PART II A

THREE - PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS.

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 INTRODUCTION.

A Synchronous motor is electrically identical to an Alternator. Some of its basic

characteristic features are worth noting, and these are:

 It runs either at synchronous speed or not at all. The only way to change its speed is to
vary the supply frequency.
 It is not inherently self-starting. It has to be run up to synchronous speed or close by some
means before it can be synchronised to the supply.
 It is capable of being run/operated under a wide range of pf’s both lagging and leading as
in industrial plants to improve the pf.
 It usually operates at higher efficiencies, especially in the low speed Unity pf ranges.

When a three-phase winding is fed by a three-phase supply, a magnetic flux of constant

magnitude and rotating at synchronous speed is produced. Suppose that the rotor is rotating
clockwise, with such a speed that it turns through one pole-pitch by the time the stator poles
interchange their positions; the stator and rotor poles will have attracted each other, then they
will continuously experience a unidirectional torque ie clock wise torque.

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 Chapter One

MOTOR OPERATION.

All motors produce a generated voltage while motor action is taking place refer DEE 210
notes. During the transient period when a synchronous motor is being brought up to speed as an
induction motor, an armature current flows in its stator windings. This current is limited
essentially by the voltage induced and the current that flows in the rotor bars of the Damper
windings by transformer action. Once the DC field is energized( and the rotor poles pull into
synchronism ), the rotor flux induces an ac voltage in the stator conductors( E gp = 4.44kpkdfΦT ).
Since the motor is in parallel with the bus bars, the current drawn by the motor is Synchronising
Current( Isy) and Synchronising Power(Psy) is produced to maintain its rotor in synchronism with
the frequency of rotation of the stator flux.

Egp Er

α
θ Vp ( Bus Voltage )
Angle due to Psy received
From the bus Isy (Ia)
Fig 1.1

Egp = Vp but displaced by an angle α from 180º as a result of Psy received

Isy or Ia = Egp -Vp = Er Amps

Ra + jXs Zs

The armature current drawn by the motor is limited by its impedance and its generated
electromotive force.
If the load is suddenly uncoupled from the motor, it pulls back in phase, developing Er.

Er
Egp
α Vp
Ia Fig 1.2

The angle α may be insufficient to maintain rotation of the motor because very little P sy is
developed when it is very small. It is necessary, therefore, for the rotor field pole to drop back a
few more electrical degree to maintain rotation. The rotor rotates at a constant synchronous
speed with a fixed phase position of lag, α, between the centre of a rotor N pole and the centre of
an opposite S pole on the rotating field of the stator.

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1.1 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL DISPLACEMENT ANGLE , Fig 1.3.

The number of mechanical degrees, β, is the same or even less than α and the relationship
between them is given as

β = 2α where P = # of poles and

P α = # of elect. Deg.

Fig 1.3

When Egp = Vp , the voltage and current are affected as follows:

 Er leads Vp by ∟90º since it is the phasor difference of two equal phasors

 Ia at no load may be either slightly leading in phase with V p or slightly lagging depending
on the DC field excitation.

1.2 COMPUTATION OF RESULTANT VOLTAGE(Er)

The computation of Er for any values of angle α of excitation voltage and of the applied
phase voltage Vp of a given AC dynamo may be determined from the diagram Fig 1.4 below

Egp
Er
EgpSinα
δ α
Vp
EgpCosα

Vp - EgpCosα
Fig 1.4

Therefore,
* Er = Vp - EgpCosα + jEgpSinα Volts *

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 Example 1.
A 20pole, 40hp, 660v, 60Hz, three-phase, wye-connected synchronous motor is operating
at no load with its generated voltage per phase exactly equal to the phase voltage applied to
its armature. At no load , the rotor is retarded 0.5º mechanical from its synchronous position.
The synchronous reactance is 10Ω and the effective armature resistance is 1Ω per phase.
Calculate:
a). The rotor shift from the synchronous position in elect. Deg.
b). The resultant emf across the armature per phase
c). The armature current per phase
d). The power per phase, and the total power drawn by the motor from the bus
e). The armature Power loss.

{ Ans: 5º, 1.54+j33.2 V or 33.2∟87.3º V, 3.32∟3º A, 1265 W, 3795 W, 33 W }

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 Chapter Two

STARTING METHODS.

The unexcited rotor is speeded up to synchronous or near synchronous speed by some

arrangement and then excited by the DC source. The moment the rotor is excited, the rotor poles
are engaged with the stator poles and both run synchronously in the same direction. It is because
of this interlocking of stator and rotor poles that the motor has either to run synchronously or not
at all. The engagement is not absolutely rigid one because as the load is increased, the rotor
progressively tends to fall back in phase, not in speed, by some angle but it still continues to run
synchronously. The value of this load angle or Coupling angle depends on the amount of load to
be met by the motor. So, the torque developed by the motor depends on this angle, α.
There are two methods of starting a synchronous motor:
 Induction Start method
 Pony Motor method

2.1. INDUCTION METHOD:-

By far the most common method of starting is an Induction type. This method is the
simplest and requires no special auxiliary machines.
The rotor poles carry a Cage-type winding called a Damper Winding. With excitation
OFF and the rotor windings short-circuited, the motor is started like an Induction motor with
DOL starting for small machines and Auto-transformer or Star-Delta starting for larger
machines. When maximum speed has been attained, the normal DC excitation is switched ON
and the motor will be pulled into synchronism. This sudden increase in speed causes a heavy
current to be drawn from the supply for a short time. Starters must withstand this surge current.
Because of the large starting current required by this method, it is usual to start on a
reduced voltage, as with the SCIM. This reduced voltage may be obtained from tappings on an
autotransformer.

