AN IN-LINE WATERDROP

ELECTROSTATIC GENERATOR
(c)1996 William Beaty
Also see: LORD KELVIN'S WATER-DROP GENERATOR

Electricity and water do not mix? Wrong! This device creates

electrical energy by slowing down water droplets as they fall. It
separates the positive and negative charges naturally present in all
substances. It gives a high voltage DC output at a current of
microamperes. The water exiting the bottom is uncharged, and you
could easily feed it to another complete unit stacked in series.
The diagram below depicts a version built from funnels and
aluminum jello molds or bundt pans (the ring-shaped kind with the
large opening in the center.) However, you could build an
enormous version if you were to replace the jello molds with large
wooden barrels or 55gal drums with their bottoms cut out. **
bzZAP! **
This thing looks like some sort of particle accelerator. Actually, it
is just the opposite. It decelerates charged particles and provides
electrical energy, rather than using up electrical energy in order to
accelerate particles.
WARNING: Note that this project is an advanced version of the
classic Kelvin Thunderstorm device outlined in
amasci.com/emotor/kelvin.html. If you're a beginner, then to get
the hang of these devices...
...I STRONGLY SUGGEST THAT YOU BUILD THE OTHER,
SIMPLER ONE FIRST.
Also, the other article gives hints on making the generator blink a
little neon bulb, or make clicks in an AM radio, deflect tissue
strips, etc.
Optional
rain collector?
|____ _____|
\______________/
\ /
\ / Metal
| SIDE VIEW |
|| Funnel
| |
||
| BILL B's |

| WATERDROP |
__________ Jello Mold
| ELECTROSTATIC |
/ \ / \ (positive inducer)
| GENERATOR |
|___|____|___|
| (Connecting |

| wires not |
__________
| shown) |
/ \....../ \ Jello Mold with
|___|____|___| metal screen
(negative
charge collector)
______
\ /
\ /
Metal
||
Funnel
||
__________
/ \ / \
Jello Mold
|___|____|___|
(negative inducer)

__________
/ \....../ \
Jello Mold with
|___|____|___|
metal screen
(positive
collector)

\ / Bowl to catch
\ / water
\___________/
 The diagrams
to the left and
right show an
'indoors'
version. I used
plastic
Tupperware
bowls as the
water sources.
I drilled a
circle of tiny
holes in the
bottom of
each, using a
#64 drill bit.
This creates a
"shower head"
effect and greatly increases the output current. Ideally you should
connect the water in the two bowls to ground, but since they each
supply opposite charge, you can just connect them to each other.
Drop the metal end of an alligator cliplead into each.

Note: actual polarity of charges is spontaneously chosen at start-

up. The above "positive" and "negative" labels are for convenience,
and will end up backwards half the time.
PARTS:
• 4 - Metal bundt pans or jello molds ( $0.50 each at garage
sales!)
• 2 - Metal funnels, or plastic bowls w/holes poked in the
bottom
• 2 - Cones made from metal window screen
• 3 - lengths of thin plastic tubing or fishing line, about 3ft
long, used to hang the parts of the device from the ceiling.
• misc - Tape or glue for the screen and the fish line, alligator
clipleads to connect the pans together, old scissors to cut the
metal screen.
THE SCREENS
You should shape the metal screens in the collectors to make them
either bowl-shaped or funnel-shaped. This will force the water to
fall from the center of the screen rather than running down the edge
of the charge collector pan. If water drips from the edge of the
charge collector rather than from the screen, it will remove charge
from the collector. And if the water from the screen forms a long
solid stream whose tip extends vertically past the bottom edge of
the pan, it will discharge the collector pan and the device will stop
working. Only droplets, not streams, should leave the collector
ring's central hole.
If you use a simple, pointed, cone-shaped screen, and if all the
water falls from the tip in a solid stream, the collector ring
discharges itself and the device stops working. I've found that a
good shape for the screen is a shallow cone with the tip punched
inside-out like this (cross section):
_
\ / \ /
\ / \ /
\_/ \_/

The water falls as droplets from the bottom edge. Make the screen
cones fairly shallow, so no parts of them extend vertically outside
the central hole of the ring pan. The pan acts as an electrostatic
shield, and when water touches the inner, shielded part of the pan,
*all* of its excess charge will travel to the metal. If the screen is
within the sheilded volume, it will extract all the excess charge
from each water drop. The screen must remain down inside the
donut-hole of the pan.
 _____ _____
/ \ / \
| | _ | |
Bundt pan with
| |\ / \ /| |
cone of screen
| | \ / \ / | |
within its hole.
| | \_/ \_/ | |
| | | |
|- - - - -| |- - - - -|

I used black electrical tape on the edges of the screen to hold it in

place in the pans. You could tack it with silicone caulk for a more
permanent design. Don't forget, the metal screens must make
electrical connection to the metal pans. Keep each screen and pan
touching together in at least one spot; don't accidentally break their
connection with insulating silicone caulk.
CONSTRUCTION:
The entire assembly of bundt pans and funnels can be suspended by
fishlines from a hook on the ceiling, or instead you could build
some sort of plastic structure to hold the parts.
The upper rain collector can be plastic or metal, or possibly use the
downspout from a convenient roof, or a hose, etc. The water supply
should be small enough that the funnels don't fill to overflowing.
Whether you use a funnel or a bowl with small holes, you must
somehow limit the amount of water flow so that it either comes
from the bowl or funnel as single drops, or as a short stream that
breaks into drops inside the inducer ring. If the stream is too long
and the drops break loose below the inducer ring, the inducer ring
won't charge the drops and the device won't work
You can increase the electric output current by fitting some sort of
metal "shower head" assemblies onto the ends of the metal funnels.
These are sold in garden stores as adapters for watering-can spouts.
If metal funnels are too expensive, you can also try using
Tupperware bowls with numerous small holes drilled in their
centers. I put six holes in mine, spaced in a circle about 2cm apart
to prevent the water streams from sticking together. To connect the
plastic bowls to ground, stick a piece of aluminum foil in the water
in the bowl and clip your alligator clipleads to the foil. "Ground"
can be a water faucet, the screw on an electric outlet, a big sheet of
aluminum foil laid on the floor, or even your body if the humidity is
high.
The rings and funnels should be one or two inches apart. It's OK to
let the end of each funnel extend within the hole of each inducer
ring below, as long as the droplets break free of the stream before
the stream exits bottom edge of the inducer ring.
To suspend the rings and bowls, I glued three small Plexiglas "ears"
on all the rings and funnels. Then I ran three lengths of #20 plastic
insulation "spagetti" tubing up the sides, tying it to each "ear," then
tying the whole thing to a hook in the ceiling. I could have used
fishing line instead. Don't use wire to support the rings, not even if
it's insulated wire. The support must be a very good insulator. To
speed things up you might try simply tying knots in the right places
in the fishline, then glue the knots to the pans with gobs of silicone
caulk. (Use tape to hold the lines in place while the caulk sets.)
Hang the whole thing from a ceiling hook.
ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS:
______
\ / Grounded
_____\ / Funnel
| || w/shower head
V ||
/\
__________
__ / \ / \ _________________o
| |___|____|___|
|
Output leads
| __________o
| __________ |
| / \....../ \ ______|
| |___|____|___| |
| |
| |
| ______ |
| \ / Grounded |
| ____\ / Funnel | Connect the
bundt pans
| | || | together
using bare wires
| V || | and tape, or
using alligator
 | /\ | clipleads
found at Radio
| | Shack stores
| __________ |
| / \ / \ ______|
| |___|____|___|
|
| __________
|__ / \....../ \
|___|____|___|

This device seems to work even in extremely high humidity.

Apparently the electrical leakage along the surfaces of the thin
plastic fishline is small enough that the device can still work even
with that leakage present. Thinner fishing line might work even
better, since the thinner the support lines, the less their surface area.
The less their surface area, the less the electrical leakage during
high humidity.
Any liquid can be used as long as it is slightly conductive. In theory
oil will not work because it's an insulator. Too bad liquid mercury is
poisonous, mercury would work fine. Tapwater works OK, since
impurities make it conductive enough. I doubt that salt water would
work better, but it would be something to experiment with. Ultra-
pure de-ionized water might not work because it's almost an
insulator. For a science fair project you could even try fruit juice.
When people ask you why, just say "because acids create mobile
ions, leading to higher conductivity, and also because I wanted to
make a big, sticky, disgusting mess!" :)
DEBUGGING
Did you build the "classic" Kelvin generator first? If not, then I
can't help you. This "in-line" version is an advanced project. It's
much more flakey and difficult to make operate. Beginners should
go back and try the "four coffee cans" version first.
For further info, debugging, references, and "how it works," see my
other article,
Lord Kelvin's Waterdrop Generator
http://amasci.com/emotor/kelvin.html
 "Kelvin's Thunderstorm"
Lord Kelvin's water-drop electrostatic generator
Bill Beaty, 1995
NOTE: avoid using wood to support metal parts! See "debugging" notes at the end. See
FURTHER INFO at end too.
It is possible to build a very simple high-voltage generator which has no moving parts and is
powered by the energy of falling water. By dribbling water through some old soup cans,
several thousand volts magically appear. The magic lies in the fact that water (as well as
everything else!) is made of vast quantities of positive and negative electric charge in
perfect balance. It's not too hard to cause an imbalance. Water normally has zero net
electrical charge because it contains equal and opposite charges. "Kelvin's Thunderstorm" is
a gravity-powered charge un-canceller.
+ + +
+|||||| +
||||||
|||||| Water
|||||| Dripper
||||||
Negative charge ||||||
is 'induced' at \ /
tip of dripper - || -
- _ -

_ + + + + + + +
-o- + -------------- +
- + | A | +
+ | Positively | +
_ + | Electrified | +
-o- + | Object | +
- + | | +
+ | | +
Negatively + -------------- +
electrified _ + + + + + + +
water -o-
droplets -

- -
- | | -
| | Collector Can
- |--__----____---| - becomes Negative
| |
- | | -
| |
 - |_______________| -
- - -

Fig 1. WATER DROPLETS BEING ELECTRIFIED BY "INDUCTION"

THE BASIC THEORY

Even though water has no overall electric charge, it is full of movable electric charges
(called ions). Half of the water's charges are positive and half are negative. It is not hard to
separate these charges; simply hold an electrified object near the water. The electrified
object will attract the "unlike" charges to the water's surface. It will also repel the "alike"
charges away deeper into the water.
In the above diagram, the positive object attracts the water's negative ions and repels the
positive ions. This draws an excess of negative ions into the tip of the water dripper, while
repelling an equal amount of positive ions off to the other end of the dripper. When the
water drop detaches from the tip of the dripper, an overall negative electric charge is still
trapped in the droplet. The falling water droplet carries away negative charge, leaving the
dripper slightly positive. If we catch the falling droplets in a container, the container will
become negatively charged.
In the above diagram, negative water droplets will be continuously created forever as long
as the water flows. However, this process does not exhaust the imbalanced charge on the
positive object. Sounds like perpetual motion, eh? Actually no. The electrical energy is
being created by the work that gravity does in pulling the negative droplet away from the
grounded dripper, and away against the attraction of the positive object. The electrical
attraction force from the positively-charged object keeps the tip of the dripper charged
negatively, but the positively charged object does not supply energy. YOU supply the
energy, since you LIFT the water to a height to fill the dripper. It's like the generator in a
hydroelectric dam, but without the turbine or the spinning coils or magnets. The water itself
becomes the moving parts of an electric generator.
(Note: the charge polarities can easily be reversed. If the above "object" is made negative,
the droplets would come out positive.)

