Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz.

, 1994,13 (1), 153-169

Transportation of animals and welfare

D.B. ADAMS *

Summary: All forms of transport are potentially hazardous for animals,

regardless of whether travel is between or within countries, or by road, rail, air
or sea. However, experience shows that animals can be transported under
suitable conditions without harm to their welfare.
The provision of suitable conditions and the establishment of a mutually
satisfactory framework for regulating the international transport of animals
depends on an understanding of welfare needs and of the biological basis for
disease, stress and suffering. The author examines the biological aspects of this
framework.
The capacity of animals to adapt to the different demands of different forms
of transport varies with the species and physical state of animals being
transported. Key practicalities are the preparation and selection of animals
before transport, the provision of suitable environments, feed, water and rest
during transport, and arrangements for recuperation after transport. Animals
which are compromised by disease or injury must be excluded.

KEYWORDS: Animal welfare - Disease - Stress - Transport.

INTRODUCTION

Animals are valued by people for social, cultural, economic and emotional reasons:
they provide food, fibre and companionship, are used in sport, recreation and scientific
study, and have increasing i m p o r t a n c e as e n v i r o n m e n t a l assets in their own right.
Animals are transported between nations for all these reasons, and the traffic involved
is a significant part of global trading and cultural exchange. This traffic will continue in
the future and can be expected to increase with the growing international mobility of
people and improvements in forms of transportation. Consequently, concern regarding
the welfare of t r a n s p o r t e d animals has h e i g h t e n e d , and interest has intensified in
policies for the protection of these animals.
Experience over a long period and throughout the world demonstrates that animals
can travel b e t w e e n countries by m o d e r n forms of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n without suffering
harm. However, all modes of international transport are potentially hazardous and may
be associated with disease, stress and suffering. This article addresses some of the
biological and practical considerations involved in protecting the welfare of animals,
and builds upon earlier comprehensive overviews of the subject (30).

* Bureau of Resource Sciences, Department of Primary Industries and Energy, John Curtin
House, 22 Brisbane Avenue, Barton, Canberra ACT 2600, Australia.
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NATURE AND MAGNITUDE OF INTERNATIONAL

TRANSPORT OF ANIMALS

I n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a n s p o r t of animals refers to the t r a n s p o r t of animals from one

country to another, perhaps by way of intermediate countries, and involves the crossing
of international frontiers. Transport may occur by road, rail, air or sea and may take
short or long periods of time. For an island continent, such as Australia, international
transport automatically refers to ships and aircraft, while within Australia animals may
be transported by both road and rail for distances as long as, or longer than those for
international transport elsewhere in the world.
If conditions are suitable, distances and time are not overriding considerations for
the welfare of animals during international transport. Indeed, the welfare issues for
animals are the same regardless of whether journeys occur between or within countries.
The central concern for international transport is the way in which responsibilities for
the p r o t e c t i o n of animals are to be s h a r e d b e t w e e n nations. In this regard, animal
welfare is an issue for international concern, in a similar way to the prevention of the
transmission of infectious and parasitic diseases by transported animals.
Magnitude of international traffic of animals
Comprehensive statistics on the international transport of animals are not easily
available. However, an indication of the magnitude of this trade is given in Figure 1.

FlG.l

Monetary value of world trade in live animals for food in 1990

(10)
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This Figure shows only the value of t r a d e in live animals for food. T h e inclusion of
transport of animals for other reasons would increase the total world figures for imports
and exports of US$8,364 million and US$7,034 million, respectively. In addition,
monetary values distort the relative i m p o r t a n c e of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a n s p o r t of
animals for individual nations and regions.
The future for international transport of animals
Closer trading and cultural ties between nations and the strong bonds which can be
formed b e t w e e n p e o p l e and animals m a k e it likely that i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a n s p o r t of
animals will continue. Paradoxically, this trend may not b e arrested by advances in
reproductive technologies which allow transport of semen, ova and embryos. T h e r e
may be occasions when the international transfer of intact animals as donors of semen
or ova is a rational strategy in a breeding programme based on these technologies.
A further stimulus to continued international transport of animals is likely to come
from endeavours to preserve animal genetic resources and to maintain genetic diversity.
This will involve a large-scale co-operative effort. T h e global exchange of animals
between regions may be a key strategy and will require international transport.

