Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Eye Examination
with the Slit Lamp.
In memory
of Prof. Allvar Gullstrand
Nobel Prize Winner in Physiology and Medicine
05.06.1862 – 28.07.1930
Eye Examination
with the Slit Lamp.
Contents
5. Accessories............................................................................................................................................30
5.1 Measurement of intraocular pressure ......................................................................................................30
5.2 Length and angle measurement ..............................................................................................................32
5.3 Miscellaneous ........................................................................................................................................32
2.1 Slit illumination system The standard slit lamp is comprised of three elements:
Fig. 2
Principle of Köhler illumination
3
2. D e s i g n p r i n c i p l e s
The optical transmission is increased by anti- For certain examinations it is not so much an
reflection coatings on all glass surfaces. The light loss intense slit illumination that is required but a large-
caused by reflections is subsequently reduced to 1.5% field diffuse illumination. For this reason some
or even down to 0.5% in the case of high-grade instruments provide an insertable ground glass screen
antireflection coatings. The total gain in brightness of at the plane of the exit pupil and of the filament
the slit illumination compared to an uncoated system image. The optical path is thus interrupted with the
is about 20%, thus demonstrating the advantages ground glass screen acting as a secondary source.
offered by modern specially coated optics.
Other examination methods require the spectral
The light source used on a slit lamp is either a low- composition of the light to be changed (e.g. for fluor-
voltage incandescent lamp or a halogen lamp. The escence observation in contact lens fitting). For this
latter being preferred because of its high luminance purpose various filters are provided in the illumination
and colour temperature. system which can be easily swung into the beam path.
The range of filters include exciter filters for
According to physical laws the light scattering
fluorescence, green filters for contrast enhancement,
ability and fluorescence of transparent media is
and sometimes grey filters for reducing the illumina-
enhanced by such high luminance and colour
tion intensity while maintaining colour temperature.
temperature, allowing diagnostically important
Fig. 3
changes in colour to yellow to be much more easily
Optical path
in the stereomicroscope recognised. Modern slit lamps (see Figs. 7 - 10)
of a slit lamp therefore employ halogen light sources.
4
D e s i g n p r i n c i p l e s
2.
Explanation of Fig. 3:
5
2. D e s i g n p r i n c i p l e s
The resolution of a microscope (the smallest for medium magnifications. The aperture of the new
distance between two points that can be separated) is slit lamps ranges from 0.05 to 0.08.
determined by its numerical aperture. With a given
Stereoscopic vision is the basis of slit lamp micro-
aperture it is ineffectual to increase the microscope
scopy. The wish to make the convergence angle as
magnification beyond a certain point, the so-called
large as possible is counteracted by the demand for
useful magnification, over this the image will just be
observation through limited apertures such as the
larger without an increase in resolution. On the other
pupil and contact lens mirrors (cf. 3.6 "Fundus
hand it is not advisable to increase the aperture
observation and gonioscopy"). For this reason good
beyond the value specified by a given magnification
slit lamp microscopes work with a convergence angle
either, as in this case the resolution is limited by the
of between 10° and 15°. The SL 120 and SL 130
acuity and pupil size of the observer, also the
Slit Lamps have a convergence angle of 12.5°, the
performance of the optics would not be fully utilised.
SL 115 Classic Slit Lamp employs a convergence angle
The exit pupils of a good slit lamp microscope range
of 10°.
from 0.8 to 2.7 mm depending on magnification.