BUILDING A GENERATOR
If we can make a positively-charged object somehow, then we can
make negative water droplets. But where can we get a positive
object? If there was some way to CHANGE the negative charge on
the water into a positive charge, then we could use the water to
charge up it's own "positive object". We would then have a a self-
sustaining generator. There's a simple way to do this: build TWO
water-drop devices like the one in figure one! See the trick? The
device in figure one uses a positive object to create negative water.
It uses positive to create negative. If we build a second device, we
could use the negative to create positive. We could hook the two
devices in a loop. The first one would create an imbalance of
negative charge, which could be fed to the second one which would
create an imbalance of positive charge, which would be fed back to
the first one again. It might sound crazy, but it really works.
We will build two of the drippers in Fig. 1, set them side by side,
then collect the electrified water droplets from one side and use
them to electrify the "charged object" on the other side, and vice
versa. We'll cross-connect the lower and upper parts with wires.
One side will have a positive "object" and will make negative
droplets, while the other side will have a negative "object" and will
make positive droplets. We'll also connect the drippers together so
they remain neutral. Then we will have a self-sustaining electrical
reaction.

_______________________
_ __________________ \ Water Supply
\ \ \ \
\ \ \ \
\ \ \ \ Drippers
(metal,plastic,glass)
|| ||
|| ||
|| || Connect the
water supply to a
|| || metal faucet
using a wire, or
|| || to the screw
on an electric
|| Wire not shown, || outlet or
wall switch.
see next diagram
(below)
| | | | Bottomless
metal coffee cans,
| | | | or wire
rings, or bundt pans,
| | | | or metal
disks with large holes
| | | | (supported
by insulating rods.)
| | | | Called
"Inducers." These
act as the
"charged object."

| | | | Metal cans
on insulators
| | | |
(styrofoam? insulating rods?)
| | | | The
"Collectors."
| | | |
|____| |____|
| | | | The
"inducers" and "collectors"
| | | | should be
separated from each
|__| |__| other by
several inches

Fig. 2 TWO DROPLET-CHARGERS PLACED NEAR EACH

OTHER (see below for wires)
See Fig. 3 below. Wires connect the two sides together. The
negative droplets touch the lower Collector-can of the first side.
The collector can is electrically connected to the upper negative
Inducer of the second side. The negative Inducer will cause the
second side to make some positive droplets. The positive droplets
of the second side will touch the second lower collector can, and
this will charge the upper Inducer can of the first side positively.
(This makes the first side produce negative droplets.) The grounded
drippers must be connected to each other and to ground. See Fig. 3
below to see how the wires connect things together.
Highly recommended: ELECTROSTATICS by A. D. Moore (lots
of projects), also others

SELF-STARTING
But where does the first charge come from? In fact, if you build
such a device, it will usually create voltage all by itself,
spontaneously, without being pre-charged. During dry conditions
everything near the generator ends up with a tiny electric charge
just from being handled. If one of the upper cans is slightly
negative, it will cause the water to have imbalanced positive, which
will start up the other side of the generator, which will make the
charge on the negative side become larger, etc., over and over.
It's like balancing a penny on edge: it's hard to start out with a
perfect balance, and usually it falls one way or the other. Same with
this generator. If there's a tiny electrical imbalance at the start, the
generator will amplify it over and over, and the voltage will "fall
over" to either one polarity or the other. A high voltage will
magically appear from nowhere. (But nobody knows which side
will start out positive and which will be negative.)
CONSTRUCTION
The metal parts of the generator must be supported with insulating
materials. A large vertical sheet of acrylic plastic works well. So
does styrofoam plastic. Don't use wood for the supports, it's too
conductive. Fasten the collectors and inducers to the plastic sheet
with screws or silicone caulk, or make holes in the sheet and tie
them to the sheet with string or wire. Some people have used plastic
rods or plastic strips to support things. Other people use plastic
water pipes. The plastic must be clean and dry. The inducers and
collector cans must be spaced away from each other by several
inches horizontally and vertically. The lower collectors must be
kept away from the table surface.
Bare wires are used to cross-connect the four cans. These two
diagonal wires must be far from any other conductive object, and
the wires must not touch together. Use bare wire, this will let you
create sparks between the wires, or to later flash a NE-2 neon bulb.
Connect the ends of the diagonal wires directly to the metal of the
cans. If you use plastic-covered wire, strip off the plastic coating
from an inch of each end of the wire. You can use tape to hold the
wire against the metal, as long as the wire touches the bare metal
directly (not, for example against the painted part of a coffee can.)
Alligator clipleads (bought from Radio Shack stores) work well for
this. Or poke a hole in the metal near the edge of the can, stick the
wire through the hole, and bend it and tape it so it doesn't fall out.
___________________________
_ _______________________ \
\ \ \ \
\ \ \ \
\ \ \ \
|| ||
|| ||
|| ||
|| ||

| o | | o |
| | | |
 | o |+ + - - | o |
+ | |----\ /---| | -
| o | + \ + - / - | o | (no
connection
+ \ /
between the
o C/ o
crossed wires!)
- | | - / \ + | | +
- | o | - - / + \ + | o | +
| |_____/ \_____| |
- |----| - + |----| +
|____| |____|
| | | |
| | | |
|__| |__|

Fig. 3 LORD KELVIN'S THUNDERSTORM, W/WIRES

SHOWN
The upper rings (or cans) must be positioned near the place where
the water droplets break from the rest of the water. If the droplets
break away right at the tip of the nozzle, then put the nozzles within
the upper cans. If a solid stream of water comes from the nozzle and
breaks up further down, then move the nozzels up, so that the
water-break spot is inside the upper inducer cans.
For the Drippers, you can use glass or plastic "pipettes". You want
to have a very small hole, so that the dripper makes lots of tiny
droplets. If you cannot get a pipette, try poking holes in a plastic
container. See below.
Adjust the water flow so it drips VERY fast. The faster, the better.
Even better, use lots of drippers instead of just one.
OPERATION
Once you have the water dripping, you can expect high voltage to
immediately appear. After the device runs for a minute, touch one
of the coffee cans gently with a finger and listen for the tiny snap of
a "static" spark. If you don't hear a spark, the machine is running
weakly or not al all. See the "debugging"" section near the end of
this article.
If you can't hear any spark, you can try detecting sparks
electronically with an AM radio. Place a radio a foot away from
your generator, tune it between AM stations (or tune it to a very
weak station), and turn the volume up. Run your Kelvin machine.
Touch one of the cans with your finger and listen to the radio. You
should hear a "snap" noise as your finger touches the metal. Touch
one upper can, then the other, then the first one again. You should
hear a "snap" each time. Even when sparks are too small to hear or
see, a radio will sometimes still detect them.
FLASHING A NEON BULB
Once your machine is able to produce sparks, you can also make it
flash a small neon lightbulb. Normal flashlight bulbs won't work,
you need a small neon "pilot light" bulb instead. Obtain an "NE-2"
or other similar neon light, the kind which looks like a short glass
tube with two parallel wires inside and two bare wires sticking out
of the glass. Hold the bulb by one wire, look at the tube, then use
the other wire to touch one of the cans of your Kelvin device. You
should see a dim orange flash inside the bulb. (It might help to turn
off the lights and work in a dimly lit room.) Hold one bulb wire,
then use the other wire to touch the positive can, then the negative
can, then the positive, and you should see a tiny orange flash each
time.
CONTINUOUSLY FLASHING BULB
Don't connect the NE-2 bulb directly across the two generator
wires. It will short out the generator and prevent high voltage
buildup. You can make the generator automatically flash the neon
bulb by making a "spark gap". First twist one wire from the neon
bulb around one of the generator's diagonal wires, then bend the
wires so other short wire from the neon bulb is very close to the
other generator wire ( but not touching). Small sparks will
occasionally jump across the small gap and flash the neon. The
smaller the gap, the faster (and dimmer) the flashing. Try a 1/16
inch gap (1 mm) at first. If it works, increase the distance to get
slow, bright flashes. Bend the sharp tip of the wire over to form a
little ring, this sometimes lets the voltage rise higher before a spark
jumps, which lets the bulb flash more brightly.
FLAPPING KLEENEX
To "see" the high voltage surrounding the cans, tape some strips of
tissue paper to the cans. Put tape only at the top of each strip of
tissue so the strip hangs down against the side of the can. When the
can charges up, the strips should lift slightly outwards. The higher
the voltage, the farther the strips move. When a spark jumps, the
strips jerk because the repulsion force suddenly becomes less.
SLOW-FALLING WATER
The energy that builds up between the cans comes from the falling
of the water. As the stored energy grows, the water has to do more
and more work every time it adds a bit more imbalanced charge to
the cans. The electrified droplets feel a repulsion force as they fall
towards the alike-charged lower cans. As the voltage increases, the
droplets will fall more and more slowly. The sound of the splashing
water will change. The droplets may even start bending their paths,
even occasionally falling upwards!
EMPTYING THE LOWER CANS
If the device is run for very long, the lower cans fill up. How to get
the water out of the cans without discharging them? Here's my
addition to the classic Kelvin Waterdropper: use the "faraday ice
pail" effect, where a conductive hollow object always has no charge
imbalance on its inside. To do this, connect an exit tube inside each
lower can as below, so the water DRIPS out (if it falls in a solid
stream, the cans will discharge and the generator will stop
working.)

|| ||
|| ||
|| ||
|| ||
||/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/||
|| || For best results,
no
|| || sharp edges or
burrs
|| WATER || anywhere. Or,
cover
|| || sharp edges with
thick
|| __ __ || bead of RTV
silicone
|| | | | | || caulk
|| | | | | ||
|| | U | ||
|| | O | ||
====== ======
O
Uncharged droplets
O exit from bottom
Fig. 4 REMOVING THE WATER FROM THE LOWER CANS
Or, even simpler, install a cone-shaped piece of metal window
screen inside a bottomless can, so the water droplets touch the
screen and continue through. Make sure the screen is centered
vertically within the can, so that the point of the cone doesn't extend
past the lower lip of the can. Don't let the water drip from the edge
of the can, otherwise it will carry charge away with each drop.
With a little catcher-tray and a fountain pump, you can make the
system recirculate. Or, you can stack all four parts of one Kelvin
device in a single row, for an in-line waterdropper generator. See
my article on "Inline Kelvin Thunderstorm Device" found on my
site at
http://amasci.com/emotor/ikelv.html.
Note that the Inline version is more tricky to make work. Build the
above device first before attempting the one below.

\ \
\ \
\ \
||
Grounded ||
Dripper ||
||
o
o
| |
Neg | |
can | o |
| |

Pos | |
can |...|
w/screen | | Connecting wires
not shown, see
| | ikelv.html article
for more info

\ / Connect pos to pos,

neg to neg
Grounded \ /
Funnel ||
 o
| | Note that this is a
more advanced
Pos | | project, and is
more difficult to
can | o | debug than the
side-by-side version.
| |

Neg | |
can |...|
w/screen | |
| |
o

Fig. 5 IN-LINE VERSION (wires not shown)

The water supply need not be a "dripper", it can be a high velocity

spray, as long as the water jet divides into droplets, not a contiguous
stream. And multiple jets can be used, sort of like a shower head.
The faster the flow and the larger the number of separate streams,
the higher the total output current. (Higher current gives faster
recharge rate after a spark, and it lets the generator self-start more
reliably when humidity is high.)
GIGANTIC VERSION
I've always wanted to build a gigantic version like the one below,
with hollow metal toroids. (Use halves of VandeGraff spheres, the
halves with the holes). Or maybe use metal 55-gal drums. But the
drums have sharp edges, and we can't attain millions of volts if the
edges are sharp. A foil-covered truck innertube should support
about a million volts before air-corona leakage stops the voltage
from rising any higher.
F
our tori
\\ \\
(shown cross-
\\ \\
sectional)
\\ \\
|| ||
|| ||
water
 || ||
spray
|| ||
___ ___ ___
___
/ \ / \ / \
/ \
| | | | | |
| |
\___/ \___/ \___/
\___/

___ ___ ___

___
/ \ / \ / \
/ \
| |\ /| | | |\
/| |
\___/ \_/ \___/ \___/ \_/
\___/

conical screens in lower torii touch

droplets and
release, discharging them. Entire
screens must be
deep within the "hole" of each donut so
the torus can
shield the departing water droplets from
the electrical
fields on the outside.