BIOLOGICAL BACKGROUND TO WELFARE,

STRESS AND DISEASE

Welfare, stress and disease are inter-related concepts which require explanation
before they can be situated in the context of international transport. The connections
between these concepts can be explained with reference to the definition of welfare as
"the state of an individual [animal] as r e g a r d s its a t t e m p t s to cope with its
environment" (14). T h e key words h e r e are " s t a t e " and "individual", m e a n i n g that
stress and disease provoke welfare concern because they have an impact on the state of
an individual animal. Concern for populations of animals and the sustainability of these
populations in the future is usually placed within the arena of conservation.

Low incidences of disease and stress are indicators of both good welfare and good
health. A s a result, statistics of disease and mortality provide basic information for
epidemiological analyses of welfare problems associated with transport. These statistics
have additional value as part of quality assurance for adequate welfare.
Welfare
Since welfare refers to the " s t a t e " of an animal and since " s t a t e s " arise from the
operation of life processes, welfare can b e validly described and appraised by t h e
language and principles of biology, and is therefore a suitable subject for scientific
analysis. F o r this reason, and notwithstanding important reservations about a "pure
science m o d e l of animal welfare" (46), science can provide a c o m m o n frame of
reference for international discussions on the welfare of animals during transport. This
includes all aspects of science, particularly science as "systematised k n o w l e d g e " .
Methodical use must be m a d e of the "common-sense" knowledge on transportation
welfare which has been derived from practical experience.
Animal welfare is a matter for both science and morality, and neither domain, acting
alone, can adequately explain the issue or provide the answers. The scientific and moral
aspects of welfare are mutually d e p e n d e n t , and the relationship between these two
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aspects can be viewed as follows: science provides the m e t h o d s and understanding

necessary for describing and appraising the state of an animal in the light of welfare
criteria; the processes for determining what is acceptable or unacceptable and for
setting standards fall within the scope of morality.

T h e deficiencies in h u m a n care which lead to p o o r animal welfare form the

connection with ethics and morality. These deficiencies take three forms: abuse, neglect
and deprivation (16). A b u s e and neglect are considered as "direct inhumanity" (22):
abuse refers to the deliberate maltreatment of animals; neglect refers to maltreatment
which results from laziness, ignorance or overwork. By contrast, deprivation relates to
"contingent inhumanity" (22) and occurs when animals are prevented from satisfying
physiological and behavioural needs. Deprivation can be a difficult concept and can
result in a range of states. Some of these states may raise clear-cut welfare concerns,
while others may be problematic or raise no welfare concerns at all.

A model or "mental picture" of welfare

As remarked above, the concept of animal welfare refers to the state of an animal,
not to h u m a n care. However, the question arises of what element of the state of an
animal provokes concern - other than the practical and common-sense benefit of having
healthy animals which are economically productive and undamaged by the process of
transportation. The answer is that animals may possibly have subjective experience, a
certain degree or form of consciousness or awareness; that they are capable of feeling
and, accordingly, may suffer. Suffering, in this connection, refers to the subjectively
unpleasant tones of feeling or affect which can occur in a range of circumstances, and
may accompany states such as pain, stress, disease, fear, frustration, hunger, thirst,
nausea, malaise and depression. The concept of animal suffering provides the basis for
the welfare interest in the above states w h e n e v e r they occur, and this includes the
circumstances of international transport.

T h e p r o b l e m of subjective experience in animals and t h e private n a t u r e of such

experience has been a challenge for progress in animal welfare. Questions of mind and
awareness in animals lie at the heart of the matter and are being actively pursued and
clarified at present, in a manner which was not previously regarded as possible (19).
O n e approach to handling the difficulties associated with the abstract concepts in
animal welfare, while protecting scientific rigour, has been the proposal for a conceptual
model (1). Such a model seeks to clarify the relationships between abstract concepts
(e.g. consciousness), and to place the idea of suffering in an understandable context.

T h e simple elements of this conceptual model build on material from physiology,

comparative psychology and pathology, to deal with a n u m b e r of preconditions for
suffering. These preconditions are inputs from the internal and external environment of
animals and the processing, modulation and integration of these inputs by the nervous
system to produce a range of responses. The key psychological considerations occur in a
hierarchy or sequence. Consciousness is seen as a prerequisite for the capacity for
subjective feeling or affect. Suffering occurs if this feeling or affect is unpleasant.