The backfocal distance is another parameter of
The depth of field of the microscope is of great
the slit lamp microscope that is of special interest. The
importance in the use of the slit lamp. It has three
back focal distance is the distance of the subject from
components:
the front lens surface of the microscope. The back focal
- Depth of focus
distance must have a certain minimum length to give
- Depth of accommodation
the operator sufficient space for manipulation. If it is
- Depth of resolution
too long, manipulations on the eye are difficult,
Within the eye there exists a smallest resolvable because of the resulting extended and uncomfortable
angle (or minimum angular separation) at which an position of the arms. Moreover, with a given objective
image point and its circles of least confusion are seen aperture, the numerical aperture is reduced and thus
equally sharp. This is the depth of focus. The depth the brightness. The back focal distance of a slit lamp
of accommodation, however, results from the change should range between 90 mm and 120 mm. On the
in refractive power of the eyepiece/eye system, SL 120 and SL 130 Slit Lamps, it is approx. 106 mm; on
whereby the point of best visual acuity is shifted the SL 115 Classic Slit Lamp it is approx. 118 mm.
relative to the eyepiece plane. The depth of
resolution is due to the diffraction of light at the
microscope aperture. As a result of diffraction, object
differentiation within the depth range is impossible,
the depth of resolution is therefore similar to the
depth of field.
As mentioned above, almost all slit lamp types have 2.4 Electrical system
a common mechanical axis of rotation. The various
makes only differ in the arrangement of the The only electrical unit a slit lamp requires normally
illuminating beam to either below the microscope is a low-voltage supply (mains power pack) for
body or above it, or by the configuration of the powering the low-voltage filament lamp or the more
illumination beam being folded once or twice by modern and brighter halogen lamp.
prisms or mirrors.
It is also an advantage to have a rheostat which
varies the lamp voltage within a certain range to
Two other special types of slit lamp:
enable the brightness to be adjusted to the specific
- The hand slit lamp is a handy portable unit provid- requirements.
ing for slit lamp examinations on sitting or
recumbent patients in or out of the ophthalmologic
practice (Fig. 10, page 11).
2.5 Range of Carl Zeiss
- The bedside or surgical slit lamp is a combination of
slit lamps
an operating microscope with a swivelling slit illu-
mination system designed for the examination and
The slit lamps from Carl Zeiss feature outstanding
treatment of recumbent patients. For this reason
performance. The optical transmission of the obser-
there is no real axis of rotation of the illumination
vation system is extremely high. This results in a
system but rather a curved mechanical guide with a
minimal light loss in observation and documentation,
virtual axis.
which in turn reduces light levels for the patient.
Due to the high resolution, even the finest structures
become visible with a high contrast. The stereo angle
of 12.5° provides for the improved three-dimensional
differentiation of details to assist in obtaining a
reliable diagnosis.
Fig. 7 Fig. 8
SL 115 Classic Slit Lamp SL 120 Slit Lamp
video camera.
The SL 115 Classic Slit Lamp The SL 120 Slit Lamp
is the practice-oriented routine instrument for is the powerful universal instrument with 5-step
examination and measurement of the eye. The magnification changer. In combination with 10x
integrated yellow filter and the slit length of 14 mm eyepieces, the magnification is adjustable from 5x to
provide optimum conditions for contact lens fitting. 32x. As standard the instrument has a convergent tube
The revolving objective changer allows overall of f = 140 mm, a parallel tube of f = 140 mm being
magnifications of 8x, 12x and 20x. The handy plug- available as an option. The slit width is continuously
and-play concept – the slit lamp is supplied completely adjustable from 0 to 14 mm. The slit length may be
mounted – minimizes set-up work. The SL 115 Classic varied continuously from 1 – 6 mm and in steps of 0.5,
Slit Lamp may, of course, be retrofitted with a compact 3.5, 8 and 14 mm.
10
D e s i g n p r i n c i p l e s
2.
Fig. 9 Fig. 10
SL 130 Slit Lamp HSO 10 Hand Slit Lamp
is a universal diagnostic instrument with versatile being a portable instrument completes the slit lamp
accessories for measurement and documentation. range. It is the ideal combination of a binocular slit
lamp with an indirect ophthalmoscope, for the exam-
The slit lamp differs from the previously described
ination of the anterior and posterior eye segment of
models in the different position of slit controls. Slit
sitting or recumbent patients. Its special feature is the
adjustment is possible from either the right or left and
bilateral lockable arc guide providing true, convenient
permits viewing with the slit illuminator in the middle
single hand operation of the instrument. A recharge-
position. This enables efficient and sensitive operation
able battery further increases the mobility of this slit
particularly when using this slit lamp for laser treat-
lamp.
ment.
