Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background

Material strength and failure theories applications are the foundation of structure
design. They optimize the strength affects by reducing weight and cost. It is important to load
the materials pass its ultimate strength to track their failure behaviour. One of the familiar
applications is to use fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites (Composite polymers) for
the design of high performance and light weight structures in the automotive and aerospace
industries. In this application, studies are carried out to evaluate the strength characteristics of
CFRP along with micromechanical modelling and its behaviour under the various loading
conditions

As the motivation for using composite materials in aerospace structures is increasing,

researchers are trying to understand the failure mechanisms under tensile, compressive,
impact, pressure and several combined load conditions. Even though research has been
performed to predict linear and nonlinear response of composite structures, many researchers
are still trying to gain a greater understanding of the failure mechanisms, damage modes and
damage propagation. In its applications to some primary aircraft structures, such as the
radome and the fan containment system of jet engines, the mechanical properties of these
materials subject to high strain rate and impact conditions had attracted more attention among
the composites community.

Fiber reinforced composites often lack in detailed dynamic mechanical properties.

Experiments on composite structures are expensive and difficult to set up due to the
complexity of composite configurations and interactions between the fiber and matrix. As an
alternative approach, finite element simulations now become an important tool in the
composite structural design. A reliable composite model which has the capability of properly
capturing the nonlinearity and rate sensitivity is required for high strain rate simulations with
finite element software.

1.2 Aims and objectives

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The research aims of the proposed PhD will explore the characterization of CFRP under high
strain rate loading/dynamic case which will correlate for the strength and fracture of fiber
reinforced composites. Models that developed using the commercial finite element software
Abaqus will be used to predict the approximate stresses and strains induced in the laminates
during high strain rate tensile test and compared with the contour and damage picture taken
using high speed camera as well as digital imaging correlation (DIC) method in the lab.
Numerical modelling analysis of the elastic brittle behaviour of matrix and fiber at micro
level will be used to predict the macroscale cfrp behaviour.
This will encompass the area of:
1. Strain rate effect on tensile properties
2. Strain rate effect on fracture strain
Microstructural characterizations parameters:
1. Fiber orientation effect
2. Fiber/matrix interphase interaction which include the zero thickness cohesive
interaction and cohesive element with specified dimension between fiber and
matrix.
The research will also aim for developing computational modelling of damage initiation and
growth mechanism in unidirectional CFRP under high strain rate. This will include the
formation of user defined material modelling for CFRP under high strain rate, non-linear
ductile matrix, Hashin damage criteria, Tsai Hill –Wu failure criteria to characterize the
failure behaviour of CFRP under high strain rate. This will be the second phase of the
research after material modelling of linear elastic region before damage initiation/failure has
successfully modelled and simulated.

1.3 Finite Element Modelling

Finite element method is an approximate numerical method which is successfully adapted for
solutions of problems in various fields. These fields include: solid mechanics, fluid
mechanics and heat transfer. Modelling techniques are including non-linear analysis,
progressive failure, buckling, strain energy release rate analysis, residual stresses and
distortions. The basic theory of this method is the physical discretization of a continuum. This
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implies a dividing accounted domain on the finite number of small dimensions and simple
shapes, which represent the basis for all considerations. In discretization of a continuum, one
model of finite elements or combination of several models may be used. The finite elements
are connected by common nodes to present the original structure. Mesh generation is the
division of a certain area on nodes and finite elements. Commercial software packages are
used to build an automatic division of the areas for the purpose of obtaining one faster
solution but also qualitative solutions. This is high importance in large and very complex
engineering tasks.

Figure 1.1: Finite Element Modelling Representing 3D Stress in Composite

Figure 1.1 shows the finite element modelling that could able to analyse element on the
composite in 3D stress. This type of element will be used throughout the research to capture
the behaviour in tensor stresses x,y,z direction.

1.4 Dynamic Loading Using ABAQUS Explicit

Abaqus/Explicit solver can be used widely to solve high speed dynamic cases, complex
contact problems, complex post buckling problems, highly nonlinear quasi-static problems
and materials with degradation and failure. For dynamic loading condition, Abaqus/Explicit
is preferred as it can readily analyze problems involving complex contact interaction within
composite layers. Abaqus/Explicit is particularly well suited for analyzing the transient
dynamic response of structures that are subject to impact loads and subsequently undergo
complex contact interaction inside the structure. Contact conditions and other extremely
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discontinuous events are readily formulated in the explicit method and can be enforced on a
node-by-node basis without iteration. Models of test methodologies are: microstructure-based
approach (micromechanical) and an equivalent homogenous material approach (macro-
mechanical). The microstructure-based approach describes the local material microstructure as
two individual phases (fiber and epoxy) each with unique material properties. In the
microstructure-based modelling approach, interfacial elements are typically implemented at the
fiber and matrix interface in order to accurately model damage in the form of phase separation.

1.5 RVE Under Dynamic Loading

The analysis is performed using Abaqus/Explicit package. The models of RVE under
dynamic loading/explicit cases encompass:
1. RVE with tie constraint interaction between fiber and matrix
2. RVE with frictionless interaction between fiber and matrix
3. RVE with penalty interaction having certain value of coefficient of friction between
fiber and matrix
4. RVE with zero thickness cohesive interaction between fiber and matrix.
5. RVE with cohesive element interphase between fiber and matrix. Cohesive element of
1µm was modelled in between fiber and matrix to represent cohesive element
6. 5 fibers held with matrix that binds them together with zero thickness cohesive
element interaction between them.
7. 2D RVE of zero thickness cohesive interaction between fiber and matrix under
transverse loading.
8. 2D RVE with cohesive element (separate element) connecting fiber and matrix.

1.6 Mesh Sensitivity

Mesh sensitivity is very important aspect of the numerical analyses. Its factorability appears
in the cohesive elements size. Initial attempt in meshing the RVE model of fiber and matrix
with zero thickness cohesive element has resulted in error of results in simulation The
grid/nodes are generated by mesh. The results obtained by generating different meshing and
compute the result/outcome of simulation. This is important factor for the accuracy of the

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solution. The refinement of grid is directly proportional to the accuracy and quality of the
solution. After considerable refinement of mesh a point is reached where the quality of mesh
does not have any noticeable effect and has a very negligible effect on the solution. One
example is taken from an RVE with 7micrometer diameter of fiber and 10 micrometer side
and length of matrix. Also for finer mesh the simulation takes time or computing the
solution. In this particular problem the first case of static loading at 0 degree fiber orientation
is used to compare the grid independence. All the parameters are the same except the mesh.
This is mesh sensitivity and mesh analysis / grid independence.

Mesh Type No. of Elements No. of Nodes Max Stress

Coarse 0.5 30742 7420 7.59E-04
Mesh 0.45 42874 9127 7.67E-04
Mid 0.35 85142 17627 8.38E-04
Mid 0.30 112071 24912 8.81E-04
Fine 0.25 174464 39099 8.81E-04
Fine 0.15 579582 121778
Table 1.1: Mesh Type and Max Stress Computed

Figure 1.2: Max Stress Against Mesh Size

Table 1.1 shows the mesh size chosen and the corresponding value of maximum stress
computed from static test simulation. The Figure 1.2 shows the Max Stress against Mesh Size
as obtained from data of Table 1.1. As it is seen that there is not much difference between
mid a fine mesh the 0.35 mesh size is considered because it giver refined results and also
optimal computing time.

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1.7 Micromechanical Modelling of CFRP Under High Strain Rate

The micromechanical based models will be used for the analysis of failure of composite
materials under tensile loading in different orientations of the fiber. Material and failure
models for the separate materials phases (carbon fibers, epoxy, and interface) were developed
and assigned to each microstructural component. It is predicted that micromechanical finite
element models can predict the behaviour of unidirectional composite CFRP coupon under
tension loading. In micromechanics, the effective properties and response of composites are
computed based on the properties of the individual constituents. A representative volume
element (RVE) or unit cell composed of fiber and matrix is selected as a sample of the
composite as a whole. The objective of this study is to adopt for finite element a nonlinear
calculation, strain rate dependent composite model that can be used to adequately capture the
nonlinear, rate-dependent deformation and damage behaviour of composite structures under
high strain rate loadings.

1.8 Macro Modelling of CFRP Under High Strain Rate

Modelling of the coupon behaviour under static and dynamic loading will be undertaken,
using a set of tensile coupon end tab geometry as suggested standard tensile test according to
ASTM and other scholars. The applicability of the models to design these features will be
assessed by attempting to model the initiation of CFRP failure. The models should be
validated against proven experimental data that had been done at Transport Research Lab
using VHS Instron equipment for dynamic (high strain rate) and static tests (low strain rate).
The finite element models can also be used to determine the range of validity of analytical
models being developed. As for finite element modelling, currently there are several models
that have been simulated using Abaqus where one with macroscale dimension of tensile
coupon that simulated under high tensile stress loading. Second one is tensile coupon with
end tab under high tensile stress and short period of time.

Chapter 2
Literature Review

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2.1 Interface and Interaction Matrix/Fiber

He et al. (2005) proposed a method to obtain a controlled interface between carbon

fiber and epoxy matrix in a composite system based on molecular self assembly method.
From the study, improvement in the interfacial property of the composite is observed for
modified carbon fiber/epoxy composited as compared to untreated composites. As for the
proposed PhD research, in terms of the model in the finite element modelling, some of the
models will incorporate the interface cohesive element between the fiber and matrix of CFRP
composite. Other than cohesive interface element, interaction of friction between fiber and
matrix and perfectly bonded interaction will be performed in the simulation.

The proposed research will explore finite element modelling of zero thickness
interaction between fiber and matrix. Rao et al. (2007) carried out experimental and
numerical studies to determine to cutting forces required during machining of unidirectional
carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP). The composites were made at microscale as a
layered material of fibers and matrix. The composites were made at micro-scale as a layered
material of fibers and matrix. Zero thickness cohesive elements were used between the
interface of the matrix and fibers to model possible debonding. Initiation of damage takes
place when the stress in the matrix reaches yield strength and the damage is assumed to be
isotropic. The main parameters studies are the contact pressure during cutting at the interface
of tool and composite, variation in the orientation of the fibers, fiber fracture mechanisms,
matrix damage, debonding at the interface of the fiber and the matrix as well as damage in the
sub-surface. During interfacial failure, initially there is an increase in the magnitude of
traction when the interfacial surfaces separates and then reaches to zero. The isotropic
damage behaviour is assumed so that the uniform orientation of the microcracks and voids
occur in all directions. It is seen that the main mode of subsurface damage is due to the
damage in the matrix rather than interfacial debonding for all the fiber orientations for the
same rake angle and cutting depth. The chip formation mechanism is found to be dominated
by the combination of crushing and tensile failure of the reinforcing fiber and the matrix,
though isotropic, get influenced by the fiber failure even though it may try to get deform by
shear mode. As for the projected behaviour of debonding between the fiber and matrix to
happen, it is required to know the required fracture energy to break the bond between the

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fiber and matrix. The challenge is to find the exact value of stiffness K nn, Ktt and Kss which is
the properties of cohesive behaviour defined in the model. The K values are the stiffness
values for a traction(stress) - separation curve i.e. the traction required to separate two
surfaces. The nn designates the normal (3) direction and the ss and tt designate the tangential
directions in the 1 and 2 element coordinate directions respectively.

