A title is singular and must have a singular verb.
 Each of the answers is correct.  The Notebook is one of my favorite movies.
 Everybody is happy about the news.  The Alchemist is a novel written by Paulo Coelho.
 Many, few, several, and both are plural indefinite pronouns and must be Rule 17. A number vs. The number
used in the plural sense only.  The expression A NUMBER takes plural verb while the number takes a
 Both of the cars were dented. singular verb.
 Several students do not approve of the tuition increase  A number of boys have come here.
Rule 13. Pronouns and its Antecedent  The number of boys has increased by 50 percent.
 In using all, any, more, most, none, and some, the verb must agree with its
antecedent.
 Some of the FRUIT is rotten.
 Most of the PIECES are lost.
 Any of IT is worth taking.
 None of the GIRLS are coming.

PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT - must agree with its antecedent in three ways:
1. Person. This refers to the quality of being.  Everyone should make their own decision.
 If a person wants to succeed in corporate life, you have to know the  Everyone should make his or her own decision.
rules of the game. 3. Gender. This is the quality that distinguishes the entities as masculine or
 If you want to succeed in corporate life, you have to know the rules feminine.
of the game.  Mother cooked his specialty.
2. Number. This is the quality that distinguishes between singular (one entity)  Mother cooked her specialty.
and plural (numerous entities).  Everyone should clean his plate.
 When an employee does not agree with their boss's decision, the  Everyone should clean his or her plate.
employee should not support that decision.
 When an employee does not agree with his boss's decision, the
employee should not support that decision.

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VERB USAGE
TENSES - forms of the verb that shows the time of the action.
SIMPLE TENSES
1. Present Tense - uses the s-form or base form of the verb; used for present  Yesterday, ago, last week/month/year.
actions, habitual actions, repeated actions, regularly occurring actions, o The art exhibit opened last week.
constant facts o There was a drought in California last year.
 never, usually, always, every day, every time, often, every week, daily, 3. Future Tense - formed with will/shall and the base form of the verb; used
seldom for actions that will be done some time in the future
o I hear a radio in the next room.  tomorrow, later, next month/year
o The earth rotates on its axis. o I will be home at seven.
o Birds fly south in the fall. o Ed will take the test tomorrow.
o I visit my dentist every month.
2. Past Tense - formed by adding -d/-ed (regular verbs) or by changing the
spelling of the verb itself (irregular verbs); used for completed actions

PERFECT TENSES
4. Present Perfect Tense - formed with HAVE/HAS and the past participle of the
verb; used for actions that started in the past and is still continuing at
present time and for action done ahead of time.
 already, just
o The baby has slept all afternoon.
o I have just finished reading the book.
o Paris has changed since the 1985.
5. Past Perfect Tense - formed with HAD and the past participle of the verb;
used for past actions that took place before another past action
 by the time, before, after
o He had worked as a staff nurse here in the Philippines before
he started working in Australia.
o She had been a full time teacher before she decided to
become singing.
6. Future Perfect Tense - formed with will have and the past participle of the
verb; expresses a future action that happened before another future action
 by the time, before, after, by the end of
o I will have painted the house by the end of summer.
o I will have arrived in Japan by the time you read this letter.

PROGRESSIVE TENSES
7. Present Progressive Tense - formed with is/are and the present participle of  last year, last night, yesterday, ago
the verb; used for ongoing/continuing/progressive actions. It can used for o We were travelling in Europe last summer.
actions happening at the time of speaking. It can also be used to show plans o I was watching TV this morning.
or arrangements 9. Future Progressive Tense - formed with will be and the present participle of
 right now, at this moment the verb. It is used for continuing actions that will be done some time in the
o She is writing a novel. future.
o Look! The boy is climbing the tower.  next year, tomorrow, later
8. Past Progressive Tense - formed with was/were and the present participle of o John will be growing corn in his garden this summer.
the verb. It is used for ongoing/continuing/progressive actions done in the o I will be visiting France next year.
past.

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PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSES

10. Present Perfect Progressive Tense - formed with has/have been and the
present participle of the verb. It is used for continuing actions that started
in the past up to the present time.
 Since, for
o I have been working there since January.
o I have been living in the Philippines for 12 years.
11. Past Perfect Progressive Tense. This tense is formed with had been and the
present participle of the verb. It is used for past continuing action
interrupted by another past action.
 When
o I had been talking on the phone when she arrived.
o I had been fixing the bulb when the accident happened.
12. Future Perfect Progressive Tense. This tense is formed with will have been
and the present participle of the verb. It is used for continuing future action
completed before another future action.
 by the time, before, after
o I will have been driving for eight hours by the time she
reaches Los Angeles.
o I will have been waiting for two hours by the time she arrives
home.

EMPHATIC FORMS
13. Present Emphatic Form. This is formed with do/does (not) and the base 14. Past Emphatic Form. This is formed with did (not) and the base form of the
form of the verb. It is used to emphasize a statement, to ask a question, verb. It is used to emphasize an action done in the past, to ask a question
and to make a statement negative. and to make a negative statement.
o The course does require a term paper. o Rose did apologize for her rudeness.
o Does she own that car? o Did you clean your room?
o I don’t know the answer. o I did not hear the announcement.