Fig. 6 GIANT KELVIN DEVICE BUILT FROM SPUN-

METAL DONUTS (or tire inner tubes covered with aluminum
foil!)

High-velocity shower heads and cross-connecting conductors made

from large-diameter pipes will complete the scene above: a
"VandeGraaff Generator" version of Kelvin's Thunderstorm
apparatus!
NEWS: I suspended a bundt-pan by fishlines, then sprayed water
through the center, so that the water did not touch the metal. I used
a garden hose with a "water breaker" (a sort of shower head
attachment.) I charged up the bundt pan with a 10KV power supply,
and then measured the electric current between a collector pot and
ground. It was 2.5 microamps! This doesn't sound like much, but it's
as much as some VandeGraaff generators can put out.
I found that if I disconnected the power supply from the bundt pan,
the current did not vanish. The charge on the bundt pan stayed the
same as I watched for about 30sec. And this was in high humidity
conditions! Fishing line makes a VERY GOOD insulator. The
system kept working until I touched the bundt pan with my finger,
then the electric current coming from the collector can went to zero.

RUNNING A MOTOR

The above generators can be used to run a motor, if the motor is my

Pop Bottle Electrostatic Motor at:
http://amasci.com/emotor/emotor.html
I find that these small Kelvin Waterdrop Generators are a little too
feeble to keep the motor going continuously. Instead they make it
slowly pulse. They build up a charge imbalance, then the motor
starts turning and rotates a few times. This exhausts the charge
imbalance, the motor stops, then it builds up again and repeats. This
happens a couple of times per minute. A bigger waterdrop generator
is needed if you want to run the bottle-motor continuously.
MULTIPLE DRIPPERS
I put multiple drippers on my waterdrop generator and this
improved things considerably. The best generator uses lots and lots
of tiny drops, with the drops being made as fast as possible. If we
use a cluster of dripper nozzles, the inner ones probably act as
electrical shields for the outer ones. This is bad, since this will
prevent the inner ones "seeing" the charged inducer cans, and they
won't make any electrified water. Therefor a CIRCLE of nozzles is
probably best.
I drilled a circle of eight tiny holes in a plastic bowl (using #64 drill
bit), and this gave good results. A crude version of multiple-
dripper: use a soup can, and punch a bunch of holes in the bottom
by using a tiny nail. I've also seen a shower-head thing called a
"water breaker" in the garden supply section of hardware stores. If a
circle of tape was stuck to the center of one of these, it would plug
up the middle holes and form a ring of about 100 tiny water jets.
SPEEDING UP THE RECHARGE
Whenever a spark discharges the generator, it also discharges the
inducer rings. As a result, the generator takes quite a while to "ramp
up" to full voltage again. This is exponential growth, and it's quite
slow at first. There are several possible ways to solve this problem
(I haven't tried them, you be first!) One solution is to insert very
large resistors in series with the wires to the inducer rings (large =
thousands of megohms). Then always discharge only the collectors,
not the inducers. The resistors will keep the inducers from instantly
discharging. If the inducers remain charged, then the generator will
quickly recharge with a fast linear voltage curve rather than a slow
exponential curve. High-value resistors are expensive, so perhaps
try making your own resistors. Use strips of paper with fine lines of
india ink (india ink is conductive carbon.)
Another possibility: rather than using resistors, instead insert high
voltage diodes. For example, use several 7,000-volt microwave
oven diodes in series, available from Allied Electronics. Orient the
polarity of diodes to allow the Inducers to charge but not to
discharge. Diodes in one conductor should point upwards, and in
the other conductor should point downwards. This way the
collectors will charge up the inducer rings, but when you discharge
the collectors, the diodes will turn off and become nonconductors.
The excess charge on the inducer rings will remain high. Also, if
you use diodes, the generator polarity would always be predictable,
since the generator would not function if the polarity became
reversed.
A third method: build a big generator, but don't connect the
collectors to the inducers. Then build a second tiny water-drop
generator, and use it to charge up the inducers of the big generator.
Then always discharge only the collectors of the big generator, and
leave the other metal parts alone.
If you want to use your generator to power a pop-bottle electrostatic
motor, the above idea is the way to go. Build a separate generator to
power the inducers of the larger generator, that way the motor
cannot "short out" the inducer voltage and make everything stop.
Now that I'm thinking about it, here's another type of generator to
build: a half-kelvin device with only two cans. How can it ever
work? Simple: use the screen of a TV set to charge the inducer! I
bet that this would even work when the humidity is really high. A
TV set normally cannot produce constant electrostatic energy
output unless you keep turning it off and on. But it should be able to
supply enough energy to power the inducer ring on half of a
Kelvin's Thunderstorm device.
WEIRDNESS: antigravity?
If your generator really works well, you will see water droplets
slow down and their paths curve upwards! No, this is not
antigravity, this is just electrostatic repulsion. Alike charges repel.
WEIRDNESS: really really gigantic generators
In a private conversation someone told me that there were patents
on a wind generator based upon the Kelvin Generator. Build two
big parallel vertical metal screens the size of outdoor movie theater
screens (or larger). The upwind screen has coarse mesh, the
downwind screen has fine mesh to gather water droplets. Suspend
them on insulators which are good for millions of volts. Charge the
upwind screen with a power supply. Spray a fine mist of water into
the screens upwind, and let the wind push the spray through the
screens. The upwind screen will attract imbalanced charges into the
sprayer tips, and the water droplets will have an imbalanced charge
of opposite polarity. The wind takes the place of gravity in the
classic Lord Kelvin device. Wind pushes charged water to the
second, fine-mesh screen. Water droplets touch this screen and
deliver their charge. The wind is slowed by repulsion of the water
mist, the upwind screen uses no current, and the downwind screen
puts out amperes at millions of volts of electrical potential (amps
times megavolts equals megawatts). Simply step down the
megavolts of DC, then convert it to AC. Ta-da, a wind generator
with no moving parts! An artificial thunderstorm, harnessed as a
commercial generator, powered by the wind.

DEBUGGING:
If your project will not work, it may be because the humidity is high
and your device is having trouble "deciding" which side should be
positive and which side negative. See my hints about humidity,
found at http://amasci.com/emotor/statelec.html. With Kevin
generators it takes voltage to make voltage. If your device starts
totally at zero, it may take a minute or two to build up to maximum.
Therefors give it a "goose" by holding an electrified object briefly
near one of the cans while the water is running (for example: a
balloon, a 2liter pop bottle, or some styrofoam, each rubbed on hair
to electrify them.) This gives the generator a "kick start."
The two drippers must be neutral, so they need to be connected
together electrically. To make certain they're neutral, connect a
grounded wire to their water supply. These drippers should drip
FAST. Many droplets per second. If your drippers are very slow,
then your machine will charge up very slowly or not at all. To
produce a fast drip rate, usually you need a tiny hole at the end of
your water tubes. Plastic or glass pipettes are the usual way to
accomplish this. Also, your machine will work better if you have
many drippers.
If you really cannot get your generator to work, here's a way to
"cheat." Put a piece of aluminum foil on a TV screen, connect this
foil to one of the inducer cans on your generator, and then turn on
the TV. This will make your generator run, at least temporarily.
Don't let any water get near the TV set!!!
AVOID WOOD
Kelvin Generators usually can tolerate fairly high humidity. Watch
out though. Materials with large internal surface area, such as
wood, cloth, masonite, etc., usually absorb moisture from the air
and become slightly conductive. Therefor, assume that these
materials are the same as metal, and avoid using them as supports
or framework when you build this device. Wood provides a leakage
path and shorts out the high voltage. One experimenter even found
that problems were caused by supporting their cans with insulating
blocks glued to a wooden panel. The short lengths of plastic must
not have been sufficiently insulating, and there must have been a
leakage path across the plastic and through the wood. Switching to
all-plastic supports solved their problem.
If acrylic sheets such as plexiglas(tm) or perspex(tm) are not
available, large styrofoam blocks work well as supports. Avoid
using solvent-based glues with styrofoam, it makes it dissolve. The
plastic MUST BE CLEAN. Use new plastic if you can. If you wash
the plastic, don't use much soap, since soap can form a conductive
coating. Rinse it and scrub it with lots of clean water to remove all
the soap. If you wash the plastic, then afterwards dry it thoroughly
with an electric hair-dryer gun (but be careful, don't melt the plastic
with too much heat!)
Nylon fishing line makes a good insulating support, especially
during high humidity conditions. Long, very thin supports such as
fishing line have small surfaces and therefor give less surface-
current leakage than short, fat supports or flat panels. Don't use
twine or string as supports, of course, since these materials become
too conductive when the humidity is high.
If humidity is very high, even plastic can become slightly
conductive. This can be temporarily fixed by using an electric hair-
dryer gun to dry the plastic surfaces. Bathe the plastic in hot air for
several minutes, taking care not to heat it so much that it softens!
Try testing your generator again, and it may begin to work.
The water droplets must not touch the inducers. The droplets should
pass through the inducers. The droplets should break free from the
water while they are still inside the inducers. If continuous streams
of water (not droplets) shoot out of the drippers, then move the
drippers upwards to make certain that the droplets break away from
the continuous streams while the droplets are inside the inducer
cans.
The water droplets MUST touch the collectors. To start, simply let
the collectors fill up with water. Once you have succeeded in
getting sparks from your machine, then later you can try the trick
with the cones of window screen (see far below.)
To detect the tiniest charge imbalance, build the RIDICOLOUSLY
SENSITIVE CHARGE DETECTOR shown elsewhere on my web
pages. (http://amasci.com/emotor/chargdet.html) This device will
detect a few hundred volts of electrostatic potential at a great
distance from the cans. It is extremely sensitive. The tiniest sparks
won't begin until the cans reach about 1,000v potential, yet the
sensor responds to about ten times less. A sparking Kelvin
generator can make the Charge Detector flash even if it is many feet
away.
Don't neglect the balloon trick. If your device doesn't self-start, then
momentarily hold a charged balloon near one of the cans while the
water is running. (Verify that the balloon is really electrified, see if
it raises your arm-hair when rubbed. Sometimes humidity is so high
that the balloon will not aquire an imbalanced charge by rubbing on
hair.)
A simple way to detect static charging: place a portable AM radio
near the device, tune it to a blank station, then touch one of the cans
with a finger. If your device is just barely working, there will be an
imperceptible spark. But this will make a loud click on the radio! If
you wear an AM Walkman headphone radio, it will extend your
senses so that you can hear the electromagnetic pulses given off by
the tiniest spark. Become a "Borg" from Star Trek, with the ability
to hear electromagnetic impulses via a biointerface to electronic
circuitry (Walkman headphones). :) Try spending the day wearing
AM radio headphones tuned to an empty spot on the dial, and you
will encounter all sorts of interesting electromagnetic "sounds" in
the environment. You'll hear the "crack" noises of distant lightning
 even when the thunderstorms are too far away to hear the thunder.
Electric fences in countryside farms make a periodic clicking. The
overhead wires from electric city buses make all sorts of musical
tones.