Mishnaevsky and Brondsted (2007) studied the interaction between different damage
mechanisms of the fiber reinforced composites by applying the methods of computational
micromechanics.Different models such as shear lag based models, analytical, fracture
mechanics based, fiber bundle based and numerical micromechanical based models are
reviewed.The fiber bundle model (FBM) takes into account the nonlinear behavior of fibers,
matrix and interface effect, and the micro mechanisms of composite failure. The fiber bundle
model (FBM) takes into account the nonlinear behavior of fibers, matrix and interface effect,
and the micro mechanisms of composite failure.

As suggested by Mishnaevsky Jr, 2007, if a fiber reinforced composite is loaded in

longitudinal direction on tensile test, the main part that will fail first will be fiber that hold
most of the tension load. When the weakest fibers fail, the loading on the remaining intact
fiber will increase and it will cause the failure of neighboring fibers. The cracks of the fibers
will lead to the stress concentration in the matrix which than lead to matrix cracking. If the
matrix/fiber interface is weak it will allow the crack to propagate and grow along the
interface. The interface properties are found to have a strong influence on bearing capacity
and resistance of damage to the fibers. This outcome of the study encouraged the further
study on this proposed PhD research on whether there is significant influence of interface
behavior in the micro level (between matrix and fiber) that could affect the strain and
deformation of CFRP at macro scale (the whole specimen).

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 Figure 2.1 Sliding and Frictional Behaviour of Fiber, Matrix and Interface

Figure 2.1 shows the possibilities of damage behaviour in microlevel; sliding and interface
damage between fiber and matrix when tensile loading is applied in fiber direction.

2.2 Experimental Techniques for High Strain Rate Testing

Pimenta et al. summarized the experimental analysis of recycled CFRP, rCFRPs for
development of the physical based models to study the toughening mechanisms and fracture
toughness. Three different rCRFPs from waste sources are analysed experimentally to
characterize fully the recyclates at micro, meso and macro scale levels. The experimental
study includes Single Fibre Tensile Tests (SFTT), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of
fibres, Optical Microscopy (OM) of rCFRP samples, mechanical testing of rCFRP and
Compact Tension (CT). The proposed research will employ the method of Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM) in order to visualize the fractured surface of CFRP. Lembke (2010)
developed 2D, 3D numerical models to study the failure mechanisms of recycled CFRP
(rCFRP) using different modelling tools such as interface, cohesive element, and surface
contact elements. The rCFRP is having a potential use in secondary structural components of
aircraft and automobile industries. The rCFRP is a complex material because of non-uniform
length and orientation of fibers which influence the mechanical behaviour of the material in
different ways. The numerical model is carried out using ABAQUS which consists of fiber

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matrix, composite bundle and matrix-bundle interface. The behaviour of the crack is captured
using XFEM by the propagation of crack through the matrix by fracturing the bundle and
continues. It gave some insight on the method of modelling the fiber and matrix for the
proposed PhD project.

Research work by Haider Al-Zubaidy et al aimed to experimentally determine the

tensile mechanical properties at quasi static and intermediate strain rates. The work
comprised the study of the effect of strain rate on the material properties of commonly used
CFRP and adhesives which used extensively in strengthening of concrete and steel structures.
The carbon fibre reinforced polymer CF130 was used in the form of unidirectional tow
carbon fibre sheet; nominal thickness of 0.176 mm. The CFRP has a high tensile strength
material and is elastic-brittle material. The research also included the characterization of the
quasi-static and dynamic tensile properties of CFRP by performing tensile tests on thin
laminates of carbon/epoxy specimens. The strain rate varies from quasi-static to high strain
rates of 31.32-1, 42.02-1, 54.2-1, 67.2-1, and 87.4 s-1. The study showed that the strain rate has a
significant influence on the stress–strain relationship of the CFRP sheet and the two adhesives
commonly used to strengthen concrete and steel structures application. It was noted and
observed from the tensile test performed that, with the increment of the strain rates, the
values of tensile strength, tensile stiffness, strain to failure and energy absorption are all
increased. The failure mode for the CFRP at high strain rates also vary with the quasi-static
rates. But the failure patterns at high strain rate were found to be insignificant between each
other. As for the proposed research, this will give some ideas on how the CFRP behave and
simulation at microscale will be conducted to see the behaviour and interaction between fiber
and matrix under high strain rate. Figure 2.2 shows the sample of broken CFRP coupon after
undergone high strain rate tensile test performed by Haider et al.(2013)

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Figure 2.2 Failure sample of CRFP sheet after subjected to tensile test by Haider et al. (2013)

Several authors report dynamic tensile test on CFRPs using a split Hopkinson pressure bar at
room temperature [Gilat A et al (2002),Eskandari and Neme, Harding and Ruiz]. T Gomez et
al (2005) dealt with the effect of temperature (room and low temperatures) on the tensile
properties at high strain rates of CFRP laminates. The study also used the Split Hopkinson
bar as a means to perform the tensile test. Besides that a set of specimen bar clamping
systems were attempted to select the most appropriate for CFRP and such thermal condition.
As for the strain rate effect, a slight increase in tensile strength was noted under the dynamic
loading test. The findings from this research gave some input on the expected result that will
be observed with CFRP T700 and T800. The tensile strength for the fiber in this category is
much higher due to aircraft application.

Kojiro and Yoshiyuki(2000) did some study on effect of lay-up sequences on

mechanical properties and fracture behaviour of CFRP laminate composite to determine the
effect of the lay-up sequences on the mechanical properties and fracture behaviour of the
CFRP. The mechanical properties were studied by tensile, slow bend and Charpy impact

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tests. Two categories of specimen sets have been prepared for the specimens. One with
notched and one without. Specimens with angles of 0°, 45° and 90° between the fibers of the
0° layers and the longitudinal orientation of the specimen 0°, 45° and 90° were used. It was
observed from the experiment that for the unnotched 0°/0° ply-(0°) specimen, cracks initiate
by fiber breakage and pull-out while for the notched specimen, cracks initiate by fiber/matrix
debonding (horizontal cracks). As for the case of unnotched 0°/90° ply (45°) specimen,
cracks initiate by fiber/matrix interfacial debonding and propagate along the 45° layers while
for the notched specimen, cracks initiate by fiber breaks as well as fiber/matrix interfacial
debonding followed by propagation along the 45° layers. The findings of the study
emphasized that for impact phenomenon, fiber breakage and fiber/matrix interfacial
debonding occurrence was significant in starting the failure of the CFRP. The proposed
research will involve high strain rate tensile test and it is expected that the same phenomenon
will happen at microscale level for fiber and matrix interaction. Several sets of simulation
will be performed that involve variation of fiber orientation and thickness to observe this
phenomenon at high strain rate.

The experimental techniques employed for determining the behavior of composite

materials at high strain rate under various loading conditions were reviewed by Hamouda
and Hashmi1. Each technique has its applicable strain rate range. For example,
conventional testing machine is used for strain rate lower than 0.1/s; for strain rate of 0.1-
100/s, there is servo-hydraulic machine; for high strain rate at about 100-104/s, Split
Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) is widely used by researchers; for even higher strain
rate, gas gun apparatus for direct impact is employed. Different techniques also require
different specimen geometry and have their own limitations and advantages that drive
researchers searching for modifications to make the technique best serve their need.
Many researchers (Hsiao and Daniel(1998), Shim et al (2001), Akil et al (2003)), have
observed through their experiments that the modulus and strength of the composites increase
with increasing strain rate. According to Harding (1987), there are several factors affect the
rate dependence of composites such as their configurations and loading conditions, but first
of all it depends on the rate dependence of each constituent. As for the fiber phase in the
composite, the rate sensitivity depends on the type of the fiber. Of the two most commonly
used fibers, carbon fiber is known to be rate insensitive; while the glass fiber is rate sensitive.

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2.3 Finite Element Modelling

Ping Tan (2000) et al studied the behavior of 3D orthogonal woven CFRP composites
using finite element analysis and analytical modeling approaches. The finite element methods
were done used to predict the stiffness constants of 3D orthogonal woven CFRP composites.
In order to validate the present models, a number of tensile tests were conducted. The bond
between the fiber and matrix is considered to be perfectly tied. The method was developed
based on the isostrain assumption and the maximum stress failure criterion. It was found that
reasonable results obtained in the longitudinal failure strength between the predicted and
experimental results. The findings were parallel with the projected plan of proposed research
where most of the simulation in microscale level will involve perfectly bonded/tie constraint
between fiber and matrix.

Giovanni(2012) et al present work is a finite elements (FE) investigation on impact

problems on laminated composites using the most advanced modelling technique currently
available. The FE commercial software, Abaqus/Cae and Abaqus/Explicit, has been used to
model and analyze the impact events. This work gives an overview of the newest available
numerical technique applied to model the impact on laminated composites. Both interlayer
and intralayer damages have been considered for the numerical simulation. The intralayer
damages have been evaluated using: Puck failure criterion (Puck and Schurmann 2001) for
matrix cracking and Hashin failure criterion (Hashin 1980) for fibre failure, implemented by
a user defined material model written in Fortran. A user defined material model with the
intralayer damage model for laminated composite material has been implemented for
Abaqus/Explicit by a subroutine. The intralayer failure modes of composites were evaluated
using Puck failure criterion (Puck and Schurmann 2001) for matrix cracking, and the classical
Hashin failure criterion (Hashin 1980) for fibre failure. The laminate was modelled using the
most advanced techniques currently available in Abaqus. The interlayer (delamination) and
the intralayer (matrix cracking and fibre failure) were modelled by the combined use of
cohesive elements and a subroutine. From this result it is possible to assume that the matrix
damage (no fibre failure is detected in the numerical simulations) is more significant than
delamination for low velocity impact event. A numerical investigation of low velocity/energy
impact events has been conducted in this work. The numerical results presented a good
agreement with the experimental ones. The matrix cracking paths are well captured by the

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model and it is consistent with the experimental results reported by (Gonzalez 2011). A
damage effect influence has been investigated showing that the main damage effect is related
to the matrix cracking more than delamination. Experimental observations revealed that the
high velocity impact caused three types of damages in the CFRP laminates: fiber failures,
transverse cracks and delaminations. Three types of the damages: fiber failures, ply cracks
and delaminations were introduced in the model. The model was verified by comparing the
simulation results with test results. The results revealed that the model can well predict the
high-velocity impact damage process of the CFRP laminates. Using the digital image
correlation (DIC) method, distributions of three dimensional displacement were calculated.
Fiber failures were judged by simple stress criteria in each element. Maximum tractions of
cohesive elements were determined by using 90° tensile and short beam shear tests results.
The comparison between simulation and experimental results described above revealed that
the simulation model which was proposed in this paper can well predict the high-velocity
impact damage of cfrp.

