Intro en 150727

Introduction to the UN System:
Orientation for Serving on a

UN Field Mission
Course Author
Mr. Julian Harston, Assistant Secretary-General
to the United Nations (Retired)
Series Editor
Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.
Peace Operations Training Institute

®
Study peace and humanitarian relief any place, any time

UN Field Mission
Cover Photo: UN Photo #553835 by Devra

Berkowitz. Wide view of the Security Council
meeting on “women and peace and security”.
24 June 2013.
Course Author
Mr. Julian Harston, Assistant Secretary-General
to the United Nations (Retired)
Series Editor
Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.

®
Study peace and humanitarian relief any place, any time

© 2015 Peace Operations Training Institute. All rights reserved.

1309 Jamestown Road, Suite 202
Williamsburg, VA 23185 USA
www.peaceopstraining.org
First edition: 2001 by LCOL Christian Hårleman

Second edition: 2003
Third edition: 2011
Fourth edition: 2015 by Mr. Julian Harston
The material contained herein does not necessarily reflect the views of the Peace Operations Training Institute (POTI),
the Course Author(s), or any United Nations organs or affiliated organizations. The Peace Operations Training Institute is
an international not-for-profit NGO registered as a 501(c)(3) with the Internal Revenue Service of the United States of
America. The Peace Operations Training Institute is a separate legal entity from the United Nations. Although every effort
has been made to verify the contents of this course, the Peace Operations Training Institute and the Course Author(s)
disclaim any and all responsibility for facts and opinions contained in the text, which have been assimilated largely
from open media and other independent sources. This course was written to be a pedagogical and teaching document,
consistent with existing UN policy and doctrine, but this course does not establish or promulgate doctrine. Only officially
vetted and approved UN documents may establish or promulgate UN policy or doctrine. Information with diametrically
opposing views is sometimes provided on given topics, in order to stimulate scholarly interest, and is in keeping with the
norms of pure and free academic pursuit.
Versions of this course offered in other languages may differ slightly from the primary English master copy. Translators
make every effort to retain the integrity of the material.
UN Field Mission
Table of Contents
Foreword x
Method of Study xi
Lesson 1 Framework for a Global Organization, Past and

Present 12
Section 1.1 The Founding of the United Nations and its Charter 14
Section 1.2 Purposes and Principles of the United Nations 16
Section 1.3 Legal Framework and Authority 19
Section 1.4 Financial Principles and Budget of the United Nations 22
Section 1.5 The United Nations System 23
Section 1.6 Measurable Global Impact 29
Lesson 2 The Principal Organs of the United Nations 32
Section 2.1 General Assembly 34
Section 2.2 Security Council 37
Section 2.3 Economic and Social Council 41
Section 2.4 Secretariat and the Secretary-General 43
Section 2.5 International Court of Justice 47
Section 2.6 Trusteeship Council 50
PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE
v
Introduction to the UN System: Orientation for Serving on a UN Field Mission
Lesson 3 The Role of the United Nations in Global Peace

and Security 54
Section 3.1 The Evolving UN Response to Global Conflict 56
Section 3.2 Mechanisms for Stronger Peace and Security 59
Section 3.3 The Guiding Principles of Peace Operations 61
Section 3.4 Multidimensional Components 65
Section 3.5 Types of Peace Operations 68
Section 3.6 Planning and Preparation 73
Section 3.7 Implementation 75
Section 3.8 Management Responsibilities 77
Section 3.9 The Peacekeeping Partnership 78
Lesson 4 The Role of the United Nations in Global

Development and Humanitarian Action 82
Section 4.1 The Development Concept 84
Section 4.2 The Interface Between Disaster Relief and Development 88
Section 4.3 Humanitarian Imperatives 89
Section 4.4 Distinctions and Similarities between Human Rights Law and
International Humanitarian Law 93
Section 4.5 Principles of International Humanitarian Law 94
Section 4.6 Principles of Human Rights 96
Section 4.7 Human Development and Climate Change 106
Lesson 5 The Dynamic Field Environment 110
Section 5.1 Social and Cultural Environment 112
Section 5.2 Mission Environment 116
Section 5.3 Civil-Military Cooperation 119
Section 5.4 Safety and Security Environment 120
vi
Lesson 6 Principles and Responsibilities of UN Field