11
2. D e s i g n p r i n c i p l e s
Instrument specifications
Zeiss slit lamps in detail
13
3. Examination methods –
types of illumination.
3.1 Observation
by optical section
minating beam takes the form of two knife blades During observation it is important that the back-
placed edge to edge. Scattered light appears only in ground always remains as dark as possible.
this "optical section". The intensity of scattered light
The crystalline lens is particularly suited for viewing
depends on the object structures and increases with
via an optical section. where the discontinuity zones
increasing slit brightness and the higher proportion of
can be made visible with a narrow slit. For examina-
short-wave light obtained by an increased colour tem-
tion of the anterior segments of the vitreous body it is
perature of the light source.
advisable to use the smallest possible slit length to
For good quality observations with a slit lamp it is avoid dazzling of both patient and examiner. In these
very important that the light source delivers sufficient examinations, slit brightness should be high.
short-wave light containing a high as possible blue
The slit lamp is specially configured for observation
element, the colour temperature of the lamp therefore
with an optical section. As both microscope and illu-
should also be high, a requirement normally satisfied
mination system are mechanically coupled, the slit
by modern halogen lamps.
image is always located in the focal plane and the
In conjunction with the stereomicroscope an optical centre of the field of view of the microscope inde-
section permits very precise depth information provid- pendent of focusing and selected magnification.
ing precise data of the shape of interfaces of Experience has shown that this relationship, if true in
transparent media. With a narrow slit and clear media, air, also applies with sufficient accuracy to the
the images of slit and object appear sharply focused at refracting ocular media, provided the operator has
the same time. Slit width and magnification may be adjusted the eyepieces correctly to match his own
varied depending on the object to be examined. With refraction.
this method, brilliant optical section images can be
The optical section is rotatable about the slit axis.
obtained from the cornea through to the rear face of
The slit itself can be aligned vertically or horizontally.
the crystalline lens.
Horizontal positioning of the slit however, is an excep-
With a narrow slit, the depth and position of differ- tional case in optical section examinations, mainly
ent objects (e.g. the penetration depth of foreign because stereoscopic vision is restricted if the slit is
bodies, shape of the lens etc.) can be resolved more aligned horizontally. The reason for this is that the slit
easily. With a wide slit their extension and shape are is no longer perpendicular to the plane in which the
visible more clearly (e.g. depth extension of injuries). It viewing axes of the microscope and the lateral dispari-
is therefore useful to vary the slit width during the ties of the observer lie.
examination.
16 For direct focal illumination with wide slit - Angle of slit illumination system approx. 30° - 50°
Slit width: > 0.5 mm
Magnification: approx. 20x - 32x, Magnification
if necessary, higher M = 5x - 12x (for surveys rather less)
Observation of details, e.g. stromal striae. M = > 30x (assessment of lachrymal film)
Examination methods – types of illumination
3.
Main applications are made with transmitted light where the object Fig. 13
structures are recognised by differences in absorption. Indirect illumination
- Examination of objects in the direct vicinity of cor-
neal areas of reduced transparency (e.g. infiltrates, Transmitted light requires a light source on the other
corneal scars, deposits, epithelial or stromal side of the object. With retro-illumination, the light is
defects). produced secondarily by irradiation. There are two
types of retro-illumination. Direct retro-illumination
Illumination
caused by direct reflection at surfaces such as the iris,
- Narrow to medium slit width
crystalline lens or the fundus, and indirect retro-
- Decentred slit
illumination caused by diffuse reflection in the
Magnification medium, i.e. at all scattering media and surfaces in the
Approx. M = 12x (depending on object size) anterior and posterior segments.
Observation of
vascularisations, micro cysts, vacuoles, oedemas,
particles in lachrymal film, flow rate of lachrymal film,
Descemet's membranes.