Advic and Saha (2011) provided a finite element simulation of the tensile test carried
out on a multidirectional carbon fiber reinforced composite material for predicting the
distribution of stress and strain along the thickness of composite specimen. The results
obtained from the numerical simulation analysis is compared with those obtained from the
tensile test experiment carried out on the specimen for calculating the elastic modulus, stress,
strain and loads of the specimen. It was found that depending on the orientation of ply, there
is a slight variation in mechanical strength, strain and failure load of the specimen. Tensile
tests were carried out by Advic and Saha (2011) on a fiber-epoxy composite specimens
having 12 plies of carbon fiber composite and 3 plies of E-glass fiber composite with
different ply orientations of 00, 900, 450 and -450. The tests were carried out on a universal
testing machine by fixing using side action grips to find the maximum tensile strength and the
fracture strain. The tension was applied to the specimen by the displacement action of the
side action grips. The specimen is T700SC12KFOE carbon fiber/epoxy composite having a
free length of 186mm and the deformation rate applied is 1.2mm/min. Non-contact
optical2D/3D deformation measuring system is used to measure the strain responses using
digital image correlation method using high-resolution digital cameras. The strain increase
was found to be constant with the increase in load and the specimen was failed at 1.69%
strain. The failure is the straight line of fracture perpendicular to the length and with 45 0 and

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-450 plies, separation of small pieces was observed. The tensile test experiment was simulated
numerically by Advic and Saha (2011) using ABAQUS finite element software. The same test
specimen as used for experimental tensile test is numerically modelled using the three
dimensional deformable planar shell as well as solid elements. Element types used in
ABAQUS are S4R for shell model, SC8R for the solid continuum shell model and C3D8R
for solid model. The numerically obtained results are compared with those obtained from the
experimental test and it is linear variation was observed in the load-strain graphs. All the
specimens were having instantaneous failure exhibiting linear elastic behaviour having no
plasticity. The shear stress and shear strains are having higher values for 45 0 plies but in 00
and 900 plies, they are small and negligible. The study however didn’t test the specimen up to
high strain rate, and this is motivation for the proposed research PhD project.

Ullah(2012) et al performed a series of simulations to study the deformation damage

evolution in CFRP for deflection bending. In this study, single and multilayers cohesive zone
elements are modelled to incorporate the behaviour of inter ply delamination. It was shown
from that damage initiation is mesh sensitive for size cohesive zone elements. There were
several experiments conducted in order to obtain material properties and verifying numerical
models. The simulation results were found to be quite close to the experimental data and the
simulations models found to have capability to reproduce the failure mechanisms in
composite laminates. The author also suggested that it was really critical to have some range
of cohesive elements’ stiffness values in order to get closer with the experiments results.
From the paper it relates to the proposed PhD research where there will be microscale
modelling that involved cohesive interaction between fiber and matrix as well as macroscale
modelling (exact dimension with the real specimen/tensile test coupon) which involved
cohesive interaction between plies. In order to get the results close to the experimental, it is
required to get the values of cohesive stiffness right.

2.4 Effect of Strain Rate on Mechanical Properties

Pardo et al (2002) performed tests of unidirectional E-Glass/polyester composite

specimens on a Schenck high strain rate hydraulic test machine to study the effect of strain
rate on tensile properties. The use of servo hydraulic machines can mitigate the issue of wave
propagation, which in turns great in producing reliable results .Different fiber orientation

15
composite was tested at range of strain rate from quasi static up to 20m/s. The problem of
performing tests at high velocity was solved by amending the geometry of the specimen and
reducing the shock at the gripping area in order to get reliable findings of material properties.
The failure of the pure unidirectional fibers was found to be linear and brittle. The rate effect
on the calculated maximum stress was significant for 90˚ orientation composite while the
mechanical characteristic of the 0˚ vary quite minimal. From the paper it relates to the
proposed PhD research that the use of servo hydraulic machines to study the effect of strain
rate on tensile properties can mitigate the issue of wave propagation, which in turns great in
producing reliable results.

Figure 2.3 : Longitudinal and Transverse Direction for Unidirectional Composite

Hou and Ruiz (2000), performed testing on CFRP T300/914 laminates at different
strain rates from 10-4s-1 to 103s-1. Specimen’s geometry was made in rectangular cross section
for ±45. It was found from the experiments that tensile modulus and strength in 0˚ direction
was rate dependant and results of tests on ±45 specimens produced nonlinear stress strain
relation”. It was also found that specimens remain in the elastic mode up to the point of
failure and exhibit brittle behavior. Figure 2.3 shows the longitudinal and transverse direction
in the context of unidirectional composite.

Gilat, A (2002) et al, studied the strain rate dependant behavior of IM7/977-2
carbon/epoxy matrix composite in tension is studied by testing various laminate
configurations at different strain rates up to 400-600s -1. The experiment was performed using
SHPB and low rate tests were conducted on conventional hydraulic testing machine. To avoid
the uncertainties in the data interpretation due to different set ups, the geometry of the
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specimens were kept same throughout the experiment. Strain rate showed significant effect
on material response. General observation from the experiment conclude that response at
higher strain rate is stiffer and stress strain curve increased more rapidly with increasing
strain rates. Higher maximum stresses were associated with deformation at higher strain rates.
It is well understood from the paper said above that stress strain curve of composite increases
more rapidly with increasing strain rates. Tsai and Sun (2002), had developed a constitutive
model using non zero axis composite specimens in order to characterize the high strain rate
response of composite materials. Based on the experimental data, a viscoplasticity model was
developed for strain rates up to 1/s and validated with data obtained from high strain rate
experiments conducted on SHPB using off-axis specimens. They used rate dependant
constitutive model based on low strain rate tension tests on off-axis coupon specimens to
predict the dynamic laminate response observed in the SHPB test. However, the assumption
was the material behaves similarly for tension and compression. The study helps us to
understand about the tests and processes involved to predict the dynamic laminate response
observed in the SHPB.

Figure 2.4 Stress Strain Curve of Composite with Increasing Strain Rate

The Figure 2.4 shows the stress strain curve of typical unidirectional composite with
increasing strain rate. Taniguchi et al (2007) performed experiments on high strain rate
tensile test using split hopkinson bar technique on unidirectional CFRP. They found that
tensile modulus and strength in the longitudinal direction are independent of the strain rate.
Meanwhile the value of tensile properties in the transverse direction and the shear properties
increase with the stain rate. It was also observed that the strain rate dependence of the shear
strength is significant than that of the transverse strength. It was also concluded that the

17
tensile strength can be characterized quite closely with the Tsai-Hill failure criterion
computed under dynamic loading condition.

An experimental strain-rate campaign was conducted to study the dynamic properties

of unidirectional E-glass/epoxy and done at TSRL lab in University of Southampton. The
project was conducted by Labriola (2006). The material behaviour was characterized under
diverse configurations used in yacht construction and over a strain-rate range typical of boats
applications. Unidirectional E-glass/epoxy were noted to improve their ultimate strength and
strain to failure more than two times the static value in all the configuration tested. The thesis
was selected to be one of the reference papers in terms of finite element modelling validation
especially with the use of RVE to represent homogenous material. Since the material used in
the project by Labriola (2006) was E-glass/epoxy, currently author is doing some modelling
and simulation to validate the RVE with comparison of experimental results.

2.5 Representative Element Volume (RVE)

Michel et al (1999) said that instead of predicting the mechanical property of

composite, they used homogenization technique and consideration of RVE to predict the
overall property from microscopic level. The selective RVE should be comparable, and
should be suffice enough to present the feature of the material and as small as possible to
reduce the computation cost. More importantly, the RVE should have the same volume
friction with the composite. (Baaijens et al (2001).Prediction of the mechanical property of a
unidirectional fiber reinforced composite has been an active research area. The conventional
method of doing it is by performing experiment, but doing that is very time consuming and
costly. Therefore numerical simulation is an alternative in prediction of the overall property
of Unidirectional composite. The homogenization method normally will encompass of two
scales, Macro scale and Micro Scale. Macro scale is usually referred to a homogenized size,
and micro scale is usually related to a representative volume element.RVE should have the
same volume fraction with the composite. (Baaijens et al (2001)

18
 Figure 2.5 Example of RVE for to represent homogenous of material

Thiruppukuzhi et al (2001) and Krempl et al (1995) shows that despite the differences
in the micro structure, similarities in the deformation behavior have been observed between
metals and polymers. It raised substantial interest in the research community in adapting well
established plastic and viscoplastic constitutive equations for metals to model the nonlinear,
strain rate sensitive deformation of polymers unmasked polymer matrix composites. Huang,
Z.M (2002) in his research conducting RVE/unit cell of composite in representing the whole
composite, where his study focussed on thermo-mechanical response of composite. In this
study, the micromechanical approach is used for the modeling of composites. In this study,
the micromechanical approach is used for the modelling of composites.

With recent developments in computational speed and micromechanics, it become

necessary to build models which enhance the computational capabilities that greatly
simplifies the pre-processing stage of the analysis to find material properties, failure criteria,
or constitutive laws for materials. By using representative volume element, it is possible to
study the behaviour of material under high strain rate condition. The objective is to develop
equivalent continuum in such a way that, in a certain sense, simulate the average mechanical

19
response as the actual homogenous material. Composite materials subjected to tensile loads,
exhibit significant material as well as geometric non linearity before damage initiation,
particularly with respect to shear deformations. The mechanical behaviour of a composite
laminates is expected to be modelled using nonlinear elastic-brittle behaviour as well as in
built material models available in commercial software Abaqus. The results of simulations
will be compared with experimental data.

Figure 2.6: Unit cell on square packed array RVE

Unit cell on square packed array has been chosen to represent the homogenization of cfrp at
this research stage. There are some other RVE shapes such as hexagonal packed array but for
this stage of research author will concentrate on the square packed array for simplicity.