Fig 2.1

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Fig 2.2

2.2 PONY MOTOR METHOD:-

A pony motor is a small auxiliary direct-coupled induction motor coupled to the

synchronous motor shaft. It is connected in parallel with the main motor and it is designed with
two poles less to enable it to reach the synchronous speed of the synchronous motor on no load.
The excitation is then switched ON and the machine is synchronised with the three-phase
supply.. The pony motor can be switched OFF and the load then applied to the Main machine

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8|Page
 Chapter Three

POWER AND TORQUE.

3.1 POWER

When a synchronous motor operates under load, it draws active power from the line. The
power is the same as that of an Alternator.

Pp = VpIaCos θ
Or
P = EgpVpSinα
Xs
2
If we neglect I aRa losses in the stator, all the power is transmitted across the air gap to the
rotor. However, the rotor losses are entirely supplied by the DC source. Consequently, all the
power transmitted across the air gap is available in the form of mechanical power.
Maximum power is reached when the torque angle α is 90º. Therefore, the peak power
per phase is given by

Pmax. = EgpVp
Xs

The poles of the rotor are then mid-way between the N and S poles of the stator.
From Pp = VpIaCos θ, the power developed per phase

Pd = EgpIaCos( Egp,Ia ) (i)

We know
Mechanical Power, P = ωT
= NsT = NsT Nm (ii)
60/2π 9.55
3.2 TORQUE

Equating (i) and (ii), we get

T = 9.55 EgpIaCos( Egp,Ia ) Nm

Ns
T = 9.55p EgpIaCos( Egp,Ia ) Nm
120f
The electromagnetic torque expressed above is applied to any type of ac synchronous dynamo
either as a motor or as an alternator.
We know

Ia = Er = Er Amps
Zs Xs
From (i) above, the angle between E gp and Ia depends not only on the magnitude of the Torque
angle, but also on the pf and θ. Therefore, for maximum pull-out torque, the developed power
per phase can be written as

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 Pd. = EgpVpSinα
Xs
T = EgpVpSinα 9.55p
Xs 120f

Therefore,

T = 9.55p EgpVpSinα Nm
120f Xs

There are different types of torques in a synchronous motor:

 Starting Torque – It is the torque developed by the motor when full voltage is applied to
its stator winding. It is at times called Breakaway torque.
 Running Torque - It is the torque developed by the motor under running conditions. It is
determined by the Hp or kW and Speed of the driven machine.
 Pull-in Torque – It is the amount of torque at which the motor will pull into step or
synchronism.
 Pull-out Torque – It is the maximum torque which the motor can develop without
pulling out of step or synchronism.

Example 2.
A 150kW, 1200 rpm, 460V, three-phase, star-connected synchronous motor has a
synchronous reactance of 0.8 Ω per phase. If the excitation voltage is fixed at 300V per phase,
determine:
a). The Power vs Torque angle α Curve in steps of 30º elect. Up to 180º.
b). The Torque vs Torque angle α Curve and
c). The Pull-out Torque of the motor.

[ Ans. 800 / 2400Nm ]

Chapter Four

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 COMPUTATION OF TORQUE ANGLE AND GENERATED VOLTAGE
PER PHASE.

It was learnt earlier that

Egp = Vp – Er

= Vp - IaZs

The value of Egp may also be found by using the Cosine Rule from the diagram below.

Egp
Er
EgpSinα
δ = (IaXs) α
Vp
EgpCosα

IaRa =Vp - EgpCosα

Fig 4.1

E2gp = E2r + V2p - 2 ErVpCos δ

4.1 TORQUE ANGLE , α

Once Egp has been determined, the torque angle α may be determined at any power factor since
it represents the angle opposite Er.. Using Cosine Rule

E2r = E2gp + V2p - 2 EgpVpCosα

Therefore,

α = Cos-1 E2gp + V2p - E2r

2 EgpVp
or
α = Sin-1 E2r Sin δ Sine Rule
Egp

It is also possible to represent Egp in terms of Horizontal and Vertical components. If

β = the angle between Ia and Er
θ = the angle between Vp and Ia
δ = the angular difference at any pf between Vp and Er

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At Unity Pf
Egp
Er = IaZs

β= δ Ia α
Vp
IaRa Vp - IaRa
Fig 4.2

E2gp = [Vp - IaRa ]2 + [IaXs ]2

α = tan-1 IaXs
Vp - IaRa

At Lagging Pf
Er = IaZs Egp
δ= β- θ
δ β IaZsSin δ α
θ Vp

IaZsCosδ
Ia
Fig 4.3

E2gp = [Vp - IaZsCosδ ]2 + [IaZsSin δ ]2

α = tan-1 IaZsSin δ
Vp - IaZsCosδ

Exercise.
Derive Egp and α for Leading Pf.