VOICE OF THE VERB

PASSIVE VOICE
In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. This voice is formed with be-verb and the past participle of
the main verb.
The writer sometimes does not specify who is acting.
 The report was written yesterday." (It could have been written by the secretary, George Bush, or the manager)
Or the agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase.
 The report was written by the secretary. (The secretary is the doer of the action but the report is the subject.)
ACTIVE VOICE
In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts. The person acting is clear:
 The manager wrote the report yesterday. (The person acting is the manager.)

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CONDITIONALS
1. Conditional ZERO: Present Real Conditional
These refer to situations that are always true if something happens. This is
similar to, and can usually be replaced by, a time clause using 'when'. This is
formed by the use of the present simple in the “if” clause followed by a comma
the present simple in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first
without using a comma between the clauses.
 When I am late, my father takes me to school.
 When I have a day off from work, I often go to the beach.
 Jerry helps me with my homework when he has time.
 I read if there is nothing on TV.
2. Conditional ONE: Future Real Conditional
Conditional 1 is often called the "real" conditional because it is used for real
- or possible - situations. These situations take place if a certain condition is met.
In the conditional 1 we often use unless which means 'if ... not'. In other words,
'...unless he hurries up.' could also be written, '...if he doesn't hurry up’.
Conditional 1 is formed by the use of the present simple in the if clause followed
by a comma will verb (base form) in the result clause. You can also put the result
clause first without using a comma between the clauses.
 If it rains, we will stay at home.
 He will arrive late unless he hurries up.
 Peter will buy a new car, if he gets his raise.
3. Conditional TWO: Present Unreal Conditional
Conditional 2 is often called the "unreal" conditional because it is used for
unreal - impossible or improbable - situations. This conditional provides an
imaginary result for a given situation. The verb 'to be', when used in the 2nd
conditional, is always conjugated as 'were'. Conditional 2 is formed by the use of
the past simple in the “if” clause followed by a comma would verb (base form) in
the result clause. You can also put the result clause first without using a comma
between the clauses.
 If he studied more, he would pass the exam.
 I would lower taxes if I were the President.
 They would buy a new house if they had more money.
4. Conditional THREE: Past Unreal Conditional
Conditional 3 is often referred to as the "past" conditional because it
concerns only past situations with hypothetical results. Used to express a
hypothetical result to a past given situation. Conditional 3 is formed by the use
of the past perfect in the if-clause followed by a comma would have past
participle in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first without
using a comma between the clauses.
 If he had known that, he would have decided differently.
 Jane would have found a new job if she had stayed in Boston.

PARALLELISM - using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual
way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or."
1. Words and Phrases
o With the -ing form (gerunds)of words:
 Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.
o With infinitive phrases:
 Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle. OR Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle.
Do not mix forms:
 The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and in a detailed manner.
 The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly.
 The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his
motivation was low.
 The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and
lacked motivation.

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2. Clauses
o A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice
versa) will break the parallelism.
 The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.
 The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.
— or — The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-up exercises before the game.
 The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would
be asked by prospective buyers. (passive)
 The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective
buyers would ask him questions.
3. Lists After a Colon:
 The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.
 The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs.

REDUNDANCIES - more of anything than is (strictly) needed, usually resulting from repetition or duplication; pleonasm or tautology. Technically, they are either the repetition of
information (or the inclusion of extra information so as to reduce errors in understanding messages) and part of a message which can be eliminated without loss of essential
information.
Practice:
1. The diskette stores a total of 1.4 megabytes. 5. This command is for the purpose of saving the file.
2. After a time interval of 15 minutes, the power supply switches off. 6. The computer checks available memory on a continuous and automatic
3. The radar system operated for a time duration of 12 hours. basis.
4. The car's fuel system has a built-in alarm feature.

KEY ANSWERS:
1. The diskette stores 1.4 megabytes. 4. The car's fuel system has a built-in alarm.
2. After 15 minutes, the power supply switches off. 5. This command is for saving the file.
3. The radar system operated for 12 hours. 6. The computer checks available memory continuously and automatically.