20
Chapter 3
Research Methodology

3.1 Introduction
The tensile test results will validate the material modelling simulated in ABAQUS (finite
element software). With the information and date provided by the experimental tests, a
variety of methods that include nonlinear model will formulate to model the rate dependent
response of CFRP. The methods will encompass macromechanical (composite modelled as
one ply/several plies) method and micromechanical method (fiber, matrix and interface
modelled separately). The information from experimental work include the optical technique
of digital image correlation (DIC) and Grid Method image of strain and the deformed image.
The characterization data will be used for material models in finite element modelling.

Figure 3.1: Uniaxial Tensile Test for Unidirectional Composite

3.2 The description of tests procedures taken at TSRL

 Perform the tensile test using Instron Servo Static test to acquire properties for CFRP
in static loading.
 Perform a tensile test by varying velocity and load rate to study the effect of strain on
the CFRP deformation behavior, material strength and material modulus
 Perform the tensile tests for different type of fiber orientation and thickness (number
of layup)
 Equipments used are: VHS Instron (High Strain Rate) and Servo Static Test (Low
Strain Rate)

21
  Perform the tensile test on VHS Instron on multiple set of geometries/shape of CFRP,
to study the edge effect and boundary condition.
 Use the high resolution camera to capture the deformation image with assistance
associated with signal conditioning amplifier and pulse generator.
 Use the DIC and Grid Method to calculate the strain on the specimen.

Specimen selection and preparation:

The specimen will be placed in small oven to undergo curing of pre-preg graphite-epoxy and
glass epoxy (GFPRP) under a vacuum. The specimen were cut for tensile test,and undergo
layup and orientation depending on fiber orientation and thickness.
Test machines:
VHS Instron Servo-Hydraulic Test Machine
Instron Servo-Hydraulic Test Machine for Static Testing
Data acquisition and measurement:
Extensometer is used to measure the strain captured by the Instron Static Testing Machine,
pulse generator and signal conditioning amplifier. High speed camera is used (with at least
20000 frames per second and high resolution). Digital image correlation and grid method
technique are used for virtual field measurement to capture strain data.

Figure 3.2 Image showing tensile test arrangement set up at TSRL prepared by a PhD
research student

22
3.3 Finite Element Modelling Development

In this study, the aim of the research will be studying and developing rate dependent polymer
and composite micromechanical model from literature experimental results and experiments
done in TSRL by other researchers. The composite will be modelled incorporating
subroutine/user defined material modelling that considers rate dependent failure criteria and
progressive damage. The composite model user defined material modelling will then be
verified with experimental tests data on various polymer and composite types.

Figure 3.3 : Model Development and Validation Strategy for Finite Element
Above diagram shows the flowchart of model development and validation strategy of the
finite element modelling. The finite element works will encompass microscale RVE and full
scale CFRP. The modelling will then be validated with experiment results done at TSRL at
University of Southampton using VHS Instron Machine and other experimental results from
literatures.

23
 Figure 3.4: Flowchart of Finite Element Modelling Work Development

The flowchart shows the finite element modelling work development and the simulation
procedure for the proposed research. The stress and strain analysis will be carried out for the
simulation at earlier stage to see whether the deformation and boundary condition are fine.
The simulation will be performed as accordance to the reference experimental techniques as
the results will be compared and validated against. At the first year of the research, it is
expected that elastic region will be studied in detail. At second year onwards, the damage
initiation will be included in the research and check for composite material failure theory as
used by scholars in this field such as Hashin’s Damage criteria, puck’s failure theorem, Tsai-
Wu, Tsai-Hill. Comparison with experimental results obtained at TSRL by other PhD
research student and experimental results from literatures.

24
Chapter 4
The Current Finite Element Modelling Work

4.1 Case 1: Tie Constraint Interaction between Fiber and Matrix

The figure shows parameter of

interaction which is tie
constraint has been chosen to
bond the surface of outer fiber
and inner side of matrix to
represent totally bonded
interaction.

Figure 4.1 Interaction between fiber and matrix for case of tie constraint

Two phases (Parts) – Matrix and Fiber (CFRP T800)

Dimension of : 14µm Diameter 42 µm (side of matrix), with 100 µm length
Tie constraint (Interaction) between matrix and fiber (100% tie)
Two sides axially and back side constraint (boundary conditions encastre,
U1=U2=U3=URF=0)
Abaqus Standard (Implicit)

The load applied at one end and fixed on another is 2X10 -5N/µmeter2 (Tensile direction)
considering value taken from literature on bird strike impact. As for this geometry, the
interaction is constraint between fiber and matrix, the fiber and matrix is tied perfectly at the
initial state before loading take place. This represents the perfectly bonded interface between
fiber and matrix.

25
Result

The contour of v misses stress in σ 33 in

the z direction (same direction of
loading). When the load (tensile
load) applied in the fiber direction,
the matrix tend to deform quite
heavily due to it is stress compatible
with fiber and because having less
Young Modulus (E), it deformed
largely as compared to matrix. Due to
both sides being constraint, the
deformation allows the stretching in y
direction for the outer surface of the
matrix.

Figure 4.2 : Tie Constraint Interaction Under Static Loading

Figure 4.2 shows tie constraint interaction under implicit loading , with tensile loading of -2
X10-5N/µmeter2

Cross section view of RVE showing

high concentration of stress at the tip
(interface between the fiber and
matrix) is highest. It is due to stress
concentration and intact constraint on
the interface.

Figure 4.3 Cross Section View of RVE under Static Loading

26
Figure shows cross section of tie constrain interaction under implicit loading , with tensile
stress of -2 X10-5N/µmeter2

Contour of. S33 (same direction of

loading) computed on the node at the
centre of the fiber is 2.1824 X 10-5
N/µmeter2 and the value of S33 of
neighbouring matrix node is in the
range of 1.79 X 10-5 N/µmeter2 to
1.84 X 10-5 N/µmeter2

Figure 4.4 Contour of Stress in z/33 Direction

Figure 4.4 shows contour of stress in z direction (longitudinal)of tie constraint interaction
under implicit loading , with tensile stress of -2 X10-5N/µmeter2

At the fixed end of the RVE, where it

was applied pinned boundary condition
where there are no displacement in x,y,z
direction as well as rotation in x,y, z
direction, the contour of von misses
stress are shown as above. The value of
S33 of the centre node on fiber (top
surface fixed end) was found to be of
value 1.38163 X 10-5 N/µmeter2

Figure 4.5 Fixed End Contour of RVE

Figure 4.5 shows the contour of the fixed end of the RVE showing high stress held by the fiber

27
Materials properties for fiber, carbon fiber T700 (isotoropic)

Figure 4.6 Materials Properties Selection for T700 Fiber

Figure 4.7 Materials properties setting for matrix, epoxy resin (isotoropic)

Another set of simulation has been performed that consider the smaller dimension of RVE
under implicit loading with new dimension of 7 µmeter fiber diameter and 10.5 µmeter each
side of matrix, the result as follow is obtained:

28
 The deformation of matrix is much
significant as compared to fiber.
Constraining all sides of the matrix
and forcing the deformation at z
direction due to the tensile stress of
2X10-5 N/

Dimension reduced to 7µmeter fiber

diameter and 10.5 µmeter matrix
side, 100 µmeter length

Figure 4.8 Deformation of RVE

With the same dimension and

loading condition being changed
to both tensile loading, but this
time with all outer surfaces of
matrix being constraint, the same
phenomenon of deformation of
matrix was discovered as
compared to fiber.

Figure 4.9 Deformation of RVE under Both Sides Under Tensile Stress

Figure 4.9 shows deformation at both ends (where tensile stresses were applied) with
all side surfaces constraint. The contour of von mises stresses for the case of both ends being
applied with tensile load. The deformation at the surface where the tensile stress was applied
was quite significant. It occur both ends since the tensile stresses were applied at both ends.
Since the all the outer side surfaces were constraint to represent the practical behaviour of
RVE at micro level where the adjacent neighbouring fiber and matrix will impose constraint
of movement in displacement axially. As from the figure, it can be seen that the only way the
deformation can propagate is in the direction of loading where there is no restriction applied.

29
Stress concentration is seen at the interface between fiber and matrix as well as at the surface
where constraint was applied.

4.1.1 Explicit/Dynamic Loading Case (Tie Constraint)

Since the research is focusing on the characterization of cfrp under high strain rate, the RVE
model of tie constraint interaction also being simulated under dynamic/explicit loading using
Abaqus. For the case where the loading environment of explicit/dynamic, futher details of the
conditions are as follow:

Two phases (Parts) – Matrix and Fiber (CFRP T800)

Dimension of RVE: 14µm diameter of fiber 42 µm (side of matrix), with 100 µm length
Tie constraint (Interaction) between matrix and fiber (100% tie)
Two sides axially and back side constraint (boundary conditions encastre,
U1=U2=U3=URF=0)
Abaqus Explicit
Total time set as tabular amplitude format being applied to represent ramp increment within
0.001s.

No major deformation occur on matrix

and fiber. The inertia effect comes into
play. The same tensile stress of 2 X10-
5
N/µmeter2 applied at very short time of
value 0.001s, unable to depict any
significant deformation on matrix and
fiber. More energy needed to deform the
material in explicit loading.

Figure 4.10 Von misses stresses contour obtained from result of simulation for RVE under
explicit loading

30
 When the time being changed to
0.001s and the amplitude of loading
being applied in such a way that it acts
as ramp format (as representing the
same loading method done in the lab),
and the tensile stress being increased
to 3.33X10-4 N/µmeter2, the contour of
v misses stresses are shown as below;

Figure 4.11 Tabular amplitude method to define tensile loading (ramp increment) in explicit

There is no significant deformation

seen in the matrix region, when
tensile stress of magnitude
3.33X10-4 N/µmeter2 being applied,
as most of the stress is held by the
fiber. Contour of stress is centric at
the middle of the fiber along the
z/longitudinal direction at the end
of the duration of loading.

Figure 4.12 Contour of von misses stresses for explicit case (tie constraint) with tensile
stress of 3.33X10-4 N/µmeter2

31
The contour of stress in z direction S33 obtained is as follow;

Figure 4.13 Contour of Von misses stresses in z direction for explicit case (tie constraint)
with tensile stress of 3.33X10-4 N/µmeter2

The contour of stress in z

direction shows increment after
applied higher tensile stress in
dynamic loading. Contour of
high concentration stress
depicted on the fiber than the
matrix.