4.2 GENERATED VOLTAGE PER PHASE, Egp

Using current as reference, a single general equation for Egp of a synchronous motor for any and
all conditions of pf is given by this Universal Equation:

Egp = ( VpCos θ - IaRa ) + j( VpSin θ ± IaXs ) Where

+ Leading
- Lagging
Single general expression for Torque angle which takes all pf’s into account, from the above
equation :

α = θ - tan-1 VpSin θ ± IaXs

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 VpCos θ - IaRa
Example 3
A two-pole, 1000Hp, 6kV, 60Hz, three-phase, Wye-connected synchronous motor has an
effective armature resistance of 0.52Ω and a synchronous reactance of 4.2Ω per phase. The
efficiency of the motor at the rated load 0.8 pf leading is 92%, neglecting field losses due to dc
excitation. Calculate:-

a). Egp using (i) Cosine law and (ii) Universal equation
b). The torque angle
c). The mechanical power developed by the armature at the rated load in Watts
d). Internal torque developed.

[ 3685V, 3687V, 5.5º, 748,218W, 797Nm/Φ ]

4.3 EFFECT OF INCREASED LOAD AT NORMAL EXCITATION(Egp= VP)

The speed cannot decrease as a result of increased load, but the torque angle α, does
increase. At full load, the mechanical displacement is never more than 4 or 5º in poly-phase
multi-polar synchronous motors.
As the load and α are increased, Er tends to increase rapidly, as well as increased copper
losses. The Ia increases at a faster rate than the pf angle. Therefore, the pf is poor and lagging.
Should the load increase further, then a time comes when no value of α can satisfy it, then
the motor pulls out of synchronism and stops. The torque developed at the pull-out point is called
the ‘Pull-out’ torque.

Fig 4.5

Fig 4.6

4.4 EFFECT OF INCREASED LOAD AT CONDITIONS OF UNDER-EXCITATION

( Egp < Vp ).

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 With a small load and a torque angle of α 1, the armature current Ia1 almost lags Vp by 90º.
As the load is increased, the pf improves. Because of the increased resultant voltage E r, more
current flows and since the pf is increased, the total power developed by the armature increases
to meet the load. At very heavy loads, the effect of under-excitation produces a poorer pf than
normal excitation, and a much higher armature current flow to develop the same load compared
to normal excitation. Therefore, pf is lagging.

Fig 4.7

4.5 EFFECT OF INCREASED LOAD AT CONDITIONS OF OVER-EXCITATION

( Egp > Vp ).

A synchronous motor can generate a voltage higher than its Bus voltage and still draw
current and power from the bus. This occurs because the generated emf and the bus voltage are
not 180º out-of-phase and Er still represents the phasor difference of the two voltages.
When the load is small, Er is almost in phase with Egp because the latter exceeds the bus
voltage per phase. Ia1 leads Vp by almost 90º. As load is applied, the pf improves( approximately
to unity). The pf angle decreases at a faster rate than the current increases thereby producing the
necessary increased power to meet the increased applied load that is causing increases in torque
angle. Therefore, pf is leading.

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Fig 4.8

4.6 EFFECT OF ARMATURE REACTION FOR DIFFERENT EXCITATIONS .

Normal Excitation: Increased load will tend to increase Egp as a result of the slightly lagging
loads. The net effect is to maintain the Ia in phase with Vp from no load.

Under Excitaion:- Produces a magnetising armature reaction effect. The effect of increased
load/drawing a lagging current, and consequent increased magnetisation is to improve the pf
with increase in load.

Over Excitation:- Produces a de-magnetising effect because of increased armature reaction

with increased load. The net effect of such demagnetisation is to improve the pf with increases
of load.

4.7 POWER FACTOR ADJUSTMENT.

One of the most important advantages of the Synchronous motor is its ability to operate
at lagging or leading pf that can be readily adjusted simply by changing the DC excitation
supplied to the rotating poles. As the dc excitation is increased, the motor tends to take
alternating current that is more leading, while the alternating current tends to become more
lagging as the excitation is reduced. Assuming constant load, the following phasor diagrams may
be drawn as earlier noted ie Fig4.89a). (b) and (c).

a). Unity Pf ie Normal Excitation

Egp Er

α Vp
Ia

b). Lagging Pf ie Under-excitation

`Er
Egp
α Vp
θ
Ia
 A reduction in the dc excitation results in a lagging pf with no appreciable change in
Power Input.

c). Leading Pf ie Over-excitation

Ia
Egp Er
α θ Vp
 An increase in the DC excitation results in a leading pf with no appreciable change in
Power Input.

Fig 4.8(a),(b)&(c)

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Since the motor receives two sources of excitation, this implies that a decrease in the dc
excitation will immediately be accompanied by a corresponding increase in its AC excitation
supplied by the bus-bars and the converse happens. It can therefore be stated that:

 An over-excited synchronous motor will draw a Leading Current from the bus,
producing a De-magnetising effect as a result of armature reaction

 An under-excited synchronous motor will draw a Lagging magnetising Current from

the bus.

An improvement in the overall system power factor at any given load results, therefore , in
 Released supply capacity for additional load
 Reduced line voltage drop and better overall voltage regulation
 Increased overall system ( lines and equipment ) efficiency
 Consequent lower operating costs.


Chapter Five

V – CURVES.

It has been stated above that when the field current is reduced, a lagging armature current
is produced which exceeds the minimum current at Unity pf. Similarly, when the motor is over-
excited, the armature current also rises and exceeds the current required at normal excitation to
develop the necessary torque at any given load. By applying a given constant load to the shaft
and varying the field current from under-excitation to over-excitation,, recording the armature
current at each step, the curves are obtained. The AC armature current is plotted against the DC
field current for No load, Half load and Full load values.