In its normal physiological state, the cornea is fully auxiliary lenses are in use that range in optical Fig. 15
Scattering sclero-corneal
transparent and appears completely clear. If the properties and practical application. These lenses are
illumination
eccentricity of the light is properly adjusted a bright classified in two groups:
shining ring is visible around the entire limbus. - Concave and
- Convex optics.
With irregularities in the structure caused by inclu-
sions, scars, opacities, foreign bodies, etc., light
Concave optics
scatter occurs allowing any disturbances, including
weak oedemas, small scars and very fine opacities to Concave lenses provide an upright, virtual
be located by illumination or shadowing. intermediate image of the fundus. Due to this property,
- Slit width: > 0.5mm the normal working distance of the slit lamp to the
- Magnification: medium patient is only changed slightly. As the pupil acts like a
- Illumination: maximum diaphragm, the stereoscopic field of view is limited
with concave lenses.
3.6 Fundus observation and There are two types of concave lenses widely in use
gonioscopy with the slit lamp today:
- Fundus contact lens and
Fundus observation is known by ophthalmoscopy
- Goldmann 3-mirror or
and the use of fundus cameras. With the slit lamp,
4-mirror contact lens = gonioscope.
however, direct observation of the fundus is impossi-
Concave lenses are divided into negative contact
ble due to the refractive power of the ocular media. In
lenses and high-power positive lenses.
other words: the far point of the eye (punctum
remotum) is so distant in front of (myopia) or behind The Goldmann fundus contact lens is classified as a
(hyperopia) that the microscope cannot be focussed. negative contact lens. It has a refractive power of - 64 D 19
The use of auxiliary optics - generally as a lens - makes thus compensating approximately for the refractive
it possible however to bring the far point within the power of the cornea and permitting the examination of
focusing range of the microscope. For this various the posterior pole of the eye to about 30° from the axis.
3. Examination methods – types of illumination
Fig. 17
0 = Observation of central areas of retina
1 = Observation of off-centre areas of retina
Abb. 5 2 = Observation of external periphery of retina
Prinzip-Strahlengang 3 = Observation of iridocorneal angle
Teleskop-System
The four-mirror contact lens is a small pyramid, with the Hruby lens by moving the joystick of the slit
mainly of glass with the vertex removed, in its place is lamp laterally. Focusing is as with normal slit image
a ground-in recess with a radius of about 8 mm which observation. The small fundus image can be further
corresponds to the curvature of an average cornea. The magnified considerably using the magnification
angle of the reflecting surfaces is approximately 62°. changer of the microscope. With a dilated pupil
of > 5 mm, the fundus of the eye can be viewed
With these lenses, objects are seen as mirror images.
stereoscopically. The field angle is 60° at medium
Small peripheral holes in the retina that one may fail
magnification and 40° at a magnification of 20x. With
to see with an ophthalmoscope are easily discerned
this method even for the inexperienced operator it is
with a three-mirror contact lens.
relatively easy to see the fundus, its visibility is better
than with indirect ophthalmoscopy.
Convex optics
Convex lenses produce a reverse, real intermediate Convex lenses are particularly well suited for the
image of the fundus. For this reason, a longer distance examination of strongly myopic eyes if positioned
is necessary between the slit lamp and patient's eye. correctly, lateral and axial magnifications becoming
Most modern instruments however allow for this. independent of the refractive power of the patient's
eye. Simple convex lenses, however, exhibit abnormal
Convex lenses have very large monoscopic or stereo-
field curvatures making them unsuitable for exam-
scopic fields of view. This is because the convex lens
ination of the vitreous body.