Figure 4.14 Contour of von misses stress in z direction for explicit case (tie constraint) with
tensile stress of 2X10-3 N/µmeter2

32
 The displacement taken at
one of the node on the surface
of fiber where the tensile
stress is applied shows
increment in linear mode with
respect to time.

Figure 4.15 Plot of spatial displacement against time for selected node on the surface of
fiber (direction of tensile stress)

From the plot we can says that It needs more tensile stress to deform the model, hence more
energy needed to allow deformation for the case of dynamic loading in short total time 1ms.

Figure 4.16 Plot of spatial displacement(micrometer) against total time for explicit case of
tie constraint when applied the mass scaling of 2

The effect of mass scaling factor of 2 has resulted in the fewer increment needed to complete
the simulation.

33
Figure 4.17 The graph shows the spatial displacement (µm) of a selected centroid on outer
surface of fiber

The above graph shows explicit case for two value of tensile stresses and the higher stress
significantly increase the deformation in z direction for displacement. The fluctuating pattern
on the plot depicts the dynamic and inertial effect of the behaviour throughout the loading
time 0.001s.

34
 Stress-Strain Plot with Variation of Velocity Displacement
(taken on fiber surface tie constraint)
Stress (N/µm2)

0.0012

0.001

velcocity displacement 50/s

0.0008
velocity displacement 100/s
velocity displacement 300/s

0.0006 velovity displacement 500/s

0.0004

0.0002

0 Strain (%)
-5.00E-04 0.00E+00 5.00E-04 1.00E-03 1.50E-03 2.00E-03 2.50E-03
Figure 4.18 Plot of stress-strain for tie constraint interaction under different velocity
displacement computed from a centroid of fiber.

The above plot of stress-strain relationship for tie constraint shows little difference in trend,
where increment of strain rate (from velocity displacement) has resulted in increase of
mechanical properties of the model. Although the material properties the model has been
inputted initially the dynamic explicit loading behaviour, inertial effect and possible change
in stiffness of the model has resulted in the trend of plot as depicted in the graph.

Conclusion

Significant displacement was seen for fiber at the z direction (same direction where the
tensile stress is applied).It shows that the deformation vary accordance to the applied
load/tensile stress. The tensile stress was increased dramatically to 2X10-3N/ µm2.Severe
deformation was seen with increment of tensile stress as compared to the previous tensile

35
stress of 3.33X10-4N/µm2. Higher energy needed to displace the model (fiber and matrix) and
yield the deformation in the outcome of the simulation. The relation of Energy/Work needed
to displace an object = Force (Tension) X Displacement (Spatial Displacement) for model.
What is probably changing with strain rate is the stiffness of the structure. Contact provides a
non-linearity to the problem and hence may effect the overall stiffness. When we increase the
prescribed velocity, it will change the mechanical strain rate of the model and might show
inertia effects. This has resulted in the plot of stress strain relationship computed from the
centroid of fiber surface for tie constraint case.

4.2 Case 2 : Interaction of Penalty – Friction

4.2.1 Static/Implicit Loading Condition

Mode of interaction; normal

behaviour: Penalty hard contact.
Tangential behaviour: Frictionless (0
friction). This is the case to simulate
the possibility of fiber experienced
total debonding at micro scale. When
this happen, at high uniaxial tensile
stress, the fiber will be pulled out
without any traction influenced by
adjacent matrix.

Figure 4.19 Parameter setting of frictionless interaction between fiber and matrix under
implicit tensile loading

36
 Tensile stress applied in 0.01s in
static/implicit condition. The tensile
stress magnitude of to 2X10-5N/ µm2
being applied. This imply the
situation where there is a complete
debonding occur during high
loading/impact where matrix under
high deformation due to lower
young modulus as compared to fiber.

Figure 4.20 Deformation of matrix and fiber under loading for frictionless fiber/matrix
interaction.

Figure 4.21 Deformation of matrix and fiber under loading for frictionless fiber/matrix
interaction

As can be seen from the figures above the deformation of matrix is very substantial as
compared to fiber for load driven and not displacement driven as for usual case for tensile
test. As the young modulus of matrix is far lower than fiber, it is expected that matrix
37
deformed faster and longer than fiber.

The setting of contact formulation between

surface of fiber and matrix is shown in the
side figure. The contact behaviour had been
chosen as frictionless in the tangential
direction and hard contact in normal
direction.

Figure 4.22 Parameter setting of contact (tangential behaviour and normal behaviour)

The plot of displacement in µm

taken from a node at the surface of
fiber where the tensile stress was
applied. The variation of
displacement is linearly increasing
due to frictionless behaviour
between fiber and matrix.

Figure 4.23 The variation of displacement against time (taken at a node of fiber where the
tensile stress applied)

If there is debonding or mismatch in the contact between fiber and matrix, during the
manufacturing phase or after impact, the deformation of matrix as compared to fiber in the
tension mode is quite significant in terms of the displacement. It can be depicted from the
plot of displacement versus time of a node taken from the model which located at the very
end of the model (matrix part), where the tensile stress was applied.

38
 Stress v misses (S33) for case
penalty coefficient of friction 0.4,
for 45% Volume Fraction and Run
in Explicit at initial timeframe
Step-11 Tensile Test: -2 X 10-5
N/µmeter2

Figure 4.24 Stress S33 contour distribution for dynamic explicit case penalty interaction

The contour of stress in z direction

obtained when tensile stress
of2X10-5N/µmeter2 being applied
to one end and fixed at the other.
The matrix didn’t deform as much
as in static case. No significant
different in deformation between
matrix and fiber although matrix
has far lower young modulus.

Figure 4.25 Contour of von misses stress in z direction for case of frictionless contact in
explicit/dynamic loading of -2X10-5N/µmeter2

39
 The loading is set in the dynamic
explicit condition. The change in
strain rate was taken from the
result of varying the velocity in
the boundary condition. The
increment in the strain rate from
varying the velocity of boundary
condition applied in z direction
implied to one end of fiber and
matrix to represent tensile loading,
has resulted in the pattern of stress
strain plot as depicted. There is
significant different on the plot at
increment of strain rate due to the
frictionless interaction between
fiber and matrix. The value of
strain rate is taken at mean value
for the whole total time taken
during loading.

Figure 4.26 Plot of stress against strain from a node taken at the surface of the fiber(centre)
for frictionless interaction.

4.3 Case 3: Zero Thickness Cohesive Interaction between Fiber and Matrix

The third case is of zero thickness interaction between fiber and matrix to represent the
closest interaction that exists as a result of composite manufacturing. There are numerous
papers by scholars in this community that discussed on this type of interaction which merely
focus on very tiny (close to zero) chemistry-mechanical adhesive interaction between fiber
and matrix. The author has modeled several models of this type interaction so far and able to
produce some findings that worth to explore and deepen in future to characterize cfrp under
high strain rate loading.

4.3.1 Cohesive Interface between materials

An interface is widely considered as a mathematical concept, the common boundary of

reinforcing fibre and matrix which maintain the bond in between for the transfer of loads.
This leads to consider the thickness of this interface as equals to zero. Furthermore, its
physical and mechanical properties are unique from the fibre and the matrix. In opposition to
this concept, some authors are using the word of interphase, which is denoted as a region of

40
light volume extending from the bulk fibre through the actual interface into the matrix. Then
it embraces all the volume altered during the fabrication process of the composite. As a
consequence, the chemical, physical and mechanical properties of the inter-phase vary
continuously or in a stepwise manner along the finite thickness. However, as these adhesion
mechanisms are reduced to mechanical properties, the distinction of those two concepts is
often ignored. Indeed, the interface properties are essentially reduced to:
• The shear and tension strengths
• The critical strain energy release rate for mode I, II and III (GIC, GIIC,GIIIC).
These quantities are measured by means of two type of tests:
• In the first category fall the tests in which fibre are embedded in specially constructed
blocks of matrix (single fibre compression test, fibre fragmentation test, fibre pull/push-out
test, slice compression test) which are used to determine the bond shear and tension strengths.
• The second type is represented by the inter-laminar/intra-laminar tests where bulk
laminate composites are used (Double Cantilever Beam (DCB) test to estimate GIC, End
Notched Flexure or End Loaded Slit test to estimate GIIC).

4.3.2 Cohesive elements in ABAQUS

The finite element code ABAQUS, which has been used in this project includes special
cohesive elements to model adhesive joints or bonded interfaces taking into account
degradation of material properties. It is possible to denote three types of responses of these
elements:
• Continuum,
• Traction/separation and
• Gasket.
In this particular research the author consider the interfaces between fibre and matrix, the
constitutive thickness of the elements which is basically considered to zero. This directly
implies the use of cohesive element behaviour denoted in terms of traction separation law.
Failure mechanisms can generally be modelled in two steps:
• Damage initiation criterion
• Damage evolution law
As in the current work, the author used a reference paper to pick the value of cohesive
element mechanical properties for the finite element model. These values of Knn, Ktt, Kss are
not accurate and subjected to error. The author tried to show that those values can affect the
41
the behaviour of response and deformation of fiber and matrix under dynamic loading in
short period of time. The response of the cohesive elements in the model is specified through
the cohesive section definition as a traction-separation response type. The elastic properties of
the cohesive layer material are specified in terms of the traction-separation response with
arbitrary stiffness values .The quadratic traction-interaction failure criterion is selected for
damage initiation in the cohesive elements; and a mixed-mode, energy-based damage
evolution law based on a power law criterion is selected for damage propagation.

4.3.3 Contact status and mesh of interface elements

The constitutive thickness of interface elements is basically very thin compared to the whole
model dimensions. Furthermore, compatible meshes between cohesive and surrounding
elements have to be carefully constructed. As for the models that have been formed, orphan
mesh has been selected for the fiber, matrix and interphase to represent zero thickness
cohesive interaction. This is as suggested by the Abaqus Manual Documentation 6.9-3 in
order to make the simulation smooth by refining the interaction between the element meshing
with each other at different phase (fiber/matrix)

42
Figure 4.27 The stress strain relationship for zero thickness cohesive interaction taken from
a node on fiber surface

The above plot shows the relationship of stress strain curve for zero thickness interaction
between fiber and matrix. The values were taken from center of the fiber surface. There is
very insignificant difference between the values due to cohesive interface between the surface
of fiber and matrix. The function of stiffness in normal, tangential and transverse direction
holds the fiber and matrix in traction mode during the dynamic loading.

