TABLE 1.

2 Historical Developments of Materials and Manufacturing Processes

Period Metals and casting Various materiales Forming and Joining Tools, machining,
and composites shaping and manufacturing
systems
Before 4000 b.c. Gold, copper, meteoric Earthenware, Hammering Tools of stone, flint,
iron glazing, natural wood, bone, ivory,
fibers composite tools
4000 – 3000 b.c. Copper casting, stone Stamping, jewelry Soldering (Cu-Au, Corundum (alumina,
and metal molds, lost Cu-Pb, Pb-Sn) emery)
wax process, silver,
lead, tin, bronze
3000 – 2000 b.c. Bronze casting and Glass beads, potter’s Wire by slitting sheet Riveting, brazing Hoe making,
drawing, gold leaf wheel, glass vessels metal hammered axes, tools
for iron making and
carpentry
2000 – 1000 b.c. Wrought iron, brass
1000 – 1 b.c. Cast iron, cast steel Glass pressing and Stamping of coins Forge welding of iron Improved chisels,
blowing and steel, gluing saws, files,
woodworking lathes
1 – 1000 a.d. Zinc, steel Venetian glass Armor, coining, Etching of armor
forging, steel swords
1000 – 1500 Blast furnace, type Crystal glass Wire drawing, gold Sandpaper, windmill
metals, casting of and silversmith work driven saw
bells, pewter
1500 – 1600 Cast-iron cannon, Cast plate glass, flint Water power for Hand lathe for wood
tinplate glass metalworking, rolling
mill for coinage
strips
1600 – 1700 Permanent-mold Porcelain Rolling (lead, gold, Boring, turning, screw
casting, brass from silver), shape rolling cutting lathe, drill
copper and metallic (lead) press
zinc
1700 – 1800 Malleable cast iron, Extrusion (lead
crucible steel (iron pipe), deep drawing,
bars and rods) rolling
1800 – 1900 Centrifugal casting, Window glass from Steam hammer, Shaping, milling,
 Bessemer process, slit cylinder, light steel rolling, copying lathe for
electrolytic aluminum, bulb, vulcanization, seamless tube, gunstocks, turret
nickel steels, Babbitt, rubber processing, steel-rail rolling, lathe, universal
galvanized steel, polyester, styrene, continuous rolling, milling machine,
powder metallurgy, celluloid, rubber electroplating vitrified grinding
open-hearth steel extrusion, molding wheel
1900 – 1920 Automatic bottle Tube rolling, hot Oxyacetylene, arc, Geared lathe,
making, Bakelite, extrusion electrical-resistance, automatic screw
borosilicate glass and thermit welding machine, hobbing,
high-speed-steel
tools, aluminum oxide
and silicon carbide
(synthetic)
1920 – 1940 Die casting Development of Tungsten wire from Coated electrodes Tungsten carbide,
plastics, casting, metal powder mass production,
molding polyvinyl transfer machines
chloride, cellulose
acetate,
polyethylene, glass
fibers
1940 – 1950 Lost-wax process for Acrylics, synthetic Extrusion (steel), Submerged arc Phosphate conversion
engineering parts rubber, epoxies, swaging, powder welding coatings, total quality
photosensitive glass metals for control
engineering parts
1950 – 1960 Ceramic mold, nodular Acrylonitrile- Cold extrusion Gas metal arc, gas Electrical and
iron, semiconductors, butadiene-styrene, (steel), explosive tungsten arc, and chemical machining,
continuous casting fluorocarbons, forming, thermo electro slag welding; automatic control
polyurethane, float mechanical and explosion
glass, tempered processing welding
glass, glass ceramics
1960 – 1970 Squeeze casting, Acetals, Hydro forming, Plasma-arc and Titanium carbide,
single-crystal turbine polycarbonate, cold hydrostatic electron-beam synthetic diamond,
blades forming of plastics, extrusion, welding, adhesive numerical control,
reinforced plastics, electroforming bonding integrated circuit chip
filament winding
1970 – 1990 Compacted graphite, Adhesives, Precision forging, Laser beam, Cubic boron nitride,
vacuum casting, composite materials, isothermal forging, diffusion bonding coated tools, diamond
organically bonded semiconductors, super plastic (also combined with turning, ultra
 sand, automation of optical fibers, forming, dies made super plastic precision machining,
molding and pouring, structural ceramics, by computer-aided forming), surface- computer-integrated
rapid solidification, ceramic-matrix design and mount soldering manufacturing,
metal-matrix composites, manufacturing industrial robots,
composites, semisolid biodegradable (CAD/CAM), net- machining and turning
metalworking, plastics, electrically shape forging and centers, flexible
amorphous metals, conducting polymers forming, computer manufacturing
shape-memory alloys simulation systems, sensor
(smart materials), technology,
computer simulation automated inspection,
expert systems,
artificial intelligence,
computer simulation
and optimization
1990 – 2000s Rheocasting, Nanophase Rapid prototyping, Friction stir welding, Micro- and nano-
computer-aided design materials, metal rapid tooling, lead-free solders, fabrication, LIGA (a
(CAD) of molds and foams, advanced environmentally laser butt-welded German acronym for
dies, rapid tooling coatings, high- friendly (tailored) sheet- process involving
temperature metalworking fluids metal blanks, lithography,
superconductors, electrically electroplating, and
machinable conducting molding), dry etching,
ceramics, adhesives linear motor drives,
diamondlike carbon artificial neural
networks, six sigma
Fuente: Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Serope Kalpakjian and Steve R. Schmid, pp. 5-7
TABLE 37.1 Developments in the History of the Automation of Manufacturing Processes