The Joe Cell

Posted on 5/21/2008
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Space charge
n. The excess of electrons or ions in a given volume.
Source: The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language
Welcome to the Joe Cell website. A Joe Cell is a controversial device that's has been claimed to
generate overunity effects by powering a normal internal combustion engine. If these claims are true
and the science behind the Cell can be effectively harnessed, the device could offer the potential to
revolutionize the world in which we live by eliminating the need to consume fossil fuels. Such a clean,
green technology could power your car, your home or just about anything else that requires energy. Joe
Cells are commonly confused with normal electrolytic cells that produce hydrogen and oxygen gas. The

major difference is that a Joe Cell does not have a current running through it when connected to the
engine, so no hydroxy gases are produced. The effects observed in relation to the Joe Cell appear to
be achieved through space charge physics. This website provides information about the Joe Cell and
space charge engine technology. Please refer to the links and reference sections for a more complete
understanding of the concepts presented.
What is a Joe Cell?
A Joe Cell is a device constructed from a series of concentric stainless steel cylinders sealed at the
bottom and top and separated by insulating spacers. The device is filled with pure water. Before the
device can be used, the water in the cell needs to be conditioned. To achieve this, a continuous current
is left flowing through the device for an initial charging period. When the device is installed in a
vehicle,
the internal cylinder (cathode) is connected to the negative terminal of the car battery. The device is
then connected to the vacuum port on the vehicle's carburetor by way of an aluminum tube with a small
rubber hose connecting the two. The vacuum from the engine creates a low pressure environment within

the cell.
It has been reported that when used on a normal internal combustion engine, the device delivers
significant power and fuel efficiency gains. Several experimenters have also claimed that they have
even
managed to power an engine for short periods with no fuel supplied to the engine. These converted
engines are said to utilize completely different timing to gasoline powered engines. It is also said that
the
engines run cooler than when powered by gasoline. Some people have claimed that the Joe Cell
harnesses some type of magical life force energy referred to as Orgone. Others believe that it pulls
energy straight from the very fabric on the universe – the aether. The truth? Well the truth is much more

elusive.

How does it work?

There are many theories about how the Joe Cell may possibly work. But there can only be one correct
one. The following theories are my own and I provided them here in the hope that they will inspire
others
to engage in further research of this promising technology. What makes my theories uniquely different
from virtually all others is that they conform to our current understanding of nature.
A Joe Cell is essentially a capacitor. It's similar in many ways to an old-fashioned Leyden jar. It has the
ability to absorb and hold a charge. Unlike a normal capacitor however, it does not release that charge.
The water inside the cell behaves exactly like moisture stored in a cloud right before a thunderstorm.
Rather than creating a conductive path, a static charge is induced, establishing opposing electric fields
at the cathode and anode. Positive ions form at the negative electrode and negative ions form at the
positive electrode. The strength and intensity of the electric field is directly related to the amount of
charge build-up in the cell. Electrons are known to travel. When a relatively small charge imbalance is
initially induced, a positive feedback loop begins and progressively more and more electrons are pulled
through the water and off surrounding molecules toward the electric field of the anode. The opposing
charges continue to build and build. If a battery is left with its negative terminal connected to the Cell's
cathode, the charge imbalance will be maintained until such time as it is shorted. For testing purposes,
the charge imbalance can be measured through a PH change in the water - a successfully charged cell
making the water slighter more alkaline.
The role of static electricity.
Static electricity is an electrical charge caused by an imbalance of electrons on the surface of a material.
The term static is a misnomer. It does not imply still, but in fact refers to forces exerted by an
unchanging electric field upon charged objects. The presence of surface charge imbalance means that
the objects will exhibit attractive or repulsive forces. Conductive objects only rarely generate charge
imbalance except, for example, when a metal surface is impacted by a non-conductive solid or liquid.
The charge that is transferred during contact electrification is stored on the surface of each object. And
the larger the surface area, the more charge can be stored. The Joe Cell is a type of electrostatic
generator.
Electrostatic generators develop electrostatic charges of opposite sign rendered to divided conductors.
These devices can produce high-voltage electrical output at relatively low electric currents. Electrostatic

generators have been around a long time. The knowledge of static electricity dates back to the earliest
civilizations, but for millennia it remained merely an interesting and mystifying phenomenon. A
primitive
form of electrostatic machine was constructed as far back as 1663 by Otto von Guericke, In the latter
part of the 18th Century, Benjamin Franklin, Ewald Jürgen Georg von Kleist, and Pieter van
Musschenbroek (the last two the inventors of the Leyden jar) made several important discoveries
concerning electrostatic machines. Benjamin Franklin used the Earth's magnetic field and atmospheric
electricity in his devices. In 1929, the Van de Graaff generator was developed at MIT. The machine
used
a silk ribbon as the charge transport belt. By 1931 a version capable of producing 1,000,000 volts was
described in a patent disclosure. In 1934, Nikola Tesla wrote a Scientific American article, "Possibilities

of Electro-Static Generators" concerning the Van de Graaff generator. Tesla stated, "I believe that when
new types of Van de Graaff generators are developed and sufficiently improved a great future will be
assured to them".
Between 1858 and 1867, Lord Kelvin also developed a water-drop electrostatic generator, which he
called the "water-dropping condenser”. It was sometimes referred to as “Kelvin’s Thunderstorm”. The
device uses falling water drops to generate voltage differences by utilizing the electrostatic induction
occurring between interconnected, oppositely charged systems. Water runs down from the top, with
slightly positively-charged water attracted to the negative ring and slightly negative water attracted to
the positive ring. The charged water flows through the ring and into a container. The water traveling
through the negative ring becomes H30+ and the water travelling through the positive ring becomes
OH-. The charges then build in the ring connected to the container opposite it - attracting even more
charge. This results in a positive feedback loop. When the charge eventually reaches a certain
threshold, a spark will cross the gab between the rings. Lord Kelvin water droppers have been known to
build a 20,000 volt charge with as few as 100 drops of water through each side in less than six seconds.
That’s without any external power source – simply utilising the energy of the falling water drops. As
you
can see, electrostatic generators can be made to be very powerful. Now imagine an electrostatic
generator that's unable to discharge and you've got yourself a Joe Cell. The Joe Cell is the perfect
electrostatic generator.

Lord Kelvin's water dropper

How is it possible?
It is has been reported that when clean water is prepared properly in a joe cell, certain specific types
of bubble production result on the surface of the water. This in itself may give a valuable clue as to
the cause of the energy. When these bubbles are ignited, they often create an extremely violent
reaction with an associated sonic boom. It is highly likely that what is occurring here is related to a
principle known as Cavity Quantum Electrodynamics.
However before we discuss Cavity QED, we first need to examine history. In 1840, Lord Armstrong
observed that when steam escaped from boilers an electrical charge was produced. This
phenomenon was termed steam electricity. Faraday conducted extensive research into the
phenomenon at the time. That was that for about 120 years, then in 1969, interest in steam electricity
was renewed because of explosions caused by the ignition of vapors during the washing of oiler
tankers with steam jets. Steam electricity is supposedly explained by the bubbles nucleated in the
boiling of water droplets, behaving like resonant quantum electrodynamic (QED) cavities. During
bubble growth as the bubble cavity resonance coincides with vacuum ultraviolet frequencies, the
water molecules on the bubble walls dissociate by cavity QED into hydronium H3O+ and hydroxyl OH-