4.4 Case 4: Cohesive Element (Interphase modeled separately between fiber and
matrix)

In the fourth model, separate phase (cohesive element) has been modeled with definite
thickness (one micron).The mesh region for this element is swept bottom up. Other option as
stated in the abaqus manual to model cohesive element with finite thickness is to create a
solid element mesh, covert it to a mesh part (orphan mesh) then offset a surface mesh to
create a mid-plane model. The author in this case has used the former method. There are
some papers in modelling the cohesive interaction between plies in composite used that latter
method. As for the future work, author decided not to further study in this type of interaction
and believe zero thickness cohesive interaction, tie constraint, penalty-friction interaction are
more realistic to characterize cfrp under high strain rate.

Figure 4.28 Cohesive element model in Abaqus (3D model) left and the whole assembly
model (right)

43
Figure above shows the 3D model of cohesive element and whole model in 3D which have
been meshed bottom up swept considering complexity in contact and interaction of adhesive
as recommended in Abaqus manual documentation 6.9-3.

Figure 4.29 The parameters of cohesive element set in Abaqus (Section and Material
Properties)

Figure shows the input for cohesive element modelled in Abaqus. The response chosen was
traction separation to exhibit the traction and separation behaviour after loading. Quads
damage has been chosen to characterize the damage behaviour of the cohesive element where
nominal stress in normal, shear and tangential direction have been inputted based on arbitrary
values taken from reference paper.

44
Figure 4.30 Stress distribution for 3D model of cohesive element after minimal loading of –
2X10-5N/µm2

After several increment of tensile stress applied on the model (at one end and fixed at the
other), up until -200N/µm2 in order to visualize what happen in the deformation and stress
distribution of the model, it was seen that the behaviour depend on several factors. Most of
the influential factors that determine the stress distribution matrix, cohesive interface and
fiber under uniaxial tensile stress, are Knn, Ktt, Kss, E/Knn,G1/Knn,G2/Knn and damage
parameters. Increasing the value of Knn, Ktt and Kss will make the interaction more stronger
and hold the fiber and matrix at certain stress limit. This represents traction behaviour in
cohesive.

45
Figure 4.31 Deformed model after applied high tensile stress (left), paramters settings for
elastic cohesive material properties (right)

Above figures shows deformation that occur when 200N/µm2 tensile stress is applied on one
end of the model. As the pressure applied is too high to be beared by the matrix (deformed
heavily) and cohesive element ruptured outside the region. The fiber shows high stress
distribution throughout the region. Since the behaviour is very unlikely to be represented in
this type of model (three parts;matrix, cohesive element and fiber), the author decided not to
proceed futher study on this type of simulation and concentrate on the behaviour of tie
constraint, zero thickness cohesive interaction and penalty contact with friction between fiber
and matrix.

4.5.1 2D Cohesive Simulation with Crack Initiation (Paper reference)

A reference paper, Alfaro, M. Suiker, A. (2010) Transverse Failure Behavior of Fibre-epoxy

systems, Journal of Composite Materials, vol 44. No. 12/2010, has been studied in the aim of
remodel and simulate the behavior of fiber and matrix with cohesive element and zero
thickness cohesive interaction but this time in the transverse direction. The composite used in
the model was GFRP and modeled in 2D RVE. The models consists of both zero thickness
cohesive and zero thickness element (with definite thickness). The simulation take into
consideration matrix cracking with the use of The XFEM function which is included in the
interaction module, in CAE: Interaction module -> Special -> crack -> manager and crack

46
growth is included by a interaction, in the initial step. The relaxation parameter is given in the
research of Alfaro and Suiker, and the rest of the material properties used in the simulation
are given in the table below:

Fibre                
E-modulus 86.9GPa = 86900N/mm2 = 0.0869N/um2
Poisson's Ratio 0.23             
Epoxy  
E-modulus 3.9GPa = 3900N/mm2 = 0.0039N/um2
Poisson's Ratio 0.37             
Fibre-Epoxy interface  
Elastic stiffness 1.00E+08N/mm3 = 0.10N/um2
Ultimate normal and shear strengths 25MPa = 25N/mm2 = 0.000025N/um2
Mode I and mode II fracture
toughnesses 0.5N/mm = 0.0005N/um
Relaxation parameter 0.002s            
Epoxy interface  
Elastic stiffness 1.00E+08N/mm3 = 0.10N/um2
Ultimate normal and shear strengths 50MPa = 50N/mm2 = 0.00005N/um2
Mode I and mode II fracture
toughnesses 0.5N/mm = 0.0005N/um
Relaxation parameter 0.002s            
Table 4.1 Fibre, Epoxy and Fibre-Epoxy Interface Material Properties as Alfaro and Suiker
(2010)
As the research is currently focusing on the high strain rate characterization of cfrp, the
possibility of zero thickness cohesive interaction between the fiber and matrix are included in
the set of rve modelling to represent the homogenization of cfrp. Author tried to model
exactly the model and parameters suggested in the paper to exhibit the possibility of
debonding that occur during the transverse loading condition. In the proposed research the
author just consider longitudinal loading, which might not exhibit any debonding as the fiber
orientation set as 0º degree and without any crack inititation inclusion such as XFEM
function in the simulation. It also shows that other researcher and scholar also consider the
cohesive interaction between fiber and marix at microlevel in their study. The future work of
the proposed research will include modelling of RVE with other fiber orienation such as 15º
and 45º, that will involve the shear stress effect that relate to transverse loading that will
initiate debonding of fiber from matrix.

47
Figure 4.32 The model of 2D with inclusion of XFEM function

Figure 4.33 Result of simulation shows the debonding occur under transverse tensile loading

Figure 4.34 Debonding behaviour of fiber from matrix as result of transverse loading

48
4.5.2 Revised RVE Simulation Under Static and Dynamic Loading

A revised representative volume element (RVE) in terms of the length dimension from 100
µmeter as previous model to 10 µmeter for the revised as it is realized that in order to model
fiber orientation of 15, 30, 45, 60, and 75, it needs reasonable shape of RVE to represent the
homogenous CFRP with different fiber orientation. The finite element modelling has been
performed for attemp to validate with a paper reference by Norihiko Taniguchi, Tsuyoki
Nishiwaki, Hiroyuki Kawada, Tensile strength of unidirectional CFRP laminate under high
strain rate, Advanced Composite Materials, Vol 16, No 2, pp 167-180 (2007). The author
studied the tensile strength of unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced plastics under a high
strain rate. A high strain rate test was performed using the tension test split Hopkinson bar
method. The experimental results demonstrated that the tensile modulus and strength in the
longitudinal direction are independent of the strain rate. In contrast, the tensile properties in
the transverse direction and the shear properties increase with the strain rate.

0 degree fiber orientation 15 degree fiber orientation

49
30 degree fiber orientation 45 degree fiber orientation

60 degree fiber orientation 75 degree fiber orientation

90 degree fiber orientation

Figure 4.35 Deformation and Contour of Varying Fiber Orientation on RVE

50
 EXPERIMENT DATA
0 15 30 45 90
ε σ ε σ ε σ ε Σ ε σ
0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.0035 0.0004 0.0006 0.0000 0.0009 0.0000 0.0012 0.0000 0.0014 0.0000
    0.0013 0.0001 0.0016 0.0000 0.0023 0.0000 0.0028 0.0000
    0.0020 0.0001 0.0027 0.0001 0.0036 0.0000 0.0043 0.0000
    0.0026 0.0001 0.0042 0.0001 0.0046 0.0001 0.0058 0.0000
    0.0033 0.0001 0.0053 0.0001 0.0057 0.0001 0.0072 0.0001
    0.0042 0.0002 0.0067 0.0001 0.0072 0.0001 0.0088 0.0001
    0.0053 0.0002 0.0084 0.0001 0.0084 0.0001 0.0100 0.0001
    0.0067 0.0002 0.0099 0.0001 0.0090 0.0001 0.0120 0.0001
    0.0081 0.0002 0.0113 0.0001        
    0.0101 0.0002 0.0131 0.0001        
    0.0115 0.0002 0.0152 0.0001        
    0.0130 0.0002            
    0.0146 0.0002            

Table 4.2 Experimental data extracted from reference paper

The table above shows the plot from experiment extracted from the paper using
GetData.Graph.Digitizer.v2.22.Cracked-SSG

0 Degree 15 Degree 30 Degree 45 Degree 90 Degree

ε σ ε σ ε σ ε σ ε σ
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.000288 0.000173 0.000549 0.000322 0.000593 0.000344 0.00109 0.000323 0.001101 0.000343
0.000576 0.000346 0.001098 0.000644 0.001185 0.000689 0.002179 0.000646 0.002203 0.000685
0.001008 0.000605 0.001922 0.001127 0.001778 0.001033 0.003814 0.00113 0.003855 0.001199
0.001657 0.000995 0.003158 0.001852 0.002371 0.001378 0.006265 0.001856 0.006333 0.00197
0.002629 0.001579 0.005011 0.002939 0.002964 0.001722 0.009943 0.002946 0.01005 0.003126
0.002881 0.00173 0.005491 0.003221 0.003556 0.002066 0.010896 0.003228 0.011014 0.003426
0.004149 0.002411
0.004742 0.002755
0.005335 0.0031
0.005927 0.003444
Table 4.3 Data obtained from simulation using Abaqus

51
Figure 4.36 Experiment data plot obtained from reference paper

52
Figure 4.37 Plot obtained from finite element modelling software Abaqus simulation set as
strain dependant

As per above graph, the plot shows that there are significant difference in terms of plot of
stress against strain for experiment and numerical simulation via micromodelling RVE. The
value of stress for numerical simulation needed to reach the same strain for the experimental,
was computed higher approximately by the factor of 7. This might due to some possibilities
such as the stress calculated at microscale as assumed in the hyphothesis is not equivalent to
microlevel as calculated. In the coversion of value of stress obtained from the experiment, for
instance 400MPa is converted to microscale stress value as 400 X 10 6 N/m2 X 10-12 = 0.0004
N/µm2.

53
Figure 4.38 Graph of Stress Against Strain for Static Case Different Fiber Orientation

Figure 4.39 Graph of Stress Against Strain for Dynamic Loading at 50/s Strain Rate

54
4.6 Macroscale Tensile Test Simulation

Apart from characterizing the cfrp at microscale using the method of representative volume,
RVE, the research will also model and study the macroscale (real scale) of tensile coupon
under dynamic loading and high strain rate. Several models have been simulated to represent
uniaxial at static and dynamic loading. Further models will be developed to simulate the real
loading condition that had taken place in the TSRL lab performed by other PhD student. The
results and observation will be compared and benchmarked in other to validate the finite
element modelling. The critical parameters that should be taken high consideration are
E1,E2,E3, v12,v13,v23, G12,G13,G23 for each composite layer. Apart from that, the other major
influential factors that determine the deformation of the composite are the Longitudinal
Tensile strength, XT, Longitudinal compressive strength, Xc, Longitudinal tensile failure
strain, YT (%), Longitudinal Compressive Failure Strain, Yc (%) and Shear Strength S. There
are also parameters in Hashin’s damage that include Transverse Tensile Strength, Transverse
Compressive Strength, Longitudinal Shear Strength, Transverse Shear Strength. As for the
models that have been simulated so far, it can be concluded that those parameters highly
influenced the behaviour of the model especially the yield after elastic region.