T h e conceptual model could have applications in clarifying and then structuring

a systematic approach to the diagnosis, control and t r e a t m e n t of welfare problems
in animals in all circumstances. This includes the international transport of animals,
where there is a need to have an accepted frame of reference for welfare considerations.
With regard to practical veterinary medicine, the methods developed for the diagnosis
of disease states can be adjusted for the diagnosis of states which raise welfare concern.
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Stress
Stress is an important systemic state for animal welfare, as stress may be associated
with suffering. Stress appears when the mechanisms in animals for coping with their
environment b e c o m e over-extended and begin to b r e a k down. T h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l
factors which produce stress when they act excessively are termed stressors, and these
include the following: i n a d e q u a t e nutrition, deprivation of water, heat, cold and
overcrowding. Stress reduces the fitness of an animal and this can be expressed through
disease and death, or failure to grow and breed (17).
The notion of stress is linked to the ideas of homeostasis, comfort zones,
physiological reserve and the fight/flight or alarm reaction. Stressors can act
differentially on different organ systems and sub-systems, and distinctly different
responses are caused by different stressors, e.g. heat and cold. However, some general
responses occur to all stressors, as described in the general adaptation syndrome, which
defines t h r e e stages: alarm, m a i n t e n a n c e of adjustment and t h e n exhaustion (42).
According to the model for humans, distress is the psychological manifestation of the
stress complex and includes phenomena such as "tension, anxiety, worry, negative affect
and emotions" (43).

The responses in the general adaptation syndrome are undertaken by the nervous
system and by hormones produced by glands such as the pituitary, adrenal and thyroid.
This fact has, in turn, focused attention on the physiology of the hypothalamic-pituitary-
adrenal axis and the activity of adrenal corticoid hormones (12). The stress response is
two-pronged, and the sympathetic nervous system works in conjunction with hormones
from the adrenal medulla for certain short-term responses.
The following warnings with regard to the concept of stress have implications for
other aspects of the diagnosis of welfare:
- stress is not identical with emotional arousal, nervous tension or harassment
- stress does not always accompany damage to an animal
- while blood concentrations of corticosteroids or other h o r m o n e s may increase
during stress responses, raised concentrations of these hormones alone do not provide a
reliable measure of stress.
Stress is best monitored by changes in both behaviour and physiology.
Stress and disease resistance
The accompaniment of the stress response and the general adaptation syndrome by
changes in the i m m u n e system and reduced resistance to infection is important and
well-documented (24, 41). Accordingly, stress is linked with disease in two ways. Stress
itself could b e considered as a disease of adaptation (42) and can also predispose to
other diseases.
Disease
Two important practical connections exist between disease and welfare:
- The presence of disease can indicate a breakdown in adequate husbandry and can
signal underlying welfare problems. T h e incidence of disease is thus an elementary
indicator of welfare in circumstances such as international transport. Disease incidence
has been used as a basis for epidemiological analysis of the welfare issues in live sheep
trade from Australia (40).
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- Disease itself can be accompanied by unpleasant feelings or suffering of various

sorts. These are named in human experience as pain, headache, nausea, malaise, fever
and depression. Disease is thus a r e a s o n for direct welfare concern and requires
treatment in order to maintain welfare.
Immunity as an indicator of welfare
T h e onset of disease d e p e n d s on other factors in addition to the p r e s e n c e of a
primary causative agent. Resistance to infection is compromised by poor nutrition,
exposure to extremes of climate and damaging social interactions. With regard to
mechanisms, non-specific immunity, adaptive immunity or both can be compromised by
environmental factors. Some, but not all, of the effects of these secondary causative
factors of disease are mediated by the general adaptation syndrome and by the action of
the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Adrenal corticoids, such as cortisone, which
are released in stressful situations are known to interfere with immunity and to perturb
populations of inflammatory cells (37). However, this is not the complete picture, as
other humoral systems can be involved.
Ultimate expression of immune responses to infection is determined by regulatory
mechanisms within the i m m u n e system and by co-operation b e t w e e n the immune
system, the endocrine organs and the nervous system (21,23). In other words, resistance
arises due to both the way in which the immune system works and the way in which this
system is allowed to work in relation to other bodily functions and demands. Immune
function and components of the immune system can be measured. Accordingly, these
may be useful indicators of the welfare of animals during transport. T h e activities of
lymphocytes have been examined from this viewpoint (31).
Specific disease problems related to transport
The specific diseases, as opposed to general systemic states, which have long been
associated with transport are either microbial or metabolic. These diseases include
pasteurellosis ("shipping fever") in cattle, salmonellosis in all species and transit tetany,
a complex metabolic disorder of ruminants. T h e disease picture for sheep during sea
transport will be described later.