ions. Available hydronium ions are repulsed from the positive charged bubble surface and tend to the
center of the bubble forming a positive charged vapor; whereas, the available hydroxyl ions are
attracted to the bubble surface. Bursting of the bubbles at the surface of the droplet produces
positive charge steam and negative charged droplets. Scientists at the time figured out that the
explosions only occurred when pure water was used in the steam jets. By adding a little olive oil to
the water, they altered the PH and the steam could no longer hold a charge, so the explosions
stopped occurring. In theory, if it’s good enough for blowing up ships, it should be good enough for
running an engine. Steam electrification caused by the separation of hydronium and hydroxyl ions in
bubbles is commonly observed in atmospheric electricity, thundercloud electrification, waterfall
electricity and the Leidenfrost phenomenon.
When two opposing charges build in a Joe Cell, H30+ is produced at the cathode and OH- is
produced at the anode. Coincidence? Probably not. Because electrons remain trapped within the
static field of the anode, any vapour that is drawn into the engine will have an excess of H+ atoms,
creating a powerful space charge within the cylinder. Add a stream of electrons from the spark plug
and you get a powerful electrically induced discharge. The same type of effect that was blowing up
ships in 1969. While it may be hard for some to comprehend, the Joe Cell appears to power engines
on lightning. Exactly the same powerful energy force you see exhibited by nature during a
thunderstorm. The Joe Cell does not defy any laws of physics. It simply harnesses them with great
efficiency.
In an intense thunderstorm, water molecules divide into H+ and OH- . H+ being lighter, will be picked
up in a low pressure system and float to the top of the cloud. OH- on the other hand, stays near the
bottom of the cloud, creating the charge separation. It’s the same within a Joe Cell. The vacuum from
the engine pulls the H+ ions upwards while the electrons remain electrostatically held within the cell.
To recreate this effect within the engine, our DC spark needs to discharge while there is no pressure
within cylinder. This is why Joe Cell powered engine require the advance in timing. Firing the spark at
Bottom Dead Centre recreates a low pressure environment similar to that in the upper atmosphere
during a thunderstorm.
Cavity QED is a scientific phenomenon that deals with the behavior of excited atoms within a metallic /
dielectric space. Cavity QED was traditionally viewed as a problem in many industries. Besides being
responsible for blowing up ships, it has also been linked with exploding gas pipelines and the rapid
destruction of ship propellers. Recently however, it has been put to good use in a number of
applications, the most significant being commercial water purification devices - cavitation based
purification systems are effective in removing a large range of organic and inorganic impurities from
water. It is no coincidence the Joe Cell can also be used as a water purification device.
Cavity QED produces a loud sonic boom because the bubbles are collapsing faster than the speed of
sound. Generally speaking cavitation is implosion on a microscopic level. There are in fact a number
of different forms of cavitation. Some forms of cavitation can actually produce light - a phenomenon
known as sonoluminesence.
Cavitation events can create very hot plasmas. The term plasma refers to a system of charged
particles large enough to behave as one. A plasma can be formed by high temperature, or by
application of an electric field, such as that provided by the coil and spark plugs of the engine . Even
a partially ionized gas in which as little as 1% of the particles are ionized can form the characteristics
of a plasma.
During the cavitation event inside the cylinder, the plasma collapses on itself. This implosion stoke
generating heat in the process. This ball of hot electrical energy superheats the air in the cylinder.
The superheated air expands rapidly driving the piston down. The net result of the process is a large
amount of energy produced, much more than would be possible through burning conventional fossil
fuels. Cavitation helps to explain the advanced timing observed in Joe Cell powered engines.
One of the popular misconceptions about Joe Cells has always been related to the concept of
implosion. A lot of people seem to believe that gases do not implode, therefore what is occurring
within the Joe Cell has to be from some kind of mysterious as yet unidentified form of energy. The
reality is that plasmas, unlike pure gases, can and do implode. They can implode because strictly
speaking they are not a gas. Plasma's are often referred to as the fourth state of matter because they
don't always behave like gases, even though there are similarities. Plasma's implode all the time in
nature and physicists regularly create them in labs. If you do a goggle search for "plasma implosion"
you'll find hundreds of thousands of reference to this phenomenon. A large body of this research
relates to the phenomenon Nuclear Fusion experiments.
A few observations about this technology.
A. Just like a battery, each Joe Cell will have a limit to the number of electrons it can hold. As the cell
approaches this maximum, two things are likely to occur. Either the performance of the vehicle will
gradually diminish or the charge will become so strong that a spark will cross the gap and short the
cell. What this means is that cells have to be regularly discharged. Ultimately, the most effective way
to reliably run a vehicle on Joe Cell technology may be to have two or more cells fitted for the
purposes of redundancy. Who knows, in the future we may have measurement devices and switching
equipment that could automate the discharge process and switch between each cell. It goes without
saying that if you installed two cells, you should always ensure that at least one was charged. It would
make sense to mount then on opposite sides of the engine bay, to reduce them interfering with each
other’s magnetic field.
B. For the cell to work correctly the water has to be completely polar. Absolutely pure H2O. The
presence of any minerals such as sodium, potassium, magnesium or silica will reduce the waters
ability to create a charge imbalance. There has been plenty of talk about types of water that can be
used in the Joe Cell. I am firmly of the opinion that the water needs to be free of pollutants and trace
elements. That includes electrolytes The best way to produce this water is by setting up a conditioning
cell to prepare your water by removing impurities. A conditioning cell is the same as a Joe Cell except
it separate from the vehicle.
C. Because the Joe Cell is creating a cloud like condition on the ground, it makes sense that it could
influence weather conditions. It also suggests that changing weather conditions may affect the
performance of a Joe Cell powered vehicle. If there is a naturally high number of negatively charged
particles already in the atmosphere, the cell may not work properly, resulting in a fall in compression
and a loss of engine power.
D. In early experiments, Joe's Mark 2 Cell was created using Ag pipe and stainless steel plates as
anode and cathode. The cell didn’t work very well, bulging with gas pressure. This seemed to effect
the performance of the cell negatively. Joe figured that the stainless steel cylinder design was more
robust and that cell pressure reduced performance. As a result of these experiments, maintaining a
vacuum within the cell is seen as an important part of optimising cell performance.
E. The choice of spacers between the cell tubes is of vital importance to cell performance. There are
many substances that will insulate an electric charge, however there are very few that will not carry a
static charge. Nylon is an example. It will insulate but it’s also great for carrying static. The very best
spacer material will be completely inert, non-conductive and anti-static.
F. The Joe Cell can store charge even when disconnected from its charging circuit, however, it is
more likely to hold a charge when a small battery is permanently connected at the negative cathode
only. This will keep the water polarized, and prevent the cell shorting itself.
G. Electrons can travel easily. As a charge builds within the cell, a spark will try to cross the gap from
the engine and short the cell. This is the reason a rubber tube must be used to separate the carby
from the cell. This should be a minimum of 13 cm in length but can be longer.
H. Joe Cells require Austentic stainless steel in their design. Austentic stainless steels are non-
magnetic. Even slight magnetism affects the charge holding capacity of the cell. When nickel is added
to stainless steel in sufficient amounts the crystal structure changes to "austentite". The basic
composition of Austentic stainless steels is 18% chromium and 8% nickel. This enhances their
corrosion resistance and modifies the structure from ferritic to Austentic. Austentic grades are the
most commonly used stainless steels accounting for more than 70% of production (type 304 is the
most commonly specified grade by far). They are not hardenable by heat treatment. Super Austentic
grades have enhanced pitting and crevice corrosion resistance compared with the ordinary Austentic
or duplex types. This is due to the further additions of chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen to these
grades. Stainless steels with an L on the end of their grade, have a low carbon content. These are
the preferred grades. i.e. 316L. 904L grade stainless is a super Austentic grade with less than 50%
iron content. It also usually contains about 23% Chromium, 23 % Nickel and, 4-5% Molybdenum. It is
designed for use in highly corrosive environments and it is the least magnetic of all stainless steels.
904L is likely to be the most effective stainless choice for use in Joe Cell manufacture. It is however
the most expensive. Mass production will eventually bring the costs down significantly. Seamless
tubing is also the preferred option as wields can induce magnetism. There is also another high quality
stainless steel known as 6% Molybdenum. It is very similar to 904L but as the name suggests, it has a
higher Molybdenum content which makes it less corrosive.
I. The use of high performance spark plugs, distributor and coil may significantly improve the
performance of a Joe Cell powered engine.
J. The charge state within the cell can be affected by electromagnetic interference from other
electrical devices and power sources. This interference can be minimized by using insulating material
to prevent shorting. Wrapping the Cell in Burlap (Hessian) and placing it in a plastic bucket, held in
place with blocks of wood is recommended.
K. Joe Cells are very easy to short, particularly by touching them. This is possibly the major reason
experimenters cannot get their cells to work. Every time they touch them, you act as an earth and
short the cell. Once a cell is installed in a vehicle and charged it should not be touched. Particularly if
any part of your body is also touching any other part of the vehicle or ground. Use rubber gloves to
prevent accidental discharge.
L. The Cells are reported to function only when a strong vacuum is created within the cell. For this
reason, adding a pressure gauge is recommended. For the Cell to function properly, around 15 psi of
vacuum will be required.
M. The timing of the spark needs to be advanced over that of a normal engine. Sometimes as far as 9
degrees.
What about the other theories?
Well I have considered them all and at this point it’s worth mentioning Ockham’s razor. This guiding
principle in developing scientific ideas insists that you should prefer the simplest explanation to fit the
facts. And all the facts point to the static explanation being the most likely. However there are other
theories that are worth entertaining. I’ll deal with the most unlikely first.
Could it be some kind of life force energy?
Not likely. There are precious little facts to support this idea. Actually there are no facts. One of the
reasons Joe Cell technology has progressed so slowly over the past 10 years is because people with
no real knowledge of the underlying processes have been inventing unscientific answers in an
attempt to describe something they do not understand. This process is no different from early
civilizations that invented a new god for every natural process they could not explain. Droughts were
seen as the work of the Sun God. Floods the work of the water god. Societies created answers that
worked within their framework of understanding, but had no real factual basis. And this is exactly what
has been occurring with the Joe Cell. Because it looks like magic, people think it must BE magic. So
they elevate it from the natural to the spiritual. It is highly unlikely that the Joe Cells harnesses any
kind of life force energy.
What about energy from the vacuum?
I have considered the possibility that the Joe Cell could be tapping energy from the vacuum -
sometimes referred to as zero point energy. There have been many great scientists who have
postulated the presence of an aether. Maxwell being one of the first. Tesla also believed that a type of
radiant energy could be extracted from space and that one day this energy would power all things. If
there is energy being produced by the Joe Cell that cannot be explained mathematically, then that
energy is also likely to be the same energy observed in lightning plasmas as a result of Cavity QED.
There have been a large number of scientists who have proposed that high implosion energy density
can tap Zero Point Energy. But arriving at this point still requires an initial space charge, so any
aether or ZPE theory really becomes an extension of our primary static theory. One would have to be
ignorant to completely discount this possibility.
Space charge connections.
Historically there have been a number of individuals who have claimed to run engines using hydrogen
gas or some kind of electrolytically produced gas vapour. Often high voltage or pulsed DC is used in
the process. Some of these methods appear to produce very little gas but can still apparently run an
engine effectively. These individuals include the likes of Stanley Meyer (USA), Herman Anderson
(USA), Daniel Dingle (Philippines), Gianni Dotto (USA) and most recently Peter Lowrie (NZ). Another

obvious crossover technology is the GEET fuel processor developed by Peter Pantone. In the case of
the GEET fuel processor, the inventor has actually identified the generation of a plasma as the basis
for the development of the motor's energy. It is entirely possible that what all these designs have in
common is an ionization process leading to a space charge imbalance within the cylinders. Because a
small amount of hydrogen is also produced, it appears as if the vehicle is running efficiently on
hydrogen when most of the power is actually caused by static electricity.
The final word.
The Joe Cell is a device that appears to manipulate the natural balance between protons and
electrons. By creating a charge imbalance within the cylinder, it can generate a powerful plasma that
in turn creates heat and compression/implosion. Space charge engine technology has the potential to
change our understanding of energy. Like any early stage technologies, it is likely to have its
problems. Joe Cells are reportedly difficult to build correctly and are as unreliable as hell - prone to
dying for no apparent reason. But as more and more focus is directed towards the science behind the
device, these problems are likely to be overcome. Space charge engine technology may turn out to
be one of the most important discoveries of the past 100 years. Important because there are so few
options available to us that can prevent total environmental catastrophe. With access to abundant,
cheap and clean power, the world will be transformed. Oceans could be converted to freshwater,
deserts transformed into forests. We would enter a period of global prosperity like nothing that has
ever been experienced before. Space charge engine technology may just be our future.
 An Electrostatic Experiment of Lord Kelvin with Running Water
John Vanderkooy Physics Department University of Waterloo
Reproduced from Phys 13 news - January 1984
Department of Physics University of Waterloo Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1

Our front cover shows that fascinating device,

the Kelvin Liquid Drop Generator. (unable to
reproduce clearly) This demonstration model
produces sparks every few seconds, which
jump a small gap, and, at the same time, light
up a row of neon lamps.

The falling water, the gleaming Plexiglas, and

the recurring sparks seem so disconnected, yet
the instrument generates high static voltages
using some very simple physical principles.
William Thomson, born 26th June, 1824, later
to be known as Lord Kelvin, invented the
device and showed it on special occasions. He
described the operation in the Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, Volume 16, June
1867, pp 67 - 72, replete with mathematical
formulae.