4.6.1 End Tab Configuration Uniaxial Tensile Test

Figure 4.40 The figure of end tab tensile test coupon modelled in Abaqus (left), with uniaxial
tensile load applied (right)

Above figure shows the tensile coupon test configuration under uniaxial tensile loading of
20kN. The material properties of the 8 plies unidirectional CFRP are as shown below:

55
Figure 4.41 Material properties of CFRP T700 as taken from a supplier Gurit Ltd

Figure 4.42 Deformation of tensile coupon test under uniaxial loading of 20kN

The above figure shows the deformation of the tensile test coupon with end tab. The end of
the end tab shows a bit of rotation/bending and elongation in the x direction where the tensile
stress is applied. The model deforms with the load of 20kN applied in static loading but
unable to yield and fracture the tensile coupon since the failure stresses value haven’t been
inputted.

56
Figure 4.43 Elongation of tensile coupon under dynamic loading
4.6.2 Hashin’s Damage Criteria Modelling

Time frame = 4
Time frame = 0

Time frame = 7 Time frame = 12

57
Time frame = 16 Time frame = 20

Figure 4.4. Evolution of tensile test under high strain rate with inclusion of hashin’s damage
criteria (Unidirectional 8 plies)

Figure above shows the evolution from initial time frame, undergoing elastic region
surpassing the yield strength and fractures (as seen on time frame 20). The simulation was
performed with the inclusion of Hashin’s damage criteria. Several attempts on varying the
values in parameters of Hashin’s damage in Abaqus has resulted in different failure mode of
the models. Lowering values of transverse strength, transverse shear strength etc will yield
the coupon even earlier when the 3D stresses developed surpassing those values.

Figure 4.5 One ply unidirectional deformation with hashin’s damage material failure

58
Table 4.4 The material properties used for cfrp modelling (taken from Gurit Ltd)

59
Chapter 5
Finite Element Modelling Discussion

5.1 Dynamic Behaviour and Deformation under High Strain Rate

3D finite element simulation of deformation and damage evolution in fiber reinforced

composites with micromodelling simulation for epoxy resin and carbon fiber has been carried
out. The effect of interface interaction between fiber and matrix has been investigated in
terms of strain and stress distribution of fiber and matrix. It is demonstrated that there is
difference in terms of load distribution and strain experienced by matrix, fiber and interface
as compared to the simulation without the consideration of interface between the fiber and
matrix. The 3D stresses have been examined as well as other effects from the results
(deformed shapes, strains and energies) to get an understanding for the effects of varying the
load and strain rate.

The explicit dynamics procedure is a true dynamic procedure as it was originally

developed to model high-speed impact events. It was shown that explicit dynamics solves for
the state of dynamic equilibrium where inertia can play a dominant role in the solution. It was
also shown that increasing load rates and mass scaling achieve the same effect which was
reducing the time scale of the simulation. As a result, there will be fewer increments needed
to complete the job. As the speed of the process is increased, a state of static equilibrium
evolves into a state of dynamic equilibrium. Inertia forces become more dominant. When
loads are applied, deformation occurs in the component; fiber and matrix. As the component
deforms, it loses its ability to carry the applied stress.

It was supposed that the fibers are held in the matrix by tie constraint, frictional
bonding, and cohesive interaction. It is demonstrated that the interface properties influence
the bearing capacity and deformation of fibers; in the case of the weak fiber/matrix interface,
fiber deformation begins at much lower applied stress than in the case of the strong interface.
As suggested by (Mishnaevsky Jr, 2007), if a fiber reinforced composite is loaded in
longitudinal direction on tensile test, the main part that will fail first will be fiber that hold
most of the tension load. When the weakest fibers fail, the loading on the remaining intact
60
fiber will increase and it will cause the failure of neighbouring fibers. The cracks of the fibers
will lead to the stress concentration in the matrix which than lead to matrix cracking. If the
matrix/fiver interface is weak it will allow the crack to propagate and grow along the
interface.

Dynamic effects will take into account in dynamic explicit where oscillations appear.
In the numerical simulation, we tried to precisely represent the sliding between fiber and
matrix. The stress concentration which is theoretically estimated is monitored. Furthermore,
the behavior of interface elements accurately matches the results expected. Abaqus Explicit
basically works by propagating stress waves through the material. In order for this to work,
the time increments have to be small enough that the stress wave doesn't advance further than
one element in each increment. Abaqus has to solve the problem iteratively based on small
incremental load assumptions and at each increment, Abaqus would have to check for force
balance and residual to ensure it is within the threshold set by you or the default in Abaqus.

It also shown that when the simulation taking too long to run it is an option of
increasing mass scaling, which basically will change the mass of the model so the critical
time period goes up hence fewer increments and shorter job time. For high-speed dynamic
problems, the solution time is comparable to the time required for the wave to propagate
through the structure. This class of problems covers most wave propagation problems and
high-speed impact problems. If the implicit method uses a similar time step it will be much
slower and if it uses a much larger time step it will introduce other solution errors since it will
not be capturing the pertinent features of the solution. Hence, the explicit method is the
optimal choice.

Since the explicit time step size depends on the length of the smallest element, one
excessively small element will reduce the stable time step for the whole model. Mass-scaling
can be applied to these small elements to increase their stable time step. Most of the scholars
in this area found in experiments of high strain rate tensile test the strain rate effect on
mechanical properties of CFRP. As for the research at the moment, the strain rate effect only
obviously seen on elongations. It is expected and planned in the future study of this research
that the user defined material modelling will be used with the input obtained by the

61
experimental results obtained by other researcher. It is expected that increasing strain rate will
effect on increasing tensile strength and tensile fracture strain.

The plot of stress strain obtained from dynamic loading simulation in finite element
software, Abaqus/Explicit shows some inertial effect and dynamic effect. The challenge is to
obtain consistent strain rate throughout the time step and across the area of model. It was also
found that higher energy needed to deform the matrix and fiber at a short period of time.
Current study will try to model different configurations of RVE and attempt to show that
different configuration/fiber orientation has impact on the stress strain relationship under high
strain rate. Since the material modelling is not defined to characterize the high strain rate
sensitive of materials, no increase of young modulus seen on the plot. High strain rate loading
produced higher elongation and strain in linear mode. Future finite element modelling will
tackle the complex and advanced method of finite element modelling that incorporate non
linearity and user defined material modelling with strain rate dependant.

5.2 Summary of work in progress

The summary of the work in progress of my PhD research at the moment is tabulated
in the table below:

62
No Work In Progress / Status Challenges Future Plan/ Time Frame
Research
1 Literature Review Ongoing The suitability of the literatures  Searching and studying
Number of papers referred were 39 to match the proposed project in the literature related to
Most of the papers searched and terms: user defined material
referred were in the area of  Micromodelling of modelling for strain
micromodelling, composite composite utilizing RVE rate dependant material
characterization under high impact to represent the whole modelling for
loadng, CFRP under high strain rate composite composite
loading, fiber and matrix  Damage initiation  Searching literatures
interaction/interface, finite element material modelling for with experimental
modelling of composite under composite (Tsai Wu, results with number of
explicit/dynamic loading, digital Hashin’s, Chang, Puck’s) other researchers citing
image correlation method to study  The full field the work in order to
the strain, cohesive behaviour measurement of strain validate the finite
between fiber and matrix, (using DIC and Grid element modelling
macroscale composite finite Method) and matching  Understanding and
element modelling. with the finite element study the theory on
modelling method damage initiation in
 CFRP with different composite, for example
material modelling, hashin’s, puck’s failure,
elastic –brittle behaviour, maximum stress,
stress strain curve. maximum strain, MLT,
 Micromodelling to Tsai-Wu etc
predict macro level (real  Literature on strain rate
case behaviour) behaviour of
 Bonding interface CFRP/composite
between fiber and  UMAT (Implicit) and
matrix , debonding VUMAT (Explicit) to

63
 behaviour between fiber implement damage
and matrix, material initiation behaviour as
properties of traction in well as damage
the interface. progressive failure in
Abaqus

2 Finite Element Ongoing (80%)
Modelling Completed Model (Micromodelling)
 At the moment the models that
have successfully simulated and
analysed are; RVE model with
14micromemeter diameter and 42
micromemeter side diemsnion
micrometer matrix and 100
micrometer long. The models have
been modelled with different
boundary condition and loading
condition (static and explicit).
Further details as per Appendix A1
 Models of RVE with frictionless
behaviour interaction between fiber
and matrix (case where debonding
occur and the fiber subjected to
high tensile loading)
 Models of RVE with cohesive
element 3D – where cohesive
element is modelled in 3D with
traction-separation behaviour and
elastic-plastic. The simulation have
been completed with
 Models of RVE with zero thickness
 Most of the model have
been run successfully and
resulted in completed
simulation. Further
analysis needed in terms
of deformation plot of
strain.
 The stabilization and
inertia effect in dynamic
explicit
 Abaqus Explicit
simulation depicting most
of the stresses were hold
by the fibers
 Specific time/duration is
needed to simulate the
real tensile test at VHS
Instron high strain tensile
testing
 How to set the strain rate
variation in the model. Is
it by implying
displacement/velocity
controlled (which
simulate the real situation
 Start training (which
include theory part,
fundamental, tutorial)
on subroutine interface
how to write
UMAT/VUMAT in
order to model damage
initiation, material
degradation and
progressive failure in
Abaqus
 Modelling the RVE in
Abaqus with the
inclusion of crack to
see how it propagates
in the matrix
 Modelling of RVE with
several fibers but
having discontinuity to
represent the fiber
breakage; in order to
simulate the behaviour
of material when one
or two fiber breaks,
what happen to the