WELFARE NEEDS AND WELFARE FACTORS

ASSOCIATED WITH TRANSPORT

Welfare needs
The idea of "needs" is important in animal welfare; this term refers to "a deficiency
in an animal which can be remedied by obtaining a particular resource or responding to
a particular environmental or bodily stimulus" (17). These needs vary according to the
species, t h e physiological and b e h a v i o u r a l status of individual animals, and
circumstances. P r e g n a n t and growing animals have specific needs r e l a t e d to these
conditions. Equally, ill and injured animals have specific needs and, in most instances,
these cannot be met during transport.
The concepts of "freedoms", "obligations" and "rights" are also applied to animal
welfare. These refer to the moral responsibility of addressing the biological needs of
animals under human care. A set of five freedoms has been listed, as follows (17):
- freedom from hunger and malnutrition
- freedom from thermal or physical distress
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- freedom from disease or injury

- freedom to express most normal behaviour
- freedom from fear (17).
International transport presents certain needs for animals which must be m e t by
transporters. The set of needs for the safe carriage of sheep by sea has been described as
(13):
a) sufficient p a l a t a b l e , nutritionally-balanced feed, a d e q u a t e for physiological
requirements
b) sufficient drinkable water
c) air which is free of noxious gases
d) an environment which provides the opportunity for behavioural expression and
which does not cause undue physical restriction
e) natural or artificial protection from adverse weather conditions
f) protection from parasites, disease, predators and injury
g) access to suitable treatment (including prompt humane slaughter) when required.
Factors influencing the welfare of animals during transport
Various authors have listed the stressors acting on animals during transport. Hails
(20) reviewed transport stress in animals, with particular emphasis on pigs, the "porcine
stress syndrome", and road and rail transportation. The following stressors were listed:
- separation from a familiar environment and family groups
- loading and unloading
- overcrowding in confined spaces
- unfamiliar and loud noises
- vibration
- jolting
- extremes of temperature and humidity
- acceleration and deceleration during movement
- long periods of waiting during which there may be no ventilation, alternating with
rapid air movement when the vehicle is in motion
- gases from faeces, urine and fumes
- changes in the biota of bacteria, etc. to which animals are exposed
- deprivation of feed and water.
Pearson and Kilgour (38) set out a similar list of factors to b e considered in the
transport of animals and aligned t h e s e with a set of physiological and b e h a v i o u r a l
variables which could be used to assess the degree of disturbance during the process.
The factors were listed as follows:
- climatic conditions outside the range normally experienced by the animals
- handling and the degree of interaction with humans prior to the experience of
transport
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- feed and water intake, and the possibility of a diminished appetite exacerbating
various metabolic disorders
- exercise or the lack of it during transport
- social interactions and the breaking of bonds before transport (e.g. by weaning),
and the forced interaction between unfamiliar animals during transport
- transport types and the various related mechanical factors such as jolting, swaying
and vibration
- environmental changes such as new types of feed, and strange smells and sights
- the duration of transport.
T h e physiological variable considered was plasma concentration of corticosteroids.
Behavioural variables were restlessness, body orientation to direction of movement,
agonistic interaction (fighting and aggression), and behaviour at off-loading.
Stephens (44) classified the adverse stimuli associated with transportation as physical
or e m o t i o n a l disturbances, and r e l a t e d these to the b r o a d responses elicited by
stressors. Fear received special m e n t i o n as an e m o t i o n which can trigger the
physiological responses of alarm and stress.
Adaptation by animals to the process of transportation
A major t h e m e of the present article is that animals can be transported between
countries by road, rail, air or sea in a manner which is compatible with good welfare.
The key elements are the capacity of animals to adapt to the conditions of transport and
an understanding of the principles which determine good conditions for transport.
With regard to the processes for adaptation, the contradictory idea that adaptive
changes to stressors may themselves be detrimental, rather than beneficial to welfare is
i m p o r t a n t (17). T h e functions of a d a p t a t i o n , learning and acclimation are also
important. These adaptive capacities can and should be stimulated before transport
occurs, and the related adaptive changes may be monitored.
The general importance of the processes of adaptation for transportation welfare has
been highlighted in a systematic p r o g r a m m e of epidemiological and experimental
research related to the t r a n s p o r t of sheep by sea (32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 40). Thermal
acclimation and acclimatisation, for instance, are slower processes than the general
stress response and will involve different physiological pathways. In this connection, the
physiological distinction b e t w e e n acclimation and acclimatisation has practical
significance. Acclimation is the persisting change in a specific function due to prolonged
exposure to an environmental condition, such as high or low t e m p e r a t u r e , whereas
acclimatisation is the persisting spectrum of changes to an environmental condition.
Time must be allowed for the necessary digestive adaptations to changes in diet,
particularly in ruminants. Populations of ruminai microflora must adjust to changes in
feed rations. Furthermore, diet selection in animals such as sheep involves behavioural
intricacies which are now being explored. This may all occur at a time when there is a
greater nutritional need for protein and energy.
Challenges for adaptive responses by animals
Several areas cause problems for adaptation. T h e absence of the environmental
sensory stimuli to which an animal had previously b e e n a t t u n e d and the loss of a
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previous r o u t i n e may themselves constitute i m p o r t a n t stressors. D i s o r i e n t a t i o n