With reference to Fig. 1, let us try to

understand Kelvin's water-powered
electrostatic generator. The water jets J1, and J2
are adjusted so that they break up into droplets
near the induction rings R1, and R2, which in
turn are connected in cross-coupled fashion to
two metal containers C1, and C2. Suppose that
R1, and C1, are positive with respect to R2 and C2.
Then by charge transfer through the water, J1
becomes negative and J2 becomes positive. The
droplets when they form will thus be negative
near J1, and carry a negative charge into the
container C2 or be positive near J2 and carry a
positive charge into C1. These charges will add to
the charge already on the containers and hence
drive R1, more positive and R2 more
negative thus enhancing the charge separation.
The amount of charge on each droplet is
proportional to the total charge separation. The
amount of charge on each droplet is
proportional to the total charge separation
between R1, C1, and R2, C2 which in turn is
proportional to the potential difference V. If the
water streams uniformly, then the rate of change
of V will be proportional to V. Hence

∆V
=K V (1)
dt
where K is a positive constant depending on the
construction details and water flow. Equation 1
has the solution
V = Vo e K t (2)
where Vo is the potential at t = 0. At some later
time, V will become so large that corona
leakage or a modification of the water flow
limits the voltage. That is obvious to those who
have seen it work. In our model there is a spark
gap, and the unit simply discharges. If we put a
capacitor across it, there will be quite a spark.
(Some metal foil and Plexiglas dielectric works
well. Don't make the capacitance more than, say
300 pF, or the device becomes dangerous.)
Suppose, however, that the device starts from
zero potential difference. Then Vo = 0 and V = 0
for all time! It can't start! In practice there
seems to be little problem, so we should try to
understand why self-starting occurs. According
to J.T. Lloyd, writing in the Physics Teacher,
January 1980 pp 16-24, they sometimes don't
start for a minute or two, but once started they
seem to continue because of the residual charge.
I think there are many charging possibilities,
and one likely candidate is the process of
producing droplets from the water jets. The
surface tension of the water causes instability in
the falling jet which results in the droplets. It is
instructive to look at this process separately.
In Fig. 2 is shown a
water jet having a
series of necks. At
the necks the
diameter of the jet is
less, and this causes
the water pressure
created by the
surface tension to be
greater there than at
the bulges. Hence the
jet is unstable to
pinch off. This
process starts to
occur at the top of
the jet, and an
oscillatory instability of the above mentioned
type causes the break up into regular droplets.
To justify that the pressure due to surface
tension is greater for a smaller radius of surface,
consider a droplets of radii r as shown in Fig. 3.
If the surface tension is σ N/m, then by
imagining a plane drawn through the droplet
canter, we see the total force due to surface
tension is just
F = perimeter x σ = 2 π r σ (3)
Thus the increase in pressure in the droplet is
F 2σ
P = F /( cross − sec tional area ) = =
πr 2
r
(4)
a well known relationship. Note as r becomes
smaller, the pressure increases. Thus we have
explained the production of droplets. If the two
jets differ somewhat or fluctuate, which is
likely, there will be slight differences in both
the sizes and net charges on the
drops. Hence this "noise" will
start the generator, and the
growth predicted in equations
(1) and (2) soon dominates.
The Kelvin water drop
generator shown in Fig. 1 has closed receiving
containers, but other designs were actually used
by Kelvin. Fig. 4 shows a "receiving" container
constructed of an open metal tube having a
metallic screen placed inside it. When the
charged droplets strike the screen, their charge
very quickly flows to the outside of the
"receiver", since there can be no net field inside
a conductor. Thus the discharged droplets can
continue to a water retrieval tank, to be pumped
back to the
upper storage
feed to the jets
if desired.
Thus the
whole thing
can be a
continuous
process, producing static and sparks with be reversed by forcing them. Two stable states
running water! exist. Note that in each case there is a
consumption of energy to maintain the
Before we leave Kelvin's generator, we note symmetry breaking. In elementary particle
that the apparatus has reflection symmetry in its physics there is also symmetry breaking, but
cross-coupled topology. Electronic analogies then it occurs in the symmetrical description of
abound. In Fig. 5 is shown a flip-flop with nature without continuous energy input, and the
much the same symmetry. The potential result is the appearance of apparently different
differences in entities. Although long-range electromagnetic
the flip-flop or forces and short-range weak interactions
drop generator (responsible for radioactivity) appear totally
break the unrelated, there is now impressive evidence that
symmetry. they are "symmetry-broken" aspects of a
Potentials can symmetrical unified field theory.
Picture taken at Bozeman AAPT Kevin Water Generator
summer meeting (I think) in 1987. By
I have no idea who constructed it. Dick Heckathorn
 MATERIALS AND DIRECTIONS FOR KELVIN WATER DROP GENERATOR -1-
(To fit inside a paper box 14-cm high)
BY
DICK HECKATHORN
28 MARCH 1988

3/4 inch CPVC pipe ($3.19/10-ft)

A (1) 39 cm long
B (1) 9 cm long
C&D (2) 18.5 cm long
E&F (2) 11.5 cm long
G&H (2) 3/4 inch tee CPVC (.43 each) [Since original construction, there are pieces that have 4
openings. Don’t know what it is called.]
I&J (2) 3/4 inch male adapter CPVC (.33)
K&L (2) 3/4 inch cap CPVC (.25)
M&N (2) 3/4 inch floor flange ($1.10 each)
O (1) Insulating Base 13 cm x 42 cm x 1.2 cm (1/2 inch) (Plexiglas) [A good insulation base
is essential.
P&Q (2) Tomato Paste Cans - (5.5 cm x 8.5 cm)
R&S (2) 1-lb coffee cans - (10 cm x 14 cm)
T (1) 2-lb coffee can - (13 x 16.5 cm)
U&V (2) medicine dropper
W&X (2) Rubber hose to fit
Y&Z (2) 1-Bic pen tube cut in half
AA (1) 3/4 inch coupling CPVC (.21)
BB (6) bolts and nuts (6/32 x 1/2 inch)
CC (3) bolts and nuts (6/32 x 1/2 inch)
DD (3) bolts and nuts (8 x 32 x 1.5 inch)
EE (2) #10 copper wire 12-cm long
FF (2) connecting wire with alligator clips at each end
tube Dow Corning clear silicone rubber sealer
can of CPVC pipe sealer ($1.93)
MATERIALS AND DIRECTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING KELVIN WATER DROP GENERATOR
-2-

1. Fasten floor flange (M) to 2# coffee can (T) with 3 bolts (CC). Cover the bolts with silicone sealer.
2. Drill holes in can (T) to accept tubes (Y) and (Z). Cement and silicone the tubes to can (T) and let
dry.
3. Epoxy end caps (K) and (L) to cans (P) and (Q). When dry bolt cap to can with bolts (BB).
4. Cement pipe (E) to cap (K) and pipe (F) to cap (L).
5. Fasten floor flange (N) to base (O) with 3 bolts (DD). The base or whatever cans (R) and (S) sit on
must be a good insulating material.
6. Drill through the top of the 2 tee's (G,H) and sand to accept 3/4 inch CPVC Pipe. Use Care so that
friction will hold it in place. If it gets too loose, use a machine screw to fasten them to pipes (A)
and (B).
7. Slip tee (G) over pipe (B) and tee (H) over pipe (A).
8. Cement male adapter (J) to the end of pipe (A) and male adapter (I) to the end of pipe (B).
9. Cement coupling (AA) to Pipe (A).
10. Cement pipes (C) and (D) to tee (G).
11. Screw assembly cap (J) into floor flange (N).
12. Slide pipes (E) and (F) into tee (H).
13. Slip assembly cap (AA) on to the top of pipe (A).
14. Drill holes in pipes (C) and (D) to accept medicine droppers.
15. Screw male adapter (I) into floor flange (M). Align can (T) so that tubes (Y) and Q) are parallel
with tubes (C) and (D).
16. Connect tube (Z) to medicine dropper (V) and tube (Y) to medicine dropper (U) with rubber tubing
(W) and (X).
17. Drill 4 holes, one in can (P), (Q), (R) and (S) to accept bolt (BB). Insert and fasten the bolts to the
cans such that the screws point outward from the can. You will connect the bolts of (P) and (S) and
(Q) and (R) together with conducting wire (FF) when ready to operate.
18. Connect a piece of #10 copper wire to bolts (BB) in cans (R) and (S) so that they are 1 cm apart.
19. Paint outsides of cans (P) and (S) one color and (Q) and (R) another color.
20. Clamp hoses (W) and (X) with hose clamps, fill can (T) with water and then adjust the hose clamps
so that the stream of water separates into drops inside can (P) and (Q).

If you can find two connections with 4 openings rather than three, then tube A will be shorter. A
tube will then need to be cut to go from AA to H. Procedure 6 can then be omitted.

21. 1 have connected 4-NE-2 bulbs together on a Plexiglas handle with copper wires sticking out that
will connect wires (EE). The bulbs will flash when a discharge takes place. See actual size
apparatus below.
 "Kelvin's Thunderstorm"
Lord Kelvin's water-drop electrostatic generator
Bill Beaty, 1995
NOTE: avoid using wood to support metal parts! See "debugging" notes at the end. See
FURTHER INFO at end too.
It is possible to build a very simple high-voltage generator which has no moving parts and is
powered by the energy of falling water. By dribbling water through some old soup cans,
several thousand volts magically appear. The magic lies in the fact that water (as well as
everything else!) is made of vast quantities of positive and negative electric charge in
perfect balance. It's not too hard to cause an imbalance. Water normally has zero net
electrical charge because it contains equal and opposite charges. "Kelvin's Thunderstorm" is
a gravity-powered charge un-canceller.
+ + +
+|||||| +
||||||
|||||| Water
|||||| Dripper
||||||
Negative charge ||||||
is 'induced' at \ /
tip of dripper - || -
- _ -

_ + + + + + + +
-o- + -------------- +
- + | A | +
+ | Positively | +
_ + | Electrified | +
-o- + | Object | +
- + | | +
+ | | +
Negatively + -------------- +
electrified _ + + + + + + +
water -o-
droplets -

- -
- | | -
| | Collector Can
- |--__----____---| - becomes Negative
| |
- | | -
 | |
- |_______________| -
- - -

Fig 1. WATER DROPLETS BEING ELECTRIFIED BY "INDUCTION"

THE BASIC THEORY

Even though water has no overall electric charge, it is full of movable electric charges
(called ions). Half of the water's charges are positive and half are negative. It is not hard to
separate these charges; simply hold an electrified object near the water. The electrified
object will attract the "unlike" charges to the water's surface. It will also repel the "alike"
charges away deeper into the water.
In the above diagram, the positive object attracts the water's negative ions and repels the
positive ions. This draws an excess of negative ions into the tip of the water dripper, while
repelling an equal amount of positive ions off to the other end of the dripper. When the
water drop detaches from the tip of the dripper, an overall negative electric charge is still
trapped in the droplet. The falling water droplet carries away negative charge, leaving the
dripper slightly positive. If we catch the falling droplets in a container, the container will
become negatively charged.
In the above diagram, negative water droplets will be continuously created forever as long
as the water flows. However, this process does not exhaust the imbalanced charge on the
positive object. Sounds like perpetual motion, eh? Actually no. The electrical energy is
being created by the work that gravity does in pulling the negative droplet away from the
grounded dripper, and away against the attraction of the positive object. The electrical
attraction force from the positively-charged object keeps the tip of the dripper charged
negatively, but the positively charged object does not supply energy. YOU supply the
energy, since you LIFT the water to a height to fill the dripper. It's like the generator in a
hydroelectric dam, but without the turbine or the spinning coils or magnets. The water itself
becomes the moving parts of an electric generator.
(Note: the charge polarities can easily be reversed. If the above "object" is made negative,
the droplets would come out positive.)
If we can make a positively-charged object somehow, then we can
make negative water droplets. But where can we get a positive object?
If there was some way to CHANGE the negative charge on the water
into a positive charge, then we could use the water to charge up it's own
"positive object". We would then have a a self-sustaining generator.
There's a simple way to do this: build TWO water-drop devices like the
one in figure one! See the trick? The device in figure one uses a
positive object to create negative water. It uses positive to create
negative. If we build a second device, we could use the negative to
create positive. We could hook the two devices in a loop. The first one
would create an imbalance of negative charge, which could be fed to
the second one which would create an imbalance of positive charge,
which would be fed back to the first one again. It might sound crazy,
but it really works.
We will build two of the drippers in Fig. 1, set them side by side, then
collect the electrified water droplets from one side and use them to
electrify the "charged object" on the other side, and vice versa. We'll
cross-connect the lower and upper parts with wires. One side will have
a positive "object" and will make negative droplets, while the other side
will have a negative "object" and will make positive droplets. We'll also
connect the drippers together so they remain neutral. Then we will have
a self-sustaining electrical reaction.