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Fig 5.1

From Wattmeter connections will yield the Pf for each value of armature current and field
current at any given load condition. If plotted, the family of V-Curves is obtained as shown

(a)

(b)

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Fig 5.2(a)& (b)
From (a), it is observed that the magnitude of the armature current varies with excitation.
The current has large values for both Under- and Over-excitation and the minimum values
correspond to Normal excitation.
From (b), when over-excited, the motor runs with leading pf and with lagging pf when
under-excited. Minimum current corresponds to Unity pf.

Chapter Six

THE SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER.

6.1 SALIENT CONSTRUCTION FEATURES

When a synchronous motor is operated without an external mechanical load, it takes

power for its own rotational losses ie friction, windage and iron losses.
The ability of this type of motor to take a very low leading current makes it behave like a
capacitor. Advantage is taken of this fact in connection with its use in electrical systems to
counteract part or all of the lagging component of the load. When this is done, the overall
Efficiency and Regulation as well as the general operating performance of other apparatus
improve because the current delivered by the generating equipment approaches a minimum for a
given kW load as the pf approaches unity. A synchronous motor used in this way is said to

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‘Float’ on the line because it has no mechanical output. As such it is generally called a
Synchronous Condenser or Capacitor.

A Synchronous Condenser is strictly speaking a synchronous motor operating without

mechanical load but with strong dc excitation. It has no shaft extension, nor is the shaft diameter
as large as those required by loaded motors. The construction of the rotating poles and windings
are heavier. Moreover, the synchronous condenser develops only sufficient starting torque to
bring its own rotor up to speed.

6.2THE DUAL PURPOSE SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

The motor is used for the dual-purpose of delivering a mechanical load and correcting
low lagging pf. This is true in systems that must supply power to a considerable number of
lightly loaded induction motor and other types of induction equipment. In such plants, it is
frequently advantageous to install a synch. motor to raise the pf to a suitable value and at the
same time to have it drive some Constant-speed load such as a Compressor DC Generator, a
large Pump or other more or less Continuous-duty equipment

Exercises

1. It is desired to purchase a Synchronous Condenser to correct the 2400kVA, 0.67 lag pf

load in an industrial plant to 0.95 lagging. Neglecting losses, calculate:
 the kVAr input rating of the required synch. condenser
 the total kVA of the plant.
( Ans; 1254kVAr, 1689kVA )

2. An industrial plant has an average load of 900kW at a pf of 0.6 lagging. A synchronous

motor is to be installed to drive a DC Generator and to raise the overall pf to 0.92. If
preliminary estimates indicate that the input to the synchronous motor will be about
250kW, Calculate:
 its kVA input rating
 the pf at which it will operate
( Ans: 754kVA, 0.332 leading )

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6.3. HUNTING OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Hunting in a synchronous motor is caused in the following ways:-

 Sudden change of load on motor

 Sudden change of supply frequency due to fluctuation of load elsewhere on the system
 Periodic pulsation of load on a motor, usually when reciprocating machinery is being
driven
 Sudden changes in the excitation current caused by loose connections or chattering
brushes

Since this condition is one that will not cease of its own accord and is not self-limiting, the
following are some of the techniques employed to reduce hunting:

a) Damper ( Armotisseur ) Windings on the pole faces (as discussed earlier) - are placed
in the rotor pole faces to ‘kill’ the hunting effect. If the rotation of the motor is perfectly
uniform, there is no relative movement between the flux and armortisseur windings and
so no currents are set up in them.

b) By running the motor with strong excitation. The force tending to keep the motor in
step is greater when strong fields are employed.

Chapter Seven

APPLICATIONS AND COMPARISONS.

7.1 APPLICATIONS

 Power Factor Correction:- Over-excited synch. motors having leading pf are widely
used for improving pf of those power systems which employ a large number of induction
motors and other devices having lagging pf.
 Constant Speed Applications:- Because of their high speed and efficiency above 600
rpm, they are suited for centrifugal pumps, belt-drive reciprocating compressors, blowers,
line shafts, rubber and paper mills etc. Those below 600 rpm are used for drives such as
centrifugal and screw-type pumps, ball and tube mills, vacuum pumps, chippers, metal
rolling mills etc
 Voltage Regulation:- On transmission line where large inductive loads are present.
Changed by varying the excitation thereby raising its pf which compensates for the line
drop.

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7.2 COMPARISONS WITH INDUCTION MOTOR.

 The synch. motor runs at a constant average speed whatever the load, while the speed of
an induction motor falls somewhat with increase in load.
 The synch. motor can be operated over a wide range of pf’s, both lagging and leading,
induction motor always runs with a lagging pf which may become very low at light loads
 A synch. motor is inherently not self-starting
 A dc excitation is required by a synchronous motor , not by induction motor.
 Synch. motors are usually more costly and complicated than induction motors

PART IIB

SINGLE - PHASE MOTORS

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 INTRODUCTION.
There is usually a need for a small motor to operate from a single-phase supply to drive
various electric appliances such as Vacuum cleaners, Sewing machines, Air conditioners,
Refrigerators etc. Generally, the term ‘small motor’ means a motor of less than one
horsepower(fractional hp motor) and most single-phase motors are.
These may be classified depending on their Construction and Method of Starting. Some
of these are as shown in the Chart below.
There are two basic forms of construction for single - phase motors. One is almost
identical to that of the three - phase induction motor while the other is of a form similar to that of
a DC Series motor. Both types are popular but for larger sizes, the induction motor is the most
highly regarded because of its simplicity, ruggedness and reliability. The Series or ‘Universal’
motor is more popular in smaller sizes where its high speed and light weight give it many
advantages.