resulting from the loss of r o u t i n e may complicate the response to new stressors,
particularly for species such as sheep, which easily express fear at any new situation. In
some cases, animals may fail to mount a stress response, or may exhibit only a partial
response. As a result, life processes may collapse because no adaptation has been made
to a stressful situation. This situation may occur m o r e frequently in poikilotherms,
e.g. reptiles. In addition, environmental factors may interact in unexpected ways, and
the relative importance of different stressors to different species may be unpredictable.
Finally, pregnant or growing animals and ill or injured animals have a restricted capacity
to adapt to demands placed on them by transport.

PRACTICALITIES OF INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORT

Four fundamental considerations with regard to animal welfare during transport

were identified in a r e p o r t m a d e by the A u s t r a l i a n P a r l i a m e n t in 1991 (9). T h e s e
considerations can be applied to international transport:
a) Steps such as collection, assembly, loading and unloading are common to all forms
of animal transport and present particular animal welfare hazards. Quality control
procedures can be applied at all these stages.
b) Economic and animal welfare factors do not necessarily work against one another.
There must be a strong financial incentive to prevent disease stress and disease, and to
protect welfare during transport.
c) Rules and regulations are important in the protection of animals, but the quality of
care is ultimately determined by the skills and attitudes of people. If the care of animals
can be explained in biological t e r m s , it can b e taught and l e a r n e d t h r o u g h either
informal or formal processes.
d) Animal welfare will be improved by any measures which reduce either the length or
the number of journeys. This does not contradict the idea that animals can be transported
over long distances and for long times under suitable conditions, but rather recognises
that the degree of risk is related to the amount of exposure to potential hazards. Thus
direct sale and movement of slaughter animals from farms into nearby abattoirs, without
intermediate travel to livestock markets, has clear-cut benefits for welfare.
Non-domesticated animals
The United Nations Environment Program ( U N E P ) , through the Convention on
International Trade in E n d a n g e r e d Species of Wild F a u n a and Flora ( C I T E S ) , has
published guidelines for the transport and preparation for shipment of wild animals (4).
These guidelines deal with husbandry and thus automatically involve welfare.
Road transport
Road transport can be classified into three categories: short, medium and long haul.
The difference between these categories is significant for welfare, in view of the time
involved and because different types of vehicles may be used. Specific considerations
for road transport include the following:
- vehicle design standards related to the comfort of livestock
- standards for loading and unloading facilities
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- the use of goads (electric or otherwise)

- loading densities
- rest periods
- times for feeding and watering
- measures for responding to road accidents where livestock are injured.
Interdisciplinary work is being performed by biologists and engineers to design both
loading and unloading facilities (26) and vehicles, particularly for circumstances where
roads are unpaved (25).