64
 cohesive element. The models had of the real tensile test at
been simulated for both implict lab) or by applying
(static) and explicit (dynamic). The amplitude parameter
same value and parameters of correspond to the time
traction-separation behaviour have increment or total time
been set. The values should be  The mode of applying the
revised and refined by searching load to the
relevant papers or experimental of specimen/model, is it
fiber pull out data in order to get ramp or instantaneous
better accuracy in behaviour of  The model for of micro
fiber and matrix under loading. The model RVE with cohesive
meshing of bottom up meshing has element needs better
been chosen when modelling cases refinement
for cohesive element model/zero  How small/dimension is
thickness cohesive model due to the cohesive element
complex contact geometry. should be for model.
 Models of 5 fibers and matrix with  How exact is the
very close distance between fibers dimension of RVE?
approximately with 1µm between Needs more scholars
the fibers outer circle edge. The finding/papers to refer
same  The cohesive behaviour
 Models of 5 fibers and matrix with for all the RVEs are very
higher distance between fibers, in mesh sensitive as coarse
order to see the effect of distance mesh didn't produce any
between fiber on stress distribution simulation result. The
and strain. Models were simulated max quads damage in the
in both static/implicit and failure cohesive
dynamic/explicit. element/zero thickness
 Improved model of RVE with close model needs to be
approximation of real dimension; 7 revisited
micrometer fiber. Model simulated  Damage initiation criteria
65
stress concentration on
matrix etc. The
incorporation of UMAT
of damage modelling
for matrix cracking will
be done to exhibit the
effect.
 Damage initiation of
matrix and fiber –
Hashin's failure
criteria, Puck's Failure
criteria, Tsai Wu with
strain rate effect
 MSC Patran for
macroscale composite
model (tensile coupon
test). The reason is
there are in built
features of failure
criteria of composite
such as hashin's failure,
puck's failure, Tsai Hill
for 2D/3D
 Apply different fiber
orientation and volume
fraction for cfrp
modelling (macroscale)
under high strain rate
 Studying how to write
UMAT/VUMAT
subroutine interface in
 on both static/dynamic loading.
 Parameter of time/duration of
loading had been varied in order to
see the variation in simulation
result especially for explicit cases.
Damping factor had been applied in
some cases in order to see the effect
on simulation and results.
 3D models of full scale uniaxial
tensile test coupon under high
strain rate with coupon without end
tab and modelled using composite
layup. Different strain rate been set
by different velocity at boundary
condition.
 3D models of full scale uniaxial
tensile coupon under high strain
rate with end tab. Load applied
using displacement equation.
Different strain rate applied using
tabular method on amplitude.
Ongoing Models on simulation and
analysis
 RVE 3D with shorter length. All the
mechanical properties remain the
same, case for zero thickness case.
The simulation almost completed
and findings will be included in the
report. It was seen from the contour
66
for composites in Abaqus order to include the
6.9 version only offer 2D strain rate dependant
plane stress – hashin's behavior of CFRP
failure criteria and not under high strain rate
available in 3D. It is loading.
required to write  Incorporate brittleness
UMAT/VUMAT for behaviour of fiber and
characterize damage matrix in 3D finite
initiation in 3D models. element modelling
XFEM function available (with the incorporation
in Abaqus 6.11 of UMAT/VUMAT) for
 Material properties of both micromodelling
matrix are quite hard to and macromodelling.
obtain from literature and
vendors. The properties
of compressive strength,
tensile strength, yield
stress, after cured (which
different compared to
before). The material
exhibit brittleness in
behaviour therefore the
correct
 that the distribution of stress
become faster due to the length as
compared to RVE with higher
length (100 micrometer).
 RVE 3D with shorter length. Case
for static/explicit with tie constraint
interaction.
 2D (Deformable body) RVE using
cohesive element (interphase
between matrix and fiber) and zero
thickness. Both with inclusion of
XFEM feature of crack initiation.
 2D (Deformable body) case for
macroscale size of uniaxial tensile
test coupon cfrp, under high strain
rate loading with the incorporation
of hashin's failure criteria. Hashin'
failure is available feature in
Abaqus for plane stress case (2D)
 Macroscale uniaxial coupon tensile
test under high strain rate loading
for 3D model using MSC Patran, a
finite element software available
for use at Univ of Southampton.
The software has capabilities of
incorporating in built features of
failure criteria such as hashin's,
puck's , tsai hill, tsai wu etc. Most
likely this model can't be finished
before submission of 9 months
report.

67
3 Experimental Ongoing
Results Validation Completed task :
Validation with literatures/
papers
reference  The comparison between  Searching for other
value of stress and strain relevant literatures and
are not exactly compare the
comparable in the figure. consistency with the
It might due to several finite element findings.
possibilities.

4 Potential areas for  Strain rate sensitivity/dependant  Time consuming and  Studying the
contribution to finite element modelling for complex command for UMAT/VUMAT
body of micromodelling and user defined interface (user defined
knowledge/novelty. macromodelling of unidirectional function/subroutine function) in Abaqus to
CFRP interface to learn, incorporate strain rate
 Prestress conditions with high high understand and apply. sensitivity relationship
strain rate loading of unidirectional  Study the strain rate into 3D finite element
CFRP, finite element analysis and sensitivity effect on modelling
full field stain validation. mechanical properties  Searching for relevant
 High strain rate loading behaviour  Strain findings from literatures with
of unidirectional cfrp, validation on DIC/Grid method may experimental results for
finite element analysis 2D, 3D not adequate to match possibility of
cases with user relationship depicted in comparing/validation
interface/subroutine function micromodelling method. of finite element
using Abaqus and MSC Patran modelling
 Non linearity finite element  Finding other
modelling with validation of possibilities of areas to

68
 experimental data (TSRL lab/ be explored in details
secondary data from within advanced finite
literature).CFRP constitutive element modelling of
equations will be implemented in composite preferably
micromechanics strength of explicit.
materials to predict the nonlinearity
behavior.
 Effect of geometry variation and
edge effect on high strain rate
characterization of cfrp; 2D/3D
micromodelling/macromodelling
with experiments validation.
 Effect of region rich matrix and
tensile coupon test length on high
strain rate sensitivity mechanical
properties.

Table 5.1 Current Work In Progress

69
5.3 Future work on Finite Element Modelling

The tensile coupon will modelled with incorporation of user defined material model with a
modified Puck failure criterion was implemented. The intralayer damages (fiber breaking,
matrix failure) will be evaluated. Failure initiation and properties of damaged/degraded
materials will be modelled. The influences of the different parameters, mesh dimensions,
element types and failure criteria on the numerical results will be reported. The numerical
results will be compared with verified experimental data from literature. Apart from that, it is
expected complete the implementation of the Friction-Damage Model for the interface
elements in ABAQUS/Explicit. Implement other better damage models or discrete-crack
models (X-FEM) also for the Explicit analysis. Include a brittle damage model for the fibre as
well as matrix material modelling. The failure initiation criteria are function with the
maximum stress, maximum strain, the Tsai-Wu failure polynomial, and the Hashin criteria
where they play the significant role in the parameters detection

5.3.1 Damage Initiation Modelling

The failure in the composite structures is generally a combination of matrix cracking, fiber
fracture in tension and compression, and delamination. Intra-laminar failure term represents
the first two failure modes, matrix cracking and fiber fracture in tension and compression.
The deformation magnitudes results from high impact are usually high where strain rate
effects on material behaviour becoming significant. In the future modelling work on Abaqus,
simulation will include VUMAT constitutive model that include Von Misses yield criterion
and taking into account strain rate sensitivity. Cantwell et al, 1989 and Will MA et al
highlighted that strain rate effects do not cause significant effect on carbon fiber properties.
Cantwell et al, 1989 also suggested that epoxy matrix is not influenced to strain rate effects.
Hinton MJ et al 2002 highlighted that puck criterion is really feasible and practical for being
material model for composite. The criterion distinguish between fiber failure and matrix
failure or interfiber failure. The Puck criterion recognizes 3 different modes of matrix failure
(also known as inter-fiber failure). In the Puck criterion, inter-fiber failure encompasses any
matrix cracking or fiber/matrix debonding.

70
Chapter 6

Summary

The research work so far had explored the study of CFRP behaviour under static, dynamic
and high strain rate in terms of deformation and material characteristics. The simulation in
static at microlevel which represented in the RVE (representative element volume) square
shows that the stress distribution is mainly held by the fiber due to higher material stiffness
and deformation is seen higher on matrix than fiber. The same deformation was seen when
the loading was set in dynamic mode, at high strain rate with varying loading speed, has
resulted in dynamic effect and inertial taking place. Excessive loading rates and dynamic
loading can produce solutions with significant inertia effects. It has been found that
increasing tensile loading. Ramping applied loads and boundary conditions from zero
promotes steady increment of loading. The use of the Smooth Step amplitude definition has
resulted in good simulation results in terms of deformation, stress distribution and dynamic
inertia stabilization. Various array of RVE structure as square pack and hexagonal array are
analyzed. Square array is chosen to study behavior of RVE. Variation of boundary condition
is studied and applied to RVE using CAE rather than python scripting method. Finite element
model is built using Abaqus/CAE software package. Various modules sketcher, property, step,
assembly, interaction, load, mesh and visualization from Abaqus/CAE package are analysed
and used to build finite element model of RVE. Homogenization method implemented via
RVE will be used in this research to characterize unidirectional cfrp. In this simulation it
proposed a Finite element approach of this phenomenon, at the micro scale. It has been
shown that special types of interface elements, called cohesive elements (ABAQUS/ Standard
and ABAQUS/Explicit), to represent de bonding at the interface between fibre and matrix,
might be able to model the physical phenomenon based on some literature suggesting there
are chemical bonding between fiber and matrix. This model is also very close to other recent
works as Alfano's ones.

71
References

Akil, O., Yildirim, U., Guden, M. and Hall, I.W., “Effect of strain rate on the compression
behavior of a woven fabric S2-glass fiber reinforced vinyl ester composite”,Polymer Testing,
Vol.22, pp.883-887, 2003
Avdic A. and Saha, U.K., “Simulating a tensile test of a carbon fiber composite test
specimen in ABAQUS”, Master of Science Thesis in Applied mechanics, Department of
technology and society, Skovde Hogskolan, Skovde, Sweden 2011.
A. Yoshimura, T. Okabe, M. Yamada, T. Ogasawara, Y. Tanabe (2011), Damage Simulation
of CFRP Laminates Under High Velocity Projectile Impact, 18 th International Conference On
Composite Materials
Corrado Labriola, Effects of Varying Strain-Rate on the Behaviour of FRP Yacht Hull
Structure under Slam Load Conditions, University of Southampton,Faculty of Engineering
and Environmental, School of Engineering Sciences, Thesis for the degree of Master of
Philosophy, 2006
Eskandari H, Neme JA. Dynamic testing of composite laminates with a tensile split
Hopkinson bar. J Compos Mater 2000;34(4):260–73
F.P.T.Baaijens V.Kouznetsova, W.A.M.Brekelmans, An approach to micromacro
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