SINGLE - PHASE MOTORS

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INDUCTION MOTORS SYNCH. MOTORS COMMUTATOR - TYPE
1. Split - phase 1. Reluctance 1. AC Series
 Resistance - start 2. Hysteresis 2. Universal
 Capacitor - start
 Permanent - split cap.
2. Reluctance - start
3. Shaded - pole
4. Repulsion – start

The single - phase induction motor is inherently not self-starting because the polarity of
the poles will not be rotating but will alternately be North and South, and so no starting torque.
In order to make the motor self-starting, various starting methods are employed.
The construction of the single-phase Induction motor is similar to that of the three-phase
type: a single phase winding replaces the three-phase winding.
A single-phase current in a single-phase winding produces a pulsating, not a rotating,
magnetic field. However, the theory of single-phase motors may be placed on the same basis as
the theory of three-phase motors by representing a single-phase pulsating flux by two fields of
constant amplitude rotating in opposite directions. This representation is valid as long as the
original pulsating field has a sinusoidal distribution round the armature and varies sinusoidally
with time.

Double Revolving Field Theory.

A sinusoidally pulsating field of maximum flux, Φ m may be represented as the sum
of two oppositely rotating fields each of constant value ½Φ m and each rotating at
synchronous speed. This means that the rotor may be considered to be acted on by two
torques, one in a clockwise direction and the other in counter-clockwise direction as shown.

*An alternating or pulsating flux acting on a stationary squirrel cage rotor

can not produce rotation, only a revolving field can. That is why a single-
phase motor is not self-starting.*

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 At rest, both torques will be equal and there is no tendency to rotation. If the machine is
started in either direction, it will run up to speed and run stably in that direction because a
resultant net torque is produced to the left or right of the standstill point(). The resultant torque of
the single - phase motor is zero only at a slip of Unity or Synchronous speed in either direction.
The major problem is to ensure that the motor has two currents at an appropriate phase
angle to each other. This can be achieved by having windings of different inductance’s and
sometimes by adding a Capacitor in series with one of the windings. Once the motor is rotating
at a suitable speed one of the windings can be disconnected and the motor will continue to rotate.
The Efficiency is less than for a three-phase machine owing to:
 Magnetising current required for two rotating fields
 Backward field that causes double frequency Iron losses in the rotor

Where three-phase power is unavailable or impractical, it’s single-phase motors to the rescue.
Though they lack the higher efficiencies of their three-phase siblings, single-phase motors —
correctly sized and rated — can last a lifetime with little maintenance.
Occasionally a manufacturing defect can result in early motor failure. However, most failures
come from inappropriate application. Pay careful attention to application requirements before
choosing a motor for replacement of a failed one or for a new design application. Not choosing
the correct motor type and horsepower can cause repeated motor failure and equipment
downtime. Obviously, you don’t want to specify a motor too small for the application, thus
resulting in electrical stresses that cause premature motor failure. But neither should you specify
a motor too powerful — either because of its power or its inherent design characteristics. It can
also have serious effects. For example, a motor with high locked-rotor and breakdown torques
can damage the equipment it drives. Also, running a motor at less than full rated load is
inefficient, costing you money for power wasted.
The key: First, size the motor to the application but, just as importantly, understand the
characteristics of the major types of single-phase motors — characteristics that go right to the
heart of matching a motor to an application.

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In general, an ac polyphase squirrel cage motor connected to a polyphase line will develop
starting torque. A squirrel cage motor connected to a single-phase line develops no starting
torque, but having been started by some external means, it runs approximately like a polyphase
motor. The many types of single-phase motors are distinguished mostly by the means by which
they are started

Chapter One

SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS.

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 There is no physical connection between the rotor and the stator, and there is a uniform
air gap between them. In some stator slots are distributed uniformly with a single-phase winding
and in some types, they have a centrifugal switch.

Fig 1(a)
As stated earlier in the introduction, it is necessary to modify or split the stator winding
into two parts, each displaced in Space and Time on the stator. Thus there are two windings in
parallel, both connected to the single-phase ac supply. One of these usually has an appreciable
impedance and is called the Running or Main Winding. The other in parallel with the Main
winding is the Auxiliary or Starting Winding which is uniformly distributed about the stator
which begins in slots displaced 90 in electrical space from the main winding. The design is such
that the current in the starting winding Leads the current of the main winding by not necessarily
90.

Fig 1(b)

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 In some designs, the starting winding is opened after the starting period. In other designs,
the starting and main windings remain in parallel during starting as well as running. But the
essential purpose of the starting winding is to produce rotation of the rotor.