Australian guidelines for road transport of animals (9) require that rest periods of
between 12 and 24 hours be provided after each 24-hour travel period for horses, pigs
and young ruminants under 3 months of age. The period of travel for these species may
be extended to 36 hours if the animals are rested for 24 hours before the next stage of
the journey. For mature sheep, cattle, goats and buffalo, the period of travel is 36 hours
before a rest period of 12-24 hours, and this can be extended to 48 hours if a 24-hour
p e r i o d is given for rest. In E u r o p e at p r e s e n t , the m a x i m u m d u r a t i o n of travel is
24 hours before periods for rest, watering and feeding. These figures are arbitrary and
must be regarded as merely indicative and secondary in importance to the systematic
monitoring of the condition of animals being transported.

Rail transport
The requirements for rail transport are essentially similar to those for road transport,
centering on standards for vehicles, rest periods, and times for feeding and watering.
Rail transport has the disadvantage of necessitating r e p e a t e d handling of livestock;
namely, the loading and unloading from road transport at the start and finish of the
journey. In many parts of the world, conditions for the rail t r a n s p o r t of animals,
including the stockmanship involved, are considered p o o r e r t h a n those for road
transport. Rail t r a n s p o r t of farm animals is less favoured and has b e e n completely
abandoned in some areas of Australia.

Sea transport
T h e conditions for t r a n s p o r t of animals by sea have improved with general
improvements in ship design for seaworthiness and comfort, and advances in aids for
navigation which increase the opportunity for avoiding heavy weather (15). The region
comprising Oceania, Australia and New Zealand has always had a stake in sea transport
of animals, and the present domestic species were introduced into the region by this
r o u t e . T h e current export of live sheep from A u s t r a l i a has b e e n described as "the
largest, planned mass movement of animals by sea in the history of the world" (6).
Sheep
The export of live sheep from Australia has provided a valuable body of knowledge
on the animal welfare aspects of sea transport. Judging by mortality rates, this knowledge
has significantly alleviated disease and stress and improved the welfare of the sheep
involved; some shipments give rise to negligible mortality. These improvements have
been effected by the design of ships specially equipped to transport sheep, and with
forced air ventilation to deliver appropriate air changes throughout animal holding
areas. In addition, controls have been placed on nutrition, and quality-assured pellets are
administered during transport in purpose-designed troughing.
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Mortality rates still cause concern and have p r o m p t e d c o n c e r t e d a t t e m p t s to