Personnel 126
Section 6.1 Service for Humanity 128
Section 6.2 Obligations and Duties 128
Section 6.3 Cultural and Social Demands 131
Section 6.4 Personal Demands 133
Section 6.5 Privileges and Immunities 135
Annex A: Ten Rules – Code of Personal Conduct for Blue Helmets 136
Lesson 7 Safety and Security for UN Field Personnel 140
Section 7.1 Responding to Threats Facing the UN System 142
Section 7.2 Main Principles and Structure of the UN Security

Management System 143
Section 7.3 Responsibilities of UN Personnel 147
Section 7.4 Personal Safety and Precautions 149
Section 7.5 Travel Precautions 154
Section 7.6 Sexual Harassment and Sexual Assault 157
Section 7.7 Special Security Precautions 158
Section 7.8 First Aid 163
Section 7.9 Coping with Stress 166
Lesson 8 Strategies and Techniques for Effective

Fieldwork 172
Section 8.1 Participatory Methods 174
Section 8.2 Projects and Project Control 175
Section 8.3 Monitoring and Verification 177
Section 8.4 Transparent Communication 179
Section 8.5 Negotiation 183
vii
Section 8.6 Mediation 185
Section 8.7 Written Communications and Reports 188
Section 8.8 Communication with the Media 188
Lesson 9 Global Partners for Development and Peace 194
Section 9.1 Establishing Organizational Relationships in the Field 196
Section 9.2 UN Programmes and Funds 197
Section 9.3 UN Specialized Agencies 202
Section 9.4 International Organizations with Member States 204
Section 9.5 Non-Governmental International Organizations 206
Section 9.6 International Governmental Organizations 207
Section 9.7 Non-Governmental Organizations 209
viii
Appendices
Appendix A: List of Acronyms 214
Appendix B: Current Peacekeeping Missions 219
About the Author: Mr. Julian Harston 220
Instructions for the End-of-Course Examination 221
ix
Foreword
Welcome to this course, which will introduce you to the United Nations and its role in international
peace and security. I’ve been in the business of peace and security and diplomacy most of my working
life, and I really don’t remember a moment when the world faced such problems as it does today.
In order to meet the unique obligations placed on it by the world community, the United Nations
needs people, both civilian and military, to work in the field around the world. It needs people, civilian
and military, who understand the United Nations — its history and its activities, both past and present.
Activities which make it a vital part of the process of mitigating and even from time to time solving
some of the world’s greatest challenges.
The United Nations is not easy. It is a complex organization made up of many different parts which
are independent but are expected to work together in the integrated operations which now form the
largest part of what we do. What we must do together as you follow this course is equip you with some
of the knowledge and background information that you will need in order to become a valuable member
of a UN team.
The breadth of activities now carried out by integrated missions in the field require not just military
and police and the more traditional civilian political and administrative components, but now include
civil affairs, humanitarian work, communications, elections, security sector reform, rule of law, gender
affairs, and a wide variety of peacebuilding and development activities. When I was serving in UNTAES,
the mission in Eastern Slavonia in the former Yugoslavia, I had colleagues who were running the
railways, who were running the sewage systems, who were running most of the government in that
small place — a multitude of activities. The question of whether UN peace operations can take on more
has to been seen in the fact that there are so few global alternatives. Of all the world’s organizations,
the UN is least able to turn its back on people most in need of safety and security.
In 2000, the Brahimi Report called on the leaders of

the world to “renew their commitment to the ideals of
the United Nations, to commit as well as to strengthen
the capacity of the United Nations to fully accomplish
the mission which is, indeed, its very raison d’être: to
help communities engulfed in strife and to maintain or
restore peace.” Today, as the United Nations celebrates
its 70th anniversary in the year 2015, this call to action
View a video introduction to this
remains relevant and imperative. As observed by Mr.
course at <www.peaceopstraining.org/
Brahimi himself: “peacekeeping shall continue to be in videos/366/introduction-to-the-un-
high demand.” system-course-intro/>.
—Mr. Julian Harston, 2015.
x
Method of Study
This self-paced course aims to give students flexibility in their approach to learning. The
following steps are meant to provide motivation and guidance about some possible strategies
and minimum expectations for completing this course successfully:
• Before you begin studying, first browse through the entire course material. Notice the lesson
and section titles to get an overall idea of what will be involved as you proceed.
• The material is meant to be relevant and practical. Instead of memorizing individual details,
strive to understand concepts and overall perspectives in regard to the United Nations system.
• Set personal guidelines and benchmarks regarding how you want to schedule your time.
• Study the lesson content and the learning objectives. At the beginning of each lesson,
orient yourself to the main points. If possible, read the material twice to ensure maximum
understanding and retention, and let time elapse between readings.
• At the end of each lesson, take the Practice Quiz. Clarify any missed questions by re-reading
the appropriate sections, and focus on retaining the correct information.
• After you complete all of the lessons, prepare for the End-of-Course Examination by taking
time to review the main points of each lesson. Then, when ready, log into your online student
classroom and take the End-of-Course Examination in one sitting.
»» Access your online classroom at

