The Advent of Drama in England

Scope: In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the world of literature saw the emergence of both
printing and modern theater. Although drama is a universal human endeavor, its modern form in
England evolved from the mystery or miracle plays. These productions, staged by guilds,
communicated to the largely illiterate populace the stories of the Bible. We’ll look in depth at
one such mystery story, the Second Shepherds’ Play, which successfully combines low comedy
with religious teaching. We’ll also briefly explore the reputation of theater itself in England,
always viewed with suspicion by “respectable folk.” The mystery stories undoubtedly influenced
such dramatists as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, creating the framework in
which these giants could write their masterpieces.

B. The other major occurrence was the emergence of theater as we now know it. English drama,
like
drama in other countries and cultures, began on the streets of English towns, with townspeople
for actors.
It was open to all, not just to the few people who were literate.
C. Drama, as Nietzsche pointed out in his work The Birth of Tragedy, is as universally human a
practice as praying or, for that matter, playing.
D. Drama originated in folk literature, coming up from below rather than trickling down from
above.
II. Theater in England in its modern form began with the so-called mystery or miracle plays.
A. In the medieval period, the most important story was the Bible itself. Given that the
population was largely illiterate, how could the narrative that runs from Genesis to Judgment
Day best be communicated?
B. England was undergoing urbanization during the late 15th and early 16th centuries, and in the
growing towns, the guilds and craft associations were very powerful.
1. In the Middle Ages, the word “mystery” was connected with the French word metier, which
means “trade or profession” but had overtones of secrecy.
2. The early industries that evolved in the medieval period, such as goldsmithing, glass-blowing,
and so on, required mastery of tools and skills, but these abilities were kept as jealously guarded
secrets and passed on only through a system of apprenticeship and guilds.
3. The guilds, or metiers, became rich and powerful and took it upon themselves to spread the
word of Christianity, the mysteries of the greatest story ever told.
4. Annually, usually at Easter, dramatic cycles would be staged, in which each of the guilds
would sponsor a wagon or a float. Typically, each guild would choose an episode from the Bible
that fit with its profession. The carpenters, for example, would tell the story of the crucifixion;
the bargemen might tell the story of Noah.
5. The church was generally tolerant of this activity. Indeed, some clerics, who were usually the
most literate members of society, may have helped write the scripts. At the same time, the church
probably maintained an oversight function of the productions.
C. The mystery plays were extremely popular and probably influenced future dramatists, such as
Shakespeare and Marlowe.
1. Hamlet, for example, instructs the players who are visiting Elsinore not to “out-Herod Herod.”
This line is an allusion to the figure of Herod in the mystery plays, who was traditionally played
to the gallery, with crowd-pleasing ranting and roaring.
2. Noah’s wife was usually played as a scold who nagged her husband constantly.
D. The guilds kept lavish costumes, the inventories of which survive, along with certain business
papers and scripts. Written copies of the plays were necessary when new actors came into the
plays. We have the texts of a number of the major city-based cycles, including those of
Coventry, Leicester, York, and Wakefield.
III. The Second Shepherds’ Play comes from the Wakefield cycle.
A. Wakefield is a town in what is now Yorkshire that was prosperous in the 14th century. From
earliest times, it was famous for two things: its wool production and its piety. Given the town’s
principal industry, shepherds were important and respected members of the community.
B. It’s impossible to date the Second Shepherds’ Play accurately, but it was probably composed
around 1475 and performed with various elaborations for many years afterward. The Wakefield
cycle encompasses 30 plays, beginning with Creation and ending with the hanging of Judas. The
cycle has two shepherds’ plays, both of which are centered on the adoration of the newborn
savior, Jesus.
C. In addition to being responsible for much of the wealth in Wakefield, shepherds also have a
strong D. The Second Shepherds’ Play opens during the period of the nativity in the area around
Bethlehem.
Three shepherds are on the hills, watching their sheep by night, when they learn that the savior is
about to be born.
1. The first shepherd angrily bemoans the bitterly cold weather and the oppressions, including
taxes, that poor folk like themselves must bear while the rich are snug, well-fed, and warm in
their beds. He would prefer to trade in his current occupation for farming, which would generate
more
money, enable him to relax in the winter, and allow him some rest at night.
2. Rebellions were fairly common in the medieval period (the most famous of which was led by
Jack Straw), but the play doesn’t continue along this radical line. The second and third shepherds
are more patient with their lot in life. Their attitude is more one of Christian submission. The
mystery plays were often didactic in this way, but they did give a voice to protest.
E. After this prologue, the character Mak enters; he is a rogue who steals one of the lambs that
the other shepherds are guarding. He and his wife Gil then attempt to hide the lamb as a baby in
a cradle so that no one will know what they’ve done.
1. The other shepherds come to Mak’s cottage to give the new baby a silver sixpenny piece. A
humorous exchange follows, with Mak trying to keep his fellow shepherds away from the
“baby.”
2. When the shepherds finally discover Mak’s trick, they put him in a bag and beat him.
F. The play then reverts to familiar religious orthodoxy. The angel of the Lord appears and
instructs the three good shepherds to worship the babe in Bethlehem, who is lying between two
animals.
1. We see now that the business with the lamb is a parody, verging on the blasphemous in its
association of the newborn Christ with an animal of the field. Only the comedy of the scene
ensures that we’re not offended.
2. Stealing a sheep or a lamb was a hanging offense, but given that the play revolves around
Christmas, a time of forgiveness, and that Christ came into the world to forgive, Mak gets off
with a beating.
3. The lamb in the cradle also reminds us of the degradation of the savior’s birthplace, in an
animal manger. The audience members would not have been able to read the details of Christ’s
birth in the Bible, but they would have been open to learning them after they had laughed at the
comic business taking place in front of them.
G. Above all, the Second Shepherds’ Play is of and for the people. Although we will never know
the name of the master who wrote it, he (or she) had a clear connection with the audience.
IV. Historically speaking, the English theater has had a difficult career.
A. It originated on the streets, under an uneasy license from the church. But the Puritans, who
wanted to refine religious practice and became increasingly powerful, never approved of what
they called
“mummery” or “imitations.”
1. As Nietzsche pointed out, drama and paganism are close relatives. There was always the
suspicion that drama was somehow pre-Christian and dangerous.
2. Decent, “respectable folk” never approved of the theater or theater people, who were thought
bohemian and immoral.
3. As a result of Puritan pressure, English theater was controlled and censored from the 18th
century onward for 200 years.
B. Nervousness about drama has been built into the institutions of England almost to the present
day. As
late as 1960, every play produced on the English stage had to be approved for performance by
the Lord Chamberlain, who rigorously excluded references to royalty, blasphemy, and sex.
C. This nervousness carries through to the current licensing and rating of films. We still have an
anxiety
E. An important and entertaining cultural influence in the late medieval period, the mystery plays
created the framework within which our next great talents, William Shakespeare and Christopher
Marlowe, would write their masterpieces.