1.1 SPLIT - PHASE ( RESISTANCE - START ) MOTOR.

The Starting Winding has fewer turns and is wound of small diameter copper than
Running Winding. The Starting winding has High resistance and low reactance. The running
winding of heavier wire and more turns has Low resistance and High reactance. The current in
the Running winding, Ir is higher than the current in the starting winding, I s. “If the windings are
displaced by 90 in space, and if their quadrature current which are displaced by 90 in time are
practically equal”, an equivalent two - phase rotating field is produced at starting which develops
sufficient starting torque to accelerate the rotor in the direction of rotating field produced by the
currents.

Fig 1.1

Fig 1.2
In order to reverse the direction of rotation of any Split-phase motor, reverse the terminal
connections of the Starting winding. This will produce a two-phase rotating field in the opposite
direction. The reversal can never be done under running conditions. The rating of the starting
winding is based on Intermittent Rating only.

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 The motor is used in appliances to drive loads which are themselves noisy e.g. Oil
burners, machine tools, grinders, washing machines, dish washers, fans, blowers, air compressors
and small water pumps.

1.2 SPLIT - PHASE CAPACITOR - START MOTOR

These motors indicate that the current relation between the starting and running winding
currents at the instant of starting are displaced by about 32. The use of the Capacitor tends to
reduce the initial total locked - rotor current since it improves the power factor by providing a
component of current which leads the applied voltage.

Fig 1.3

Fig 1.4

Because the capacitor has an intermittent rating, a defective starting switch may damage
not only the winding but the capacitor as well.
These motors are used in pumps, compressors in refrigeration units, air conditioners and
larger washing machines where a single - phase motor is required that will develop high starting
torque under load and where a Reversible motor is needed.

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1.3 PERMANENT - SPLIT ( SINGLE - VALUE ) CAPACITOR MOTOR

This motor has been developed to have two permanent windings having identical
windings. Because it runs continuously, no centrifugal switch is required. The motor starts and
runs by virtue of the quadrature phase-splitting produced by the two identical windings displaced
in time and space. It does not possess the high running torque produced by either the Resistance-
start or the Capacitor-start motor. The capacitor used is designed for Continuous duty and is of
Oil - filled type.

Fig 1.5

At the instant of starting, the current in the capacitive branch is very low. This motor has
a very poor starting torque  50 to 100% of the rated value. A Reversing switch permits the oil-
filled capacitor to be shifted easily to either winding. It is easily reversed because of its low
running torque. It is a Reversing Motor i.e. it can be reversed when running at rated load of rated
speed, or it is reversed at well below rated speed without requiring that the motor stop. Because
of its instant response as a reversing motor, its quiet operation and the possibility of speed
control, the motor is used for Exhaust and Intake Fans and Blowers, Office machines and Unit
heaters.

1.4 TWO - VALUE CAPACITOR MOTOR

Two capacitors are employed during the starting period. One of these, an Electrolytic
starting capacitor is of fairly high value and is cut out of the circuit by a centrifugal switch when
the slip reaches about 25%.
An Electrolytic Capacitor is in parallel with an Oil - filled type through a N.C centrifugal
switch. It is disconnected at about 75% synchronous speed, thus producing the necessary high
starting torque. The motor then continues to accelerate as a Capacitor motor
It is used in Air conditioning unit in its compressor and operates on 13/15 Amp branch circuits.

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Fig 1.6

……………………………………………………………………………………………

EXAMPLES.

1. A 1/4 Hp 110V, Split - phase resistance start motor draws in its starting winding a current of
4A lagging the supply voltage by 15 and, in its running winding a current of 6A lagging by 40.
At the instant of starting, calculate :-
a) the total locked - rotor current and power factor [9.77A,
0.866lag]
b) the component of the starting winding current in phase with the supply voltage
[3.86A]
c) the component of the running winding current that lags the supply voltage by 90 [-
j3.86A]
d) the sine of the angle between the starting and running currents [0.423]
2. A capacitor is added to the aux. Winding of example 1. Above which causes the starting
winding current to lead the supply voltage by 42 ( capacitor - start ). The magnitudes of currents
in starting and running windings remain the same; the latter lagging by the same amount as
above. At the instant of starting, calculate

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 a) the total locked - rotor current and power factor [7.66A, 0.988]
b) the sine of the angle between the starting and running currents [0.99]
……………………………………………………………………………………………

1.5 THE SHADED - POLE MOTOR

It is an induction machine whose squirrel cage rotor receives power as a polyphase

induction motor does. The field of this motor is not constant in magnitude and merely shifts from
one side of the pole to the other meaning that the torque is not uniform but varies from instant to
instant.

The pole - pieces are made of laminations and a short - circuited shading coil (or a single - turn
solid copper ring) is wound around the smaller segment of the pole pieces. The shading coil is
highly inductive. When the exciting winding is connected to a single-phase source, the magnetic
axis will shift from the Unshaded part of the pole to the Shaded part of the pole.

Fig 1.7

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When the supply current rises rapidly from ‘O’ to ‘a’ as in Part 1, an induced voltage is
established in the shading coil or ring. The current in the ring produces a flux which opposes the
build-up of the main flux (Lenz’s Law). As a result, the main flux is concentrated in the
unshaded section of the poles as shown in Fig 1.8.