_______________________
_ __________________ \ Water Supply
\ \ \ \
\ \ \ \
\ \ \ \ Drippers
(metal,plastic,glass)
|| ||
|| ||
|| || Connect the
water supply to a
|| || metal faucet
using a wire, or
|| || to the screw
on an electric
|| Wire not shown, || outlet or wall
switch.
see next diagram
(below)
| | | | Bottomless
metal coffee cans,
| | | | or wire
rings, or bundt pans,
| | | | or metal
disks with large holes
| | | | (supported by
insulating rods.)
| | | | Called
"Inducers." These
act as the
"charged object."
 | | | | Metal cans
on insulators
| | | | (styrofoam?
insulating rods?)
| | | | The
"Collectors."
| | | |
|____| |____|
| | | | The
"inducers" and "collectors"
| | | | should be
separated from each
|__| |__| other by
several inches

Fig. 2 TWO DROPLET-CHARGERS PLACED NEAR EACH

OTHER (see below for wires)
See Fig. 3 below. Wires connect the two sides together. The negative
droplets touch the lower Collector-can of the first side. The collector
can is electrically connected to the upper negative Inducer of the second
side. The negative Inducer will cause the second side to make some
positive droplets. The positive droplets of the second side will touch the
second lower collector can, and this will charge the upper Inducer can
of the first side positively. (This makes the first side produce negative
droplets.) The grounded drippers must be connected to each other and
to ground. See Fig. 3 below to see how the wires connect things
together.
Highly recommended: ELECTROSTATICS by A. D. Moore (lots of
projects), also others

SELF-STARTING
But where does the first charge come from? In fact, if you build such a
device, it will usually create voltage all by itself, spontaneously,
without being pre-charged. During dry conditions everything near the
generator ends up with a tiny electric charge just from being handled. If
one of the upper cans is slightly negative, it will cause the water to have
imbalanced positive, which will start up the other side of the generator,
which will make the charge on the negative side become larger, etc.,
over and over.
It's like balancing a penny on edge: it's hard to start out with a perfect
balance, and usually it falls one way or the other. Same with this
generator. If there's a tiny electrical imbalance at the start, the generator
will amplify it over and over, and the voltage will "fall over" to either
one polarity or the other. A high voltage will magically appear from
nowhere. (But nobody knows which side will start out positive and
which will be negative.)
CONSTRUCTION
The metal parts of the generator must be supported with insulating
materials. A large vertical sheet of acrylic plastic works well. So does
styrofoam plastic. Don't use wood for the supports, it's too conductive.
Fasten the collectors and inducers to the plastic sheet with screws or
silicone caulk, or make holes in the sheet and tie them to the sheet with
string or wire. Some people have used plastic rods or plastic strips to
support things. Other people use plastic water pipes. The plastic must
be clean and dry. The inducers and collector cans must be spaced away
from each other by several inches horizontally and vertically. The lower
collectors must be kept away from the table surface.
Bare wires are used to cross-connect the four cans. These two diagonal
wires must be far from any other conductive object, and the wires must
not touch together. Use bare wire, this will let you create sparks
between the wires, or to later flash a NE-2 neon bulb.
Connect the ends of the diagonal wires directly to the metal of the cans.
If you use plastic-covered wire, strip off the plastic coating from an
inch of each end of the wire. You can use tape to hold the wire against
the metal, as long as the wire touches the bare metal directly (not, for
example against the painted part of a coffee can.) Alligator clipleads
(bought from Radio Shack stores) work well for this. Or poke a hole in
the metal near the edge of the can, stick the wire through the hole, and
bend it and tape it so it doesn't fall out.
___________________________
_ _______________________ \
\ \ \ \
\ \ \ \
\ \ \ \
|| ||
|| ||
|| ||
|| ||

| o | | o |
| | | |
| o |+ + - - | o |
+ | |----\ /---| | -
 | o | + \ + - / - | o | (no
connection
+ \ /
between the
o C/ o
crossed wires!)
- | | - / \ + | | +
- | o | - - / + \ + | o | +
| |_____/ \_____| |
- |----| - + |----| +
|____| |____|
| | | |
| | | |
|__| |__|

Fig. 3 LORD KELVIN'S THUNDERSTORM, W/WIRES SHOWN

The upper rings (or cans) must be positioned near the place where the
water droplets break from the rest of the water. If the droplets break
away right at the tip of the nozzle, then put the nozzles within the upper
cans. If a solid stream of water comes from the nozzle and breaks up
further down, then move the nozzels up, so that the water-break spot is
inside the upper inducer cans.
For the Drippers, you can use glass or plastic "pipettes". You want to
have a very small hole, so that the dripper makes lots of tiny droplets. If
you cannot get a pipette, try poking holes in a plastic container. See
below.
Adjust the water flow so it drips VERY fast. The faster, the better. Even
better, use lots of drippers instead of just one.
OPERATION
Once you have the water dripping, you can expect high voltage to
immediately appear. After the device runs for a minute, touch one of
the coffee cans gently with a finger and listen for the tiny snap of a
"static" spark. If you don't hear a spark, the machine is running weakly
or not al all. See the "debugging"" section near the end of this article.
If you can't hear any spark, you can try detecting sparks electronically
with an AM radio. Place a radio a foot away from your generator, tune
it between AM stations (or tune it to a very weak station), and turn the
volume up. Run your Kelvin machine. Touch one of the cans with your
finger and listen to the radio. You should hear a "snap" noise as your
finger touches the metal. Touch one upper can, then the other, then the
first one again. You should hear a "snap" each time. Even when sparks
are too small to hear or see, a radio will sometimes still detect them.
FLASHING A NEON BULB
Once your machine is able to produce sparks, you can also make it flash
a small neon lightbulb. Normal flashlight bulbs won't work, you need a
small neon "pilot light" bulb instead. Obtain an "NE-2" or other similar
neon light, the kind which looks like a short glass tube with two parallel
wires inside and two bare wires sticking out of the glass. Hold the bulb
by one wire, look at the tube, then use the other wire to touch one of the
cans of your Kelvin device. You should see a dim orange flash inside
the bulb. (It might help to turn off the lights and work in a dimly lit
room.) Hold one bulb wire, then use the other wire to touch the positive
can, then the negative can, then the positive, and you should see a tiny
orange flash each time.
CONTINUOUSLY FLASHING BULB
Don't connect the NE-2 bulb directly across the two generator wires. It
will short out the generator and prevent high voltage buildup. You can
make the generator automatically flash the neon bulb by making a
"spark gap". First twist one wire from the neon bulb around one of the
generator's diagonal wires, then bend the wires so other short wire from
the neon bulb is very close to the other generator wire ( but not
touching). Small sparks will occasionally jump across the small gap and
flash the neon. The smaller the gap, the faster (and dimmer) the
flashing. Try a 1/16 inch gap (1 mm) at first. If it works, increase the
distance to get slow, bright flashes. Bend the sharp tip of the wire over
to form a little ring, this sometimes lets the voltage rise higher before a
spark jumps, which lets the bulb flash more brightly.
FLAPPING KLEENEX
To "see" the high voltage surrounding the cans, tape some strips of
tissue paper to the cans. Put tape only at the top of each strip of tissue
so the strip hangs down against the side of the can. When the can
charges up, the strips should lift slightly outwards. The higher the
voltage, the farther the strips move. When a spark jumps, the strips jerk
because the repulsion force suddenly becomes less.
SLOW-FALLING WATER
The energy that builds up between the cans comes from the falling of
the water. As the stored energy grows, the water has to do more and
more work every time it adds a bit more imbalanced charge to the cans.
The electrified droplets feel a repulsion force as they fall towards the
alike-charged lower cans. As the voltage increases, the droplets will fall
more and more slowly. The sound of the splashing water will change.
The droplets may even start bending their paths, even occasionally
falling upwards!
EMPTYING THE LOWER CANS
If the device is run for very long, the lower cans fill up. How to get the
water out of the cans without discharging them? Here's my addition to
the classic Kelvin Waterdropper: use the "faraday ice pail" effect,
where a conductive hollow object always has no charge imbalance on
its inside. To do this, connect an exit tube inside each lower can as
below, so the water DRIPS out (if it falls in a solid stream, the cans will
discharge and the generator will stop working.)

|| ||
|| ||
|| ||
|| ||
||/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/||
|| || For best results, no
|| || sharp edges or burrs
|| WATER || anywhere. Or, cover
|| || sharp edges with
thick
|| __ __ || bead of RTV silicone
|| | | | | || caulk
|| | | | | ||
|| | U | ||
|| | O | ||
====== ======
O
Uncharged droplets
O exit from bottom

Fig. 4 REMOVING THE WATER FROM THE LOWER CANS

Or, even simpler, install a cone-shaped piece of metal window screen
inside a bottomless can, so the water droplets touch the screen and
continue through. Make sure the screen is centered vertically within the
can, so that the point of the cone doesn't extend past the lower lip of the
can. Don't let the water drip from the edge of the can, otherwise it will
carry charge away with each drop.
With a little catcher-tray and a fountain pump, you can make the system
recirculate. Or, you can stack all four parts of one Kelvin device in a
single row, for an in-line waterdropper generator. See my article on
"Inline Kelvin Thunderstorm Device" found on my site at
http://amasci.com/emotor/ikelv.html.
Note that the Inline version is more tricky to make work. Build the
above device first before attempting the one below.

\ \
\ \
\ \
||
Grounded ||
Dripper ||
||
o
o
| |
Neg | |
can | o |
| |

Pos | |
can |...|
w/screen | | Connecting wires not
shown, see
| | ikelv.html article
for more info

\ / Connect pos to pos,

neg to neg
Grounded \ /
Funnel ||
o
| | Note that this is a
more advanced
Pos | | project, and is more
difficult to
can | o | debug than the side-
by-side version.
| |

Neg | |
can |...|
w/screen | |
| |
o
Fig. 5 IN-LINE VERSION (wires not shown)

The water supply need not be a "dripper", it can be a high velocity

spray, as long as the water jet divides into droplets, not a contiguous
stream. And multiple jets can be used, sort of like a shower head. The
faster the flow and the larger the number of separate streams, the higher
the total output current. (Higher current gives faster recharge rate after
a spark, and it lets the generator self-start more reliably when humidity
is high.)
GIGANTIC VERSION
I've always wanted to build a gigantic version like the one below, with
hollow metal toroids. (Use halves of VandeGraff spheres, the halves
with the holes). Or maybe use metal 55-gal drums. But the drums have
sharp edges, and we can't attain millions of volts if the edges are sharp.
A foil-covered truck innertube should support about a million volts
before air-corona leakage stops the voltage from rising any higher.
Fou
r tori
\\ \\
(shown cross-
\\ \\
sectional)
\\ \\
|| ||
|| ||
water
|| ||
spray
|| ||
___ ___ ___
___
/ \ / \ / \
/ \
| | | | | |
| |
\___/ \___/ \___/
\___/

___ ___ ___

___
/ \ / \ / \
/ \
| |\ /| | |
|\ /| |
\___/ \_/ \___/ \___/ \_/
\___/

conical screens in lower torii touch

droplets and
release, discharging them. Entire screens
must be
deep within the "hole" of each donut so the
torus can
shield the departing water droplets from
the electrical
fields on the outside.

Fig. 6 GIANT KELVIN DEVICE BUILT FROM SPUN-METAL

DONUTS (or tire inner tubes covered with aluminum foil!)

High-velocity shower heads and cross-connecting conductors made

from large-diameter pipes will complete the scene above: a
"VandeGraaff Generator" version of Kelvin's Thunderstorm apparatus!
NEWS: I suspended a bundt-pan by fishlines, then sprayed water
through the center, so that the water did not touch the metal. I used a
garden hose with a "water breaker" (a sort of shower head attachment.)
I charged up the bundt pan with a 10KV power supply, and then
measured the electric current between a collector pot and ground. It was
2.5 microamps! This doesn't sound like much, but it's as much as some
VandeGraaff generators can put out.
I found that if I disconnected the power supply from the bundt pan, the
current did not vanish. The charge on the bundt pan stayed the same as I
watched for about 30sec. And this was in high humidity conditions!
Fishing line makes a VERY GOOD insulator. The system kept working
until I touched the bundt pan with my finger, then the electric current
coming from the collector can went to zero.