Date Development
1500 – 1600 Water power for metalworking; rolling mills for coinage strips
1600 – 1700 Hand lathe for wood; mechanical calculator

1700 – 1800 Boring, turning, and screw-cutting lathe; drill press

1800 – 1900 Copying lathe, turret lathe, universal milling machine; advanced mechanical calculators

1808 Sheet-metal cards with punched holes for automatic control of weaving patterns in looms

1863 Automatic piano player (Pianola)

1900 – 1920 Geared lathe; automatic screw machine; automatic bottle-making machine

1920 First use of the word robot

1920 – 1940 Transfer machines; mass production

1940 First electronic computing machine

1943 First digital electronic computer

1945 First use of the word automation

1947 Invention of the transistor

1952 First prototype numerical-control machine tool

1954 Development of the symbolic language APT (Automatically Programmed Tool); adaptive control

1957 Commercially available NC machine tools

1959 Integrated circuits; first use of the term group technology

1960s Industrial robots

1965 Large-scale integrated circuits

1968 Programmable logic controllers

 1970 First integrated manufacturing system; spot welding of automobile bodies with robots

1970s Microprocessors; minicomputer-controlled robot; flexible manufacturing systems; group technology

1980s Artificial intelligence; intelligent robots; smart sensors; untended manufacturing cells

Integrated manufacturing systems; intelligent and sensor-based machines; telecommunications and global
1990 – 2000
manufacturing networks; fuzzy-logic devices; artificial neural networks; Internet tools
Fuente: Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Serope Kalpakjian and Steve R. Schmid, pp. 1146
 Conventional Flexible
job shop manufacturing
system
Manufacturing Flexible
cell manufacturing
Increasing flexibility

line
Stand-alone Conventional
NC production flowline

Transfer line

Soft automation Hard automation

Increasing productivity

FIGURE 37.2 Flexibility and productivity of various manufacturing systems. Note the overlap between the systems; it is due to the various
levels of automation and computer control that are possible in each group. See also Chapter 39 for details.

Fuente: Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Serope Kalpakjian and Steve R. Schmid, pp. 1148

Job shops: These facilities use general-purpose machines and machining centers with high levels of human labor involvement

Stand-alone NC production: This uses numerically controlled machines, but with significant operator/machine interaction.

Manufacturing cells: These use a designed cluster of machines with integrated computer control and flexible material handling –often
with industrial robots.

Flexible manufacturing systems: These use computer control of all aspects of manufacturing, the simultaneous incorporation of a
number of manufacturing cells, and automated material-handling systems.
Flexible manufacturing lines: Organize computer-controlled machinery in production lines instead of cells. Part transfer is through hard
automation, product flow is more limited than in flexible manufacturing systems, but the throughput is larger for higher production
quantities.