Fig 1.8

When the current changes from ‘a’ to ‘b’, there is little change in value of current and
very little voltage is induced in the shading ring. Consequently, practically no current nor flux is
produced in the shading ring. The main flux is at this time nearly always at maximum value and
is uniformly distributed over the whole pole face as in Part 2.
When the current drops rapidly from b to o, an induced voltage is established in the
shading ring. The current in the ring produces a flux which opposes the collapse of the main flux.
The concentration of flux therefore occurs in the shaded part of the pole as in Part 3.
The magnetic axis shifts across the pole face, from the Unshaded part to the Shaded part
of the pole. This shifting flux is similar to a rotating field, and produces a small torque, causing
the rotor to rotate in the direction of the flux, towards the shaded section of the pole. The starting
torque is very low.

To reverse direction, it would be necessary to unbolt the pole structure and reverse
physically. It has the disadvantage of Low starting torque, very little overload capacity and low
efficiency( as low as 5% for a 3W motor).
Used in turntables, motion picture projectors, small fans and blowers, vending machines,
rotating store-window display, hair dryers and other relatively light servo-mechanism loads
because of its low starting torque.
Speed control is by varying the voltage across the motor using a Tapped Autotransformer
or a tapped Reactance coil as in Fig 1.9(a) and (b).

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(a)

Fig 1.9(b)
1.6 RELUCTANCE - START MOTOR.

This motor also produces starting torque by the effect of shifting magnetic field similar to
that described for the Shaded - pole motor above. The air-gap is wider under one portion of the
pole than the other as in Fig 1.10. This type is also an induction motor since the rotor power is
received inductively.
Remember that when two coils of wire, excited from the same source produce fluxes that
act in magnetic circuits, one of which has less iron i.e. more reluctance than the other, the fluxes
will be out of phase in time, the one acting where there is less iron leading the one acting where
there is more iron.

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 Fig 1.10

The single exciting coil can be properly considered as broken into two exciting coils
displaced in space, one acting on the wide - air - gap magnetic circuit and the other acting on the
narrow - air - gap magnetic circuit.
These motors are made in small sizes only and are applied where the starting and
overload torque requirements are low. They can not be reversed. Speed control is as in the
Shaded - pole motor. It has no distributed winding.

Chapter Two

UNEXCITED SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS.

These motors operate from a single - phase ac supply, run at constant speed - the
synchronous speed of the revolving flux, need no dc excitation for their rotors and are self -
starting. These are of two types i.e. Reluctance and Hysteresis.

2.1 RELUCTANCE MOTOR.

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 It has either the conventional split - phase stator and a centrifugal switch for cutting out
the Aux. Winding or a stator similar to that of a permanent - split capacitor - run motor. The
stator produces the revolving field.
The rotor is assembled from laminations from which a number of teeth are cut to form
definite salient poles and the windings are of the usual squirrel - cage type.
The motor starts as an induction motor, and the starting winding is open-circuited by the
Centrifugal Switch at approximately 75% synchronous speed. Because the load applied to this
type of motor is comparatively light, there is a small slip. The salient rotor poles tend to become
permanently magnetised by the stator poles and become “locked” together. Even though the rotor
revolves synchronously, its poles lag behind the stator poles by a certain angle known as Torque
angle, . The reluctance torque increases with increase in torque angle, attaining max. torque
when  = 45. If  increases beyond 45, the rotor falls out of synchronism.
The motor is suitable for such applications as signalling devices, recording instruments,
many kinds of timers, phonographs etc.

2.2 HYSTERESIS MOTOR.

Definition of hysteresis motor

1. :  a synchronous motor that utilizes the hysteresis effect in a solid rotor of permanent-
magnet material to achieve synchronism and is used especially in sound recording and
reproducing machines
2. A synchronous motor which starts by reason of the hysteresis losses induced in its steel
secondary by the revolving field of the primary

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 Hysteresis loop

It is customary to plot the magnetization M of the sample as a function of the magnetic field
strength H, since H is a measure of the externally applied field which drives the magnetization .

The operation depends on the presence of a continuously revolving magnetic flux. Its stator has
two windings which remain connected to the single-phase supply continuously both at starting as
well as during the running of the motor. No centrifugal device is used and is not self-starting.

The rotor is made of hardened high-retentivity steel so that the hysteresis loss is high. It
has no winding. Because of the high retentivity of the rotor material, it is very difficult to change
the magnetic polarities once they are induced in the rotor by the revolving flux. An appreciable
amount of energy is consumed from the rotating field in reversing the current direction of the
rotor. At the same time, the rotor magnetic field set up by the eddy currents causes the rotor to
rotate. A high starting torque is produced as a result of the high rotor resistance( proportional to
the hysteresis loss ). As the rotor approaches the synchronous speed, the frequency of current
reversal decreases and the rotor becomes permanently magnetised in one direction as a result of
the high retentivity of the steel rotor. The runs on hysteresis torque because the rotor is
permanently magnetised. The rotor poles always lag behind the stator poles by an angle .
Hysteresis torque is extremely steady in both magnitude and phase, in spite of fluctuations of
supply voltage.
Although the magnetized poles on the rotor move along at the same rotational speed as
the stator field, under ideal steady-state conditions, the poles lag behind the stator field by some
fixed angle,δ, that increases with load torque. At zero load torque, the lag angle is zero. At the
maximum load torque before dropping below synchronous conditions, it equals some maximum
value δmax. However, the actual value of the angle depends on the past history of the field due
to hysteresis: the size and shape of the B-H hysteresis curve changes depending on its previous
path.