understand the causes and deliver appropriate solutions. The picture drawn by current
investigations suggests that the problems are open to solution, and that the solutions
may have wider applications in other aspects of animal husbandry. Many of the findings
have been contrary to expectations. Fat sheep run twice the risk of dying from the
"failure-to-eat" syndrome as lean sheep. In addition, some lines of sheep are m o r e
prone to mortality than others.
The body of scientific knowledge which has been used to address welfare problems
in sea transport of sheep from Australia has resulted from a combination of experience,
methodical observation and epidemiological analysis of data, and d e l i b e r a t e
experimentation. This knowledge a p p e a r s to have b e e n assembled during several
phases, as the industry expanded and design of the vessels changed. The research falls
into the following t h r e e categories: disease and mortality; feeding and h u s b a n d r y
systems; and nutrition.
The first phase of investigations into the sea transport of sheep terminated with the
introduction of purpose-built sea vessels and a d r o p in the mortality r a t e . Obvious
nutritional problems were addressed. The hay ration which had been routinely fed until
that time was i n a d e q u a t e . In 1986, national s t a n d a r d s w e r e a d o p t e d for p r e -
embarkation feedlots and, in 1988, similar standards were adopted for pelleted feed (7);
considerations include nutritional value, durability, and pellets as a fire hazard. It is now
clear that sheep require 20-30% more feed during the voyage to maintain bodyweight
than was indicated by previous estimates (29).
The second phase was characterised by official r e p o r t s into the p r o b l e m s of sea
transport (5), and reviews of relevant technical background information (18, 45); the
third phase was a period of consolidation and consideration of approaches.
The thrust of investigations now centres on diagnosis, with a t h o r o u g h and
continuing epidemiological analysis of mortality at all stages of the process of live sheep
export (32,33,34,35,36,40).
At present, approximately 2 % of sheep die during the voyage and the unloading
stage. A major study (40) reported the following disorders as causing mortality in sheep
during the sea transport stage of live export (proportional incidence in brackets):
- inanition/failure to eat (43%)
- salmonellosis (20%)
- trauma (11%)
- enterotoxaemia (1%)
- miscellaneous (including degenerative myopathy, lupinosis, foot abscess, urinary
calculi and pneumonia) (6%).
There were virtually no deaths from acute carbohydrate engorgement and acidosis.
Death rates vary in acordance with the background of sheep, and half of all deaths have
been shown to occur in 13% of the identified farm groups (33).
Failure to eat, obesity, age, season of the year, and temperature and humidity are all
important factors in mortality. Failure to eat is a complicated phenomenon which raises
basic questions about the physiological and behavioural aspects of diet selection and
appetite in sheep (27), and the ways in which disruption can occur. Processes of learning
are also i m p o r t a n t (28), as are the n e u r a l pathways of the central n e r v o u s system,
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particularly the nausea centre which acts as a master switch and can be activated by
stimuli other than feed (39). Obese sheep are more prone to the failure to eat/inanition
syndrome than lean sheep, and this relates t o the mobilisation of stored fat and the
impact of this process on appetite. Similarly, older wethers were m o r e p r o n e to the
inanition syndrome than growing sheep. Finally, t h e r e was evidence of an annual
rhythm to mortalities, which focuses attention on the possibility of a hitherto
unrecognised seasonal control of metabolism in sheep.
Epidemiological studies have provided reliable signposts for the next phase of action
for the health and welfare of sheep during sea transport. This will b e the formulation
and implementation of control measures tailored to an understanding of the biological
processes which are disrupted during transportation. A n initial observation has been
m a d e that a synthetic corticosteroid can forestall the failure to eat/inanition
syndrome (2). This suggests a possible control measure and sheds light on mechanisms
which might be susceptible to other forms of intervention.
Cattle
Cattle tend to experience fewer welfare problems than sheep during sea transport, as
indicated by mortality rates. However, species comparisons may be spurious. Many
problems can be forestalled by adequate preconditioning of cattle before embarkation,
particularly if cattle have had little contact with people and have not previously been fed
by hand. Hyperthermia and limb abrasions have been identified as the usual causes of
mortality and rejection in slaughter cattle transported by sea (8).
Other animals
In the past, when horses were a major form of military transport, large numbers of
these animals were moved by sea and a large body of common-sense knowledge was
acquired with regard to the appropriate husbandry. Horses had to be fit and ready for
service when they arrived at their destination. In this context, husbandry equates (to a
large extent) with welfare. The section on sea transport of horses included in the 1933
British army manual on animal management remains relevant and illuminating (3).
In recent years, t h e r e has been regular traffic of water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)
from northern Australia to countries in South-East Asia. The welfare considerations for
the transport of this species are the same as for other large members of the Subfamily
Bovinae. Australian water buffalo are feral, but these animals rapidly adapt to unusual
conditions, such as capture and transport, and respond favourably to handling and
human contact. The large horns of water buffalo pose a problem during transport, and it
is beneficial to remove the tips. Water buffalo do not have a thick hair coat to protect
them from radiant heat and are prone to dehydration; these factors must be considered
during handling and transport.
Experience shows that specific welfare problems are presented by goats during sea
transport, and feral goats from the rangelands of Australia appear to require special
treatment. Such animals must adapt to captivity and contact with humans, in addition to
coping with the stressors encountered during actual transportation.
The welfare provisions for the sea transport of sheep can be applied only in principle
to goats, in view of the many differences between these species in terms of physiology
and behaviour. These include the following:
- G o a t s may r e q u i r e a longer period of preconditioning in pre-embarkation
feedlots.
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- Feeding behaviour and the range of digestive disturbances are different.

- Arousal by environmental stimuli may be m o r e intense and persistent in goats
than in sheep, and may be accompanied by a m o r e p r o n o u n c e d physiological stress
response.
Air transport
Many former concerns with regard to air transport of animals have been satisfied by
advances in the design of aircraft and the application of regulations contained in the
comprehensive manual of the International Air Transport Association (11). T h e s e
regulations have b e c o m e the accepted guidelines for C I T E S and the Office
International des Epizooties (OIE), and have been employed by the Council of Europe
in the development of codes of conduct for the transport of animals.