DOUBLE NEGATION - the nonstandard usage of two negatives used in the same sentence so that they cancel each other and create a positive.
Negative Words:
 No, nobody, not, no one, none, hardly, nothing, scarcely, nowhere, barely, neither
Negative Forms
1. Negative + Negative = Positive
o I don't want nothing. (I want something.)
o I hardly have none. (I have some.)
2. Negative + Positive = Negative
o I hardly have any. (I have few.)
o I don't want anything. (I want nothing.)
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READING COMPREHENSION
Some types of questions to anticipate in reading comprehension exams.
I. Vocabulary and Context Clues
A. Vocabulary: the dictionary meaning of the indicated word in a given word in a given passage
B. Context Clues: the derived meaning of the indicated word, usually coming from the context of the passage. There are many varieties of context clues. Some of them are
reading between the lines, direct definition, synonyms and antonyms. Consider these examples:
He was only ten years old when his daddy dies in prison. I looked after tommy because he was my brother’s son. (What is the relationship of the author to tommy?)
Supermarkets and manufacturers must not use non-biodegradable materials – those that do not perish or melt for a period of time? (What is the meaning of word
“biodegradable”?)
II. Giving an Appropriate Title
III. Finding the Main Idea and the Supporting Details
Tip: Main ideas are typically located in the beginning of the passage, or at its end. Example Passage:
Many outdoor enthusiasts are looking for more adventure in their sports. Why else would a sane person jumps out an airplane, do some acrobatic tricks on a skyboard,
and then parachute to the ground? Other airborne adventure sports include skydiving and hang gliding. By water, people navigate the same rivers and shoot the same
rapids that early Native Americans, fur traders, and explorers did. They travel by canoe, kayak, or raft. On land, adventurers backpack and camp in the wilderness, in
areas where they might meet bears, moose and mountain lions. After climbing mountains, they ski, snowboard, or even bike down to the bottom. Today, there seems to
be an adventure sport for just about everyone, with more being invented all the time.
(In the passage, the main idea is in boldface while the sentences in italics are the supporting details.)
IV. Attitude or tome of the writer
Tone is the attitude of the writer towards the topic. It is expressed through the use of words in the passage. Examples:
The following statements each express different attitudes about a shabby apartment. Six different tones are used: optimistic, bitter, tolerant, sentimental, humorous, and
objective.
a. This place may be shabby, but since both of my children were born while we lived here, it has a special place in my heart.
The tone is sentimental. “It has a special place in my heart,” expresses tender emotions.
b. This isn’t the greatest apartment in the world but it’s not really that bad.
The tone is tolerant. The words “not really that bad” show that the writer accepts the situation while recognizing that it could be better.
c. If only there were some decent jobs out there, I wouldn’t be reduced to living in this miserable dump.
The tone is bitter. The writer resents a situation that forces him/her to live in a “miserable dump.”
d. This place does need some repairs, but I’m sure the landlord will be making improvements sometime soon.
The tone is optimistic. The writer is expecting the apartment to be improved soon.
e. When we move away, we’re planning to release three hundred cockroaches and tow mice, so we can leave the place exactly as we found it.
The tone is humorous. The writer claims to be planning a comic revenge on the landlord by returning the apartment to the terrible condition it was in when the
tenants moved in.
f. This is the apartment we live in. it provides shelter. The tone is objective.
The writer does not express feelings about the apartment. He simply states facts.

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IV. Purpose of the Writer

The purpose of the writer is the reason why the author writes about that topic. There are three general purposes of writers.
To inform – to give information about the subject. Authors with this purpose wish to provide facts that will explain or teach something to readers.
Example: Pain is a normal part of a physical process that lets us know if something is wrong.
To entertain – to amuse and delight; to appeal to the readers senses and imagination. Authors with this purpose set out to captivate or interest the audience.
Example: Yes, I have gained weight. I weighted only 8 pounds when I was born.”
To persuade – to convince the reader to agree with the author’s point of view on a subject. Authors with this purpose may give facts, but their main goal is to argue or
to prove a point to readers.
Example: the death penalty is deeply flawed and should be abolished.

VI. Explicit information vs. Implicit information

B. Explicit information are those found literally in the passage
C. Implicit information is those which are not written in the passage, usually in the form of inferences.
D. Interference is a mental process by which one proposition is arrived at and affirmed that are assumed as the starting point of the process.
Consider this example:
It might be easy to think of the supreme court of the United States as a distant and mechanical law-judging body, far removed from the people it serves. This career of a
Supreme Court justice is, in fact, serious business, as the Supreme Court heads the judicial branch of the US federal government and is the heist judicial body in the United States.
The evening news or daily paper might give us a glimpse of some stately figure dressed in long black robe, pounding a gavel on a shiny wooden desk. We might see stern-
faced Supreme Court justices and think of them as the demigods of the US political system, but the truth is that the nice justices of the Supreme Court are also people, just like we
are who work hard to get their jobs and do their work that they have to know and love.
The hiring and retiring process however, is unique in that justices are appointed for life, and this aspect of the Supreme Court justice job description has both its positive
and negative impacts on the US judicial system.

What does the author of the passage mean when he suggests that some people might think of the Supreme Court as a distant and mechanical law judging body?
a. Some people incorrectly assume that the Supreme Court is an impersonal collection of individuals
b. The Supreme Court is located in a geographically remote location, far away from most American citizens
c. The Supreme Court relies too much on machines to make its important decisions.
d. If we did think of the Supreme Court in this way, perhaps we would be more sympathetic with our judicial system.

VII. Figurative vs. Literal Meaning

A. A passage’s literal meaning comes from the literal meaning of the words written in them. These are ordinary construction of the words = based on the dictionary
meaning.
B. Figurative meaning, on the other hand, is an extension of the literal meaning of the literal language, requiring a reader to use his/her imagination to get the real
meaning of the passage by comparing and correlating two very dissimilar objects to make a point.

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