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 The fact that the rotor has no teeth or winding, results in making the motor extremely
quiet in operation and free from mechanical and magnetic vibration. This makes the motor
particularly useful for driving tape-decks, turn-tables and other precision audio equipment. In
order to adopt such a motor for driving an electric clock and other indicating devices, gear train
is connected to the shaft for reducing the load speed. The unit accelerates rapidly changing from
rest to full speed almost instantaneously. Some unique features of a hysteresis motor are as
follows :-
 Since its torque remains practically constant from locked rotor to synchronous speed, it is
able to synchronise any load it can accelerate - something no other motor does.
 due to its smooth rotor, the motor operates quietly and does no suffer from magnetic
pulsation’s caused by slots/salient poles that are present in the rotors of other motors.

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 Chapter Three

COMMUTATOR-TYPE INDUCTION MOTORS

The motor has a smooth bore stator with concentric windings forming the field poles. The
rotor is similar to the armature of a dc machine with either a radial or axial commutator. The
stator winding is connected to the supply while the rotor winding is connected to the bars of the
commutator with permanently short - circuited brushes to provide current paths.
Construction costs are high when compared to normal cage-rotor induction motor. The
starting torque is very high.

3.1 AC SERIES MOTOR

Integral horsepower dc series motors, particularly in sizes above a few horsepower,

operate poorly on AC ie a great deal of sparking at the brushes, efficiency and power factor are
low. Several design modifications are necessary to improve its operation on ac. Commercial ac
series motors are designed:

 with a more highly laminated field structure, to reduce the higher eddy current losses on
ac,
 with few series field turns, to reduce the reactive voltage drop across the series field and
the losses due to eddy currents and hysteresis,
 with more poles than corresponding dc machines in order to restore the total torque,
 with more armature conductors and more commutator segments to compensate for the
decrease in field flux,
 with added resistance in series with the armature connections to the commutator, to
reduce circulating currents, sparking at the brushes and increased commutation
difficulties caused by ac operation,
 with special type of compensating windings to reduce the increased armature reaction
created by the increased number of armature conductors,
 with special type of Inter-pole windings, for the same reason as (f),
 to reduce the series voltage drop across the inter-pole and compensating windings; these
windings are often inductively connected rather than conductively.

With the modifications above, series motors operating on ac will perform in the same
manner as their dc counterparts.

(a). Conductively

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(b). Inductively

(c)

Fig 3.1(a), (b) & (c)

The advantage of inductive coupling is an increase in the generated emf and the armature
power, With loose transformer coupling, the inter-pole and compensating windings are
capacitively reflected to the armature, tending to reduce the armature impedance drop and
improve the power factor.
Reversal of rotation is obtained by changing the direction of current flow through the
armature with respect to the field ie changing over the leads to the armature or fields but not
both.

3.2 UNIVERSAL ( SERIES ) MOTOR , Fig 3.2

Is defined by the American Standards Association ( ASA ) as

“ a series motor that may be operated either on direct current or single- phase
alternating current at approximately the same speed and output”

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It further specifies that ...’these conditions must be met when dc and ac voltages are approx. The
same and the frequency of ac is  60Hz’.
The dc series motor will operate if connected to an ac source of supply because the
direction of the torque is determined by both the field polarity and the direction of the current
through the armature

Fig 3.2

3.2.1 SMALL SERIES MOTORS

“Small motor” refers to those two-pole fractional horsepower machines that usually
operate at high speed and that have ratings from 1.5W to approximately 500W.
Their widest fields of application are under the following conditions:

a) when it is desired that a motor perform with complete satisfaction when connected to a
standard dc or ac sources of supply
b) when it is important that a motor operate at a very high rate of speed
c) when it is desired that the speed of the motor be capable of automatically adjusting
itself to the magnitude of the load - the speed is high at light load and low at heavy load.

3.2.2 LARGE SERIES MOTORS

With comparatively large motors, the inductive effects of the field and armature tend to
create serious commutation difficulties if allowed to remain uncorrected, will cause the motor to
operate unsatisfactorily when used on ac circuits. Also the iron losses, hysteresis and eddy
currents in the field tend to become abnormally high on ac. To forestall such objectionable
performance, they are modified as earlier stated in the Series motors.

These Universal motors with armature diameters of about 2.54cm, whose speeds are as
high as 20,000rpm, even with the external mechanical load completely disconnected, maximum
speed is limited by its own friction and windage loss so that the so-called “runaway speed” is
still a safe one. For small power applications, these motors are geared to their loads to achieve
low speed values required. Good lubrication is necessary in the gearbox.
Universal motors are usually provided with interference eliminators( small capacitors
those that operate at high speed and interfere with radio reception.
Some of the applications are:- calculating machines, dish washers, drink mixers, electric shavers,
food mixers, hair driers, portable drills, pumps, sewing machines, small fans, small grinders,
vacuum machines, ventilating equipment etc.

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...............................................................................................................

Example.
A 250W, single-phase, 50Hz, 220V Universal motor runs at 2000 rpm and takes 1
Ampere when supplied from a 220V dc supply. If the motor is connected to a 220 V ac supply and
takes 1 A(rms), calculate the speed, torque and power factor. Assume Ra = 20Ω and La = 0.4 H
[1605 rpm, 0.82 lag. 0.955Nm]

COMPARISON OF SPEED – LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS 1-Φ

MOTORS.

Fig 3.3

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