Flowlines and transfer lines: Consist of organized groupings of machinery with automated material handling between machines. The
manufacturing line is designed with limited or no flexibility, since the goal is to produce a single part.
TRENDS

Global Competitiveness and Manufacturing Costs

The economics of manufacturing have always been a major consideration, and it has become even more so as global competitiveness for
high-quality products (world class manufacturing) and low prices have become a necessity in worldwide markets. Beginning with the
1960s, the following trends developed that have had a major impact on manufacturing:

 Global competition increased rapidly, and the markets became multinational and dynamic.
 Market conditions fluctuated widely.
 Customers demanded high-quality, low-cost products and on-time delivery.
 Product variety increased substantially and products became complex, and product life cycles became shorter.

In the late 1990s, a further important trend has been the wide disparity in manufacturing labor costs (by an order of magnitude) among
various countries. Table 1.4 shows the estimated relative hourly compensation for production workers in manufacturing, based on a scale
of 100 for the United States.

It is not surprising that many of the products one purchases today are either made in China or assembled in Mexico, where labor costs,
thus far, are the least, but are bound to increase as the living standards in those countries rise.

General Trends in Manufacturing

Materials and processes. The trend is for better control of material compositions, purity, and defects (impurities, inclusions, flaws) in
order to enhance their overall properties, manufacturing characteristics, reliability, service life, and recycling, while keeping material costs
low. Developments are continuing on superconductors, semiconductors, nanomaterials, nanpowders, amorphous alloys, shape-memory
alloys (smart materials), and coatings. Testing methods and equipment are being improved, including use of advanced computers and
software, particularly for materials such as ceramics, carbides, and composites.

Concerns over material and energy savings have lead to better recyclability, as well as weight savings by improving design and
engineering considerations, such as higher strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios. Thermal treatments of materials are being
conducted under better control of relevant variables for more predictable and reliable results, and surface treatment methods are being
advanced rapidly. Included in these developments are advances in tool, die, and mold materials to improve their performance.
Challenging recent developments in processing involve ultraprecision, micro, and nanomanufacturing, approaching atomic levels.
Computer simulation and modeling continue to be used widely in design and manufacturing, resulting in the optimization of processes and
production systems, and better prediction of the effects of relevant variables on product integrity. As a result of such efforts, the speed
and efficiency of product design and manufacturing is improving greatly, also affecting the overall economics of production and reducing
product cost in an increasingly competitive and global marketplace.

Manufacturing systems. Continuing developments in control systems, industrial robots, automated inspection, handling and assembly,
and sensor technology are having a major impact on the efficiency and reliability of all manufacturing processes and equipment. Advances
in computer hardware and software, communications systems, adaptive control, expert systems, and artificial intelligence and neural
networks have all helped enable the effective implementation of concepts such as group technology, cellular manufacturing, and flexible
manufacturing systems, as well as modern practices in the efficient management of manufacturing enterprises.

Organizational trends. There have been important trends in the operational philosophy of manufacturing enterprises. Traditionally, the
emphasis was on top-down communication in the organization and on strong control by management, with priorities for quick financial
return (profits first) and growth and size (economy of scale). The major trend is now toward broad-based communication across the
organization.

With global competition and requirements for world-class manufacturing, corporate strategies are continually undergoing major changes.
Manufacturing has become an integral part of long-range business planning for companies that must maintain their competitive positions
and increase their market share. These are complex issues because they involve a broad range of considerations such as product type,
company size, changing markets, laws and business practices in different countries, tariffs and import restrictions, geopolitics, and
specially the major trends in rapidly increasing manufacturing activities in countries where labor costs are about a tenth of those in
traditionally more industrialized countries. The rapidly growing flied of information technology (IT) can provide the tools to help meet
these major global challenges.

It has been increasingly recognized that for a manufacturing enterprise to be successful, it must respond to the following:

 View the people in the organization as important assets, and emphasize the importance and need for teamwork and involvement in
problem solving and in decision-making processes in all aspects of operations.
 Encourage product innovation and improvements in productivity
 Relate product innovation and manufacturing to the customer and the market, seeing the product as meeting a need.
 Increase flexibility of operation for rapid response to product demands, in both the domestic and the global marketplace.
 Encourage efforts for continuous improvement in quality
 Ultimately and, most importantly, focus on customer satisfaction on a global scale.
Fuente: Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Serope Kalpakjian and Steve R. Schmid, pp. 39-42