RUNNING A MOTOR

The above generators can be used to run a motor, if the motor is my Pop
Bottle Electrostatic Motor at:
http://amasci.com/emotor/emotor.html
I find that these small Kelvin Waterdrop Generators are a little too
feeble to keep the motor going continuously. Instead they make it
slowly pulse. They build up a charge imbalance, then the motor starts
turning and rotates a few times. This exhausts the charge imbalance, the
motor stops, then it builds up again and repeats. This happens a couple
of times per minute. A bigger waterdrop generator is needed if you
want to run the bottle-motor continuously.
MULTIPLE DRIPPERS
I put multiple drippers on my waterdrop generator and this improved
things considerably. The best generator uses lots and lots of tiny drops,
with the drops being made as fast as possible. If we use a cluster of
dripper nozzles, the inner ones probably act as electrical shields for the
outer ones. This is bad, since this will prevent the inner ones "seeing"
the charged inducer cans, and they won't make any electrified water.
Therefor a CIRCLE of nozzles is probably best.
I drilled a circle of eight tiny holes in a plastic bowl (using #64 drill
bit), and this gave good results. A crude version of multiple-dripper:
use a soup can, and punch a bunch of holes in the bottom by using a
tiny nail. I've also seen a shower-head thing called a "water breaker" in
the garden supply section of hardware stores. If a circle of tape was
stuck to the center of one of these, it would plug up the middle holes
and form a ring of about 100 tiny water jets.
SPEEDING UP THE RECHARGE
Whenever a spark discharges the generator, it also discharges the
inducer rings. As a result, the generator takes quite a while to "ramp up"
to full voltage again. This is exponential growth, and it's quite slow at
first. There are several possible ways to solve this problem (I haven't
tried them, you be first!) One solution is to insert very large resistors in
series with the wires to the inducer rings (large = thousands of
megohms). Then always discharge only the collectors, not the inducers.
The resistors will keep the inducers from instantly discharging. If the
inducers remain charged, then the generator will quickly recharge with
a fast linear voltage curve rather than a slow exponential curve. High-
value resistors are expensive, so perhaps try making your own resistors.
Use strips of paper with fine lines of india ink (india ink is conductive
carbon.)
Another possibility: rather than using resistors, instead insert high
voltage diodes. For example, use several 7,000-volt microwave oven
diodes in series, available from Allied Electronics. Orient the polarity
of diodes to allow the Inducers to charge but not to discharge. Diodes in
one conductor should point upwards, and in the other conductor should
point downwards. This way the collectors will charge up the inducer
rings, but when you discharge the collectors, the diodes will turn off
and become nonconductors. The excess charge on the inducer rings will
remain high. Also, if you use diodes, the generator polarity would
always be predictable, since the generator would not function if the
polarity became reversed.
A third method: build a big generator, but don't connect the collectors
to the inducers. Then build a second tiny water-drop generator, and use
it to charge up the inducers of the big generator. Then always discharge
only the collectors of the big generator, and leave the other metal parts
alone.
If you want to use your generator to power a pop-bottle electrostatic
motor, the above idea is the way to go. Build a separate generator to
power the inducers of the larger generator, that way the motor cannot
"short out" the inducer voltage and make everything stop.
Now that I'm thinking about it, here's another type of generator to build:
a half-kelvin device with only two cans. How can it ever work? Simple:
use the screen of a TV set to charge the inducer! I bet that this would
even work when the humidity is really high. A TV set normally cannot
produce constant electrostatic energy output unless you keep turning it
off and on. But it should be able to supply enough energy to power the
inducer ring on half of a Kelvin's Thunderstorm device.
WEIRDNESS: antigravity?
If your generator really works well, you will see water droplets slow
down and their paths curve upwards! No, this is not antigravity, this is
just electrostatic repulsion. Alike charges repel.
WEIRDNESS: really really gigantic generators
In a private conversation someone told me that there were patents on a
wind generator based upon the Kelvin Generator. Build two big parallel
vertical metal screens the size of outdoor movie theater screens (or
larger). The upwind screen has coarse mesh, the downwind screen has
fine mesh to gather water droplets. Suspend them on insulators which
are good for millions of volts. Charge the upwind screen with a power
supply. Spray a fine mist of water into the screens upwind, and let the
wind push the spray through the screens. The upwind screen will attract
imbalanced charges into the sprayer tips, and the water droplets will
have an imbalanced charge of opposite polarity. The wind takes the
place of gravity in the classic Lord Kelvin device. Wind pushes charged
water to the second, fine-mesh screen. Water droplets touch this screen
and deliver their charge. The wind is slowed by repulsion of the water
mist, the upwind screen uses no current, and the downwind screen puts
out amperes at millions of volts of electrical potential (amps times
megavolts equals megawatts). Simply step down the megavolts of DC,
then convert it to AC. Ta-da, a wind generator with no moving parts!
An artificial thunderstorm, harnessed as a commercial generator,
powered by the wind.

DEBUGGING:
If your project will not work, it may be because the humidity is high
and your device is having trouble "deciding" which side should be
positive and which side negative. See my hints about humidity, found at
http://amasci.com/emotor/statelec.html. With Kevin generators it takes
voltage to make voltage. If your device starts totally at zero, it may take
a minute or two to build up to maximum. Therefors give it a "goose" by
holding an electrified object briefly near one of the cans while the water
is running (for example: a balloon, a 2liter pop bottle, or some
styrofoam, each rubbed on hair to electrify them.) This gives the
generator a "kick start."
The two drippers must be neutral, so they need to be connected together
electrically. To make certain they're neutral, connect a grounded wire to
their water supply. These drippers should drip FAST. Many droplets per
second. If your drippers are very slow, then your machine will charge
up very slowly or not at all. To produce a fast drip rate, usually you
need a tiny hole at the end of your water tubes. Plastic or glass pipettes
are the usual way to accomplish this. Also, your machine will work
better if you have many drippers.
If you really cannot get your generator to work, here's a way to "cheat."
Put a piece of aluminum foil on a TV screen, connect this foil to one of
the inducer cans on your generator, and then turn on the TV. This will
make your generator run, at least temporarily. Don't let any water get
near the TV set!!!
AVOID WOOD
Kelvin Generators usually can tolerate fairly high humidity. Watch out
though. Materials with large internal surface area, such as wood, cloth,
masonite, etc., usually absorb moisture from the air and become slightly
conductive. Therefor, assume that these materials are the same as metal,
and avoid using them as supports or framework when you build this
device. Wood provides a leakage path and shorts out the high voltage.
One experimenter even found that problems were caused by supporting
their cans with insulating blocks glued to a wooden panel. The short
lengths of plastic must not have been sufficiently insulating, and there
must have been a leakage path across the plastic and through the wood.
Switching to all-plastic supports solved their problem.
If acrylic sheets such as plexiglas(tm) or perspex(tm) are not available,
large styrofoam blocks work well as supports. Avoid using solvent-
based glues with styrofoam, it makes it dissolve. The plastic MUST BE
CLEAN. Use new plastic if you can. If you wash the plastic, don't use
much soap, since soap can form a conductive coating. Rinse it and
scrub it with lots of clean water to remove all the soap. If you wash the
plastic, then afterwards dry it thoroughly with an electric hair-dryer gun
(but be careful, don't melt the plastic with too much heat!)
Nylon fishing line makes a good insulating support, especially during
high humidity conditions. Long, very thin supports such as fishing line
have small surfaces and therefor give less surface-current leakage than
short, fat supports or flat panels. Don't use twine or string as supports,
of course, since these materials become too conductive when the
humidity is high.
If humidity is very high, even plastic can become slightly conductive.
This can be temporarily fixed by using an electric hair-dryer gun to dry
the plastic surfaces. Bathe the plastic in hot air for several minutes,
taking care not to heat it so much that it softens! Try testing your
generator again, and it may begin to work.
The water droplets must not touch the inducers. The droplets should
pass through the inducers. The droplets should break free from the
water while they are still inside the inducers. If continuous streams of
water (not droplets) shoot out of the drippers, then move the drippers
upwards to make certain that the droplets break away from the
continuous streams while the droplets are inside the inducer cans.
The water droplets MUST touch the collectors. To start, simply let the
collectors fill up with water. Once you have succeeded in getting sparks
from your machine, then later you can try the trick with the cones of
window screen (see far below.)
To detect the tiniest charge imbalance, build the RIDICOLOUSLY
SENSITIVE CHARGE DETECTOR shown elsewhere on my web
pages. (http://amasci.com/emotor/chargdet.html) This device will detect
a few hundred volts of electrostatic potential at a great distance from
the cans. It is extremely sensitive. The tiniest sparks won't begin until
the cans reach about 1,000v potential, yet the sensor responds to about
ten times less. A sparking Kelvin generator can make the Charge
Detector flash even if it is many feet away.
Don't neglect the balloon trick. If your device doesn't self-start, then
momentarily hold a charged balloon near one of the cans while the
water is running. (Verify that the balloon is really electrified, see if it
raises your arm-hair when rubbed. Sometimes humidity is so high that
the balloon will not aquire an imbalanced charge by rubbing on hair.)
A simple way to detect static charging: place a portable AM radio near
the device, tune it to a blank station, then touch one of the cans with a
finger. If your device is just barely working, there will be an
imperceptible spark. But this will make a loud click on the radio! If you
wear an AM Walkman headphone radio, it will extend your senses so
that you can hear the electromagnetic pulses given off by the tiniest
spark. Become a "Borg" from Star Trek, with the ability to hear
electromagnetic impulses via a biointerface to electronic circuitry
(Walkman headphones). :) Try spending the day wearing AM radio
headphones tuned to an empty spot on the dial, and you will encounter
all sorts of interesting electromagnetic "sounds" in the environment.
You'll hear the "crack" noises of distant lightning even when the
thunderstorms are too far away to hear the thunder. Electric fences in
countryside farms make a periodic clicking. The overhead wires from
electric city buses make all sorts of musical tones.

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OTHER ARTICLES:

General debugging notes for electrostatics

Solving humidity problems for VDG machines

VandeGraaff Machines (big sparks)

Tesla Coils (bigger sparks)

What if lightning was slow?

REFERENCES:

keywords: Kelvin's Thunderstorm (google)

Sparking Buckets (Bizarre stuff made in your

kitchen)

Solaris Kelvin Devices (several)

Version of above article

UMICH w/diagram

John D'Mura's device

UMD photo

Scifun

UNIMELB diagram

Diagram w/Leyden Jars

THE PHYSICS TEACHER (magazine), May 1988,

pp304-306, The Ting-A-Ling
Machine, by Cliff Bettis (uses mixing
bowls)

THE PHYSICS TEACHER (magazine), February

1972, pp100-101, Electrostatic
Lobby Display, by M. Fast (uses coffee
cans)

Scientific American Magazine June 1960, THE

AMATEUR SCIENTIST, by C. L.
Stong, page 175

Alvin Marks' "Power Fence", an HV wind power

generator with no moving
parts
http://www.rexresearch.com/articles/airwells.ht
m
 Inline version of "Kelvin's Thunderstorm"
electrostatic generator:
http://amasci.com/emotor/ikelv.html