images the entrance pupil of the microscope at
reduced size in the patient's pupil which therefore Illumination
does not act as a field stop. So far the conditions and methods of fundus obser-
vation with the slit lamp have been discussed, but
Two types of convex lenses are available:
without illumination, observation is impossible. Special
- Contact lens (e.g. contact lens after Schlegel;
requirements have to be met for illumination of the
Panfundoscope) or
fundus through auxiliary lenses. For all types of auxiliary
- Aspheric plus lens (e.g. auxiliary lens after Bayadi;
lens, the size of the pupil limits the maximum adjustable
90 D Volk lens, aspheric ophthalmoscopic lens
angle between observation and illumination though to
AOL 90 D).
a varying degree. This means it will not be possible in
The latter are used in indirect ophthalmoscopy every case to bring both observation path and the
where the lens is held by hand about 9 mm in front of illuminating beam together in the patient's pupil.
the patient's eye. Both slit projector and microscope
The assessment of peripheral fundus areas that must
should be set to a middle position, the slit fully
be viewed under the widest possible angle involves
opened, and a medium magnification (about 12x) set
particular difficulties. This is because the entrance
on the microscope. The distance between ophthalmo-
pupil of the eye takes a vertically oval form because of
scopic lens and illuminating prism should be about
the oblique viewing direction thus making it
80 mm. The lens is illuminated in direct focal illu-
impossible to place both observation and the
mination. It produces a reversed, real image of the
illuminating paths side by side within the pupil.
fundus that is reduced in size. Without dilation of the 21
pupil the retinal image is visible through the left-hand This can be remedied by positioning the illuminating
or right-hand eyepiece. Initially, this image will be beam between the observation beams. This config-
obscured by reflections from the cornea. These uration does not allow observation by optical section,
reflections, however, are eliminated more easily than but this is not important in fundus examination.
3. Examination methods – types of illumination
B M1 M2 B M1 M2 M1 M2
P P P
M2
M1
B M2
B M1 M2 M1 B
Notes on handling the contact lens After use, the contact lens must be cleaned with Fig. 18
Stereoscopic observation
water and a cotton swab to prevent any residues, e.g.
Before fitting a contact lens, the eye to be exam- with the slit lamp
methyl cellulose, from drying out and adhering.
ined must be anaesthetised in an appropriate manner.
In addition the pupil must be fully dilated for For disinfection, disinfectants such as CLORINA
examination of the ocular fundus. (manufactured by Lysoform, Dr. Rosemann GmbH,
Berlin) may be used (5% solution, for 10 minutes). The
As the concave contact surface of a contact lens
lens must then be rinsed with distilled water and dried
normally has a radius of curvature that is higher than
with a sterile swab.
that of the cornea, the intermediate space should be
filled with 2 drops of physiological saline or methyl Contact lenses must on no account be boiled or
cellulose. heated excessively in any way. Similarly, alcohol should
not be used for cleaning or disinfection.
It is easier to put the contact lens onto the eye, if
the patient looks upwards and the eyelid is lifted
slightly. Any air bubbles will disappear if the contact
lens is slightly twisted and tilted.
This examination can be performed more conveni- Of particular interest and special importance is the
ently, if a video system (such as the Model 020 Video use of the slit lamp not only for observation but, with
Compact Camera) is used on the slit lamp. In this way, suitable accessories, as a measuring instrument.
details of the observation process can be
As the slit lamp is such a widely used instrument,
differentiated and assessed more easily by slow
the cost of a measuring instrument can be reduced
motion or single frame sequences on the monitor
considerably by making use of the mechanical and
screen. When the examination is recorded on a video
optical elements of the slit lamp. The most popular
recorder with an integrated electronic counter the BUT
example is the applanation tonometer used to
can be determined easily and precisely. This recording
measure the intraocular pressure. Further examples
method is an instant user-friendly, low-cost solution
are attachments for measuring the thickness of the
preferable to normal photography which provides only
cornea, the depth of the anterior chamber as well as
"still pictures" with no continuous visualisation and
length and angle measurements on the cornea. These
requires time for film processing.
instruments will be covered in detail in section 5.
27
4. Documentation of findings.
Fig. 22
SL 120 Slit Lamp with
video recording equipment
and video printer
Fig. 24
AT 030 Applanation Tonometer
patient's eyelids with thumb and forefinger.