CONCLUSIONS

The continuing increase in international transport of animals raises shared concerns

about welfare, stress and disease, and argues for the d e v e l o p m e n t of regulatory
procedures and principles to prevent problems and to deal with these when they occur.
Discussions prompted by these concerns require an intelligible frame of reference, which
could be provided in the form of a conceptual model aimed at dealing with the complex
of abstract ideas involved in welfare, without compromising scientific rigour. The details
of this model could be adjusted according to particular knowledge of a given species.
All modes of international transport are potentially hazardous for animals and can
lead to disease, stress and compromised welfare. These three entities are inextricably
related. Welfare is described as " t h e state of an individual [animal] as r e g a r d s its
attempts to cope with its e n v i r o n m e n t " (14). Disease and stress are i m p o r t a n t to
welfare, as these states occur in individual animals. In addition, disease and stress are
linked functionally: stress can be a disease state itself and can also reduce resistance to
infectious disease.
The welfare of animals relates to life processes which can be described and appraised
by the language and principles of biology, and which are open to scientific analysis.
However, animal welfare is a matter for both science and morality, and neither domain
alone is sufficient for u n d e r s t a n d i n g or action on behalf of animals. E v i d e n c e and
descriptions of the state of animals provide the material for ethical evaluation.
Practical measures to improve the welfare of animals can be based on the body of
scientific k n o w l e d g e which has resulted from b o t h experience with t r a n s p o r t and
experimental investigation. T h e practicalities of animal welfare relate to the
preparation, assessment and selection of animals before transport, and to the provision
of suitable e n v i r o n m e n t s , feed, water, comfort and rest during t r a n s p o r t , and
arrangements for recovery and restoration after transport.

* *
166

LE TRANSPORT ET LE BIEN-ÊTRE DES ANIMAUX. - D.B. Adams.

Résumé : Tous les modes de transport présentent des risques pour les animaux,
qu'il s'agisse de déplacements nationaux ou internationaux, par voie routière ou
ferroviaire, aérienne ou maritime. Cependant, l'expérience montre que les
animaux peuvent être transportés dans de bonnes conditions et sans souffrance.
Assurer des conditions satisfaisantes et fournir un cadre applicable à la
réglementation du transport international des animaux qui soit acceptable par
tous, passe par une bonne compréhension des besoins en termes de bien-être des
animaux ainsi que des dimensions biologiques de la maladie, du stress et de la
souffrance. L'auteur examine ce cadre d'un point de vue biologique.
La faculté d'adaptation aux contraintes des différents modes de transport
varie selon les espèces et la condition physique des animaux transportés. C'est
pourquoi plusieurs règles élémentaires doivent être respectées : préparer et
sélectionner les animaux avant le transport, leur assurer des conditions de vie,
d'alimentation, d'abreuvement et de repos convenables en cours de déplacement,
et veiller aux conditions de leur récupération à l'arrivée. Quant aux animaux
malades ou blessés, il ne doivent pas être transportés.

MOTS-CLÉS : Bien-être des animaux - Maladie - Stress - Transport.

*
* *

TRANSPORTE Y BIENESTAR DE LOS ANIMALES. - D.B. Adams.

Resumen: Todos los modos de transporte representan riesgos para los

animales, se trate de desplazamientos nacionales o internacionales, por vía
terrestre, en rutas o en ferrocarril, o por vía aérea o marítima. Pero, a la vez, la
experiencia ha mostrado en todos los casos que es posible transportar animales
en buenas condiciones y sin causarles sufrimiento.
Para garantizar condiciones satisfactorias en este sentido ofreciendo también
un marco que se pueda aplicar a la reglamentación del transporte internacional
de animales aceptable por todos, se requiere una buena comprensión previa
tanto de las necesidades en materia de bienestar de los animales como de las
dimensiones biológicas de la enfermedad, del estrés y del sufrimiento. El autor
examina este marco desde un punto de vista biológico.
La facultad de adaptación a las dificultades de los distintos modos de
transporte varía con las especies y las condiciones físicas de los animales
transportados. Es necesario respetar varias reglas elementales: preparar y
seleccionar los animales antes del transporte, garantizarles condiciones
adecuadas en cuanto a medio ambiente, alimentación, bebida y descanso
durante el viaje y asegurar su recuperación al llegar a destino. Por otra parte,
debe excluirse el transporte de animales enfermos o heridos.

PALABRAS CLAVE: Bienestar de los animales - Enfermedad - Estrés -

Transporte.

*
* *
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