1 Reticle
2 Linear scale, 0.2 mm interval
3 Tabo angle scale, 2° interval
4 Front window
5 Reading ball
90°
6 Eyepiece socket
120
60
0°
15
°
30° 0°
The image scale in the eyepiece plane is then 1x.
With other magnifications, an appropriate scale factor
must be applied. The eyepiece contains a reticle with a
linear diameter scale of 15 mm graduated in 0.2 mm
intervals. The angular scale of 360° for the
measurement of the inclination angle is graduated in
Fig. 26 2° intervals. The artificial horizon required for the
Micrometer eyepiece
(eyepiece field of view)
angle measurement is provided by a gravity ball.
Among the microscopes, first the PM XVI preparation In 1961, MATTHÄUS however preferred a beam
splitting attachment in combination with a multi-
microscope (1946 – 1949) and later the SM XX purpose instrument manufactured by IHAGEE/Dresden.
stereomicroscope with a Galilean magnification The set-up additionally had an annular flash and an
changer was used (from 1949/1950 onwards). Despite SM XX slit lamp, on to which the camera was mounted
modern ZOOM optics, the principle of a magnification in place of the microscope.
drum and a telescope system is still used for slit lamps
and surgical microscopes. At the same time, various authors (PRINCE in 1965,
LOISILLIER, SCHIFF-WERTHEIMER in 1957, DUGAGNI
In 1950, at ZEISS in Oberkochen the slit lamp was in 1957, STEPANIK in 1959, and OSSWALD in 1959)
redesigned by LITTMANN. He also adopted the control worked on replacing the incandescent lamp illu-
mechanism after GOLDMANN and the vertical mination with an electronic flash for photography.
illumination path of rays bent through a prism
according to COMBERG. During observation, the slit In 1965, based on the slit lamp after LITTMANN, the
illumination system could be swivelled through in Model 100/16 Slit Lamp was produced, followed by the
38 front of the microscope. Additionally the stereo Model 125/16 Slit Lamp in 1972. Both models only
telescope system with a common objective and differ by their working distances of 100 mm and 125 mm.
Galilean magnification changer was used.
With the development of the photo slit lamp the
Following state-of-the-art photography, other first instrument was launched onto the market in
H i s t o r y o f t h e s l i t l a m p
6.
Fig. 36
SL 115 Classic Slit Lamp
(1999)
H. Littmann: O. Müller:
A new Slitlamp Apparatus, 10 SL, 30 SL, 75 SL in the ZEISS Tradition of Progress.
Am. J. Ophthal. 33,1950 A New Line of Slit Lamps,
ZEISS Information No. 85, 1976
H. Littmann:
Grundlegende Betrachtungen zur Ophthalmometrie, H. Riedel:
v. Graefes Arch. f. Ophthalmologie, Vol.151, 1951 The Surgical Slit Lamp,
ZEISS Information No. 85, 1976
W. Jaeger:
Tiefenmessung der menschlichen Vorderkammer Brochures and User's Manuals
mit planparallelen Platten,
For detailed information on literature,
v. Graefes Arch. f. Ophthalmologie, Vol.153, 1952
see Goldmann, H.: Fokale Beleuchtung, published in:
"Die ophthalmologischen Untersuchungsmethoden",
H. Goldmann and Th. Schmidt:
Vol.1, W. Straub, Stuttgart 1970
Über Applanationstonometrie,
Ophthalmologica Vol.134, No.4, 1957 A treatise on the instrument with hints
on its practical application after Ortwin Müller.
G. Littmann:
First revision by
Slit-image Photography,
Siegfried Passern
ZEISS Information No.56, 1965
Dr. Wilfried Bißmann
Detlef K. Biernat, 1996.
H. Littmann:
The New ZEISS Slit Lamp, Second revision by
ZEISS Information No.58, 1965 Burkhard Wagner, 2001
Publication No.: 000000-1152-355
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