<www.peaceopstraining.org/users/user_login>
from virtually anywhere in the world.
• Your exam will be scored electronically. If you achieve a passing grade of 75 per cent or higher
on the exam, you will be awarded a Certificate of Completion. If you score below 75 per cent,
you will be given one opportunity to take a second version of the End-of-Course Examination.
• A note about language: This course uses English spelling according to the standards of the
Oxford English Dictionary (United Kingdom) and the United Nations Editorial Manual.
Key Features of Your Online Classroom »

• Access to all of your courses;
• A secure testing environment in which to complete your training;
• Access to additional training resources, including multimedia course

supplements;
• The ability to download your Certificate of Completion for any completed

course; and
• Forums where you can discuss relevant topics with the POTI community.
xi
INTRODUCTION TO THE UN SYSTEM: ORIENTATION FOR SERVING ON A UN FIELD MISSION
LESSON
Framework for a Global
1 Organization, Past and Present
In order to understand the United

Nations and its field operations, it
is necessary to have an awareness
of the institutions that comprise the
Organization, its general principles,
and its structure.
UN Photo #64286 by United Nations.
In this lesson » Lesson Objectives »
Section 1.1 The Founding of the United • Explain the reasons for founding the United
Nations and its Charter Nations.
Section 1.2 Purposes and Principles of the • Describe the purposes and principles of the
United Nations United Nations.
Section 1.3 Legal Framework and Authority • Recognize the contents of the Charter of the
United Nations, its founding document.
Section 1.4 Financial Principles and Budget
of the United Nations • Be aware of the legal framework for a peace

operation, as well as basic financial guidelines.
Section 1.5 The United Nations System
• Identify the main bodies of the UN system.
Section 1.6 Measurable Global Impact
• Consider the extensive reach of the UN’s impact
on global development, both historically and
presently.
12
LESSON 1 | Framework for a Global Organization, Past and Present
To mark United Nations Day, the UN family came together with the Rwandan battalion of the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS)
and the community of Kapuri to volunteer in the construction of a new primary school facility. Other activities included a mobile health
clinic coordinated by the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the World Health (WHO), the UN Population Fund (UNFPA) and the Joint United
Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS (UNAIDS). The refugee agency, UNHCR, coordinated a girls’ football match. The UN Mine Action
Service (UNMAS) and UN Development Programme (UNDP) also hosted events. 25 October 2014. UN Photo #610996 by JC McIlwaine.
By the end of this lesson, the student should be

able to conceptualize the overall framework of the UN,
as well as the basic principles that guide its global
effort to maintain international peace and security.
Although some of the legal and financial principles

are complicated, the student should strive to develop
an understanding of the fundamentals.
View a video introduction of this
The lesson will also explore interrelations between lesson at <www.peaceopstraining.
various agencies, programmes, funds, and other org/videos/367/framework-for-global-

organization-past-and-present/>.
bodies, while also highlighting the UN’s practical work
in the field and its historic impact on global human
development.
13
Section 1.1 The Founding of the United Nations and its Charter
History
The United Nations was established in the shadow of two global conflicts with the major purpose
of preventing the repeated tragedy. “To save succeeding generations from the scourge of war”1 is
expressly stated in the Organization’s founding document, the UN Charter. This ideal has guided the
United Nations since its founding in 1945 and carries it forward to face the challenges of the twenty-first
century.
In the aftermath of the First World War, a predecessor to the UN, the League of Nations, was
established. Its primary goals included preventing future wars through collective security, disarmament,
and settling disputes diplomatically through negotiation and arbitration. The League was fatally
weakened by the reluctance of the United States to join and was unable to take action in the face of
Italian aggression in Africa. Consequently, the League also failed to avert the Second World War.
Thus, the United Nations was brought into being through successive meetings and conferences
among the Allied states, the victors of the Second World War. Between 1941 and 1944, a series of
conferences were held where the Allies discussed the establishment of an international organization to
maintain international peace and security.
Although many crucial questions were resolved at the Yalta Conference in 1944, it was not until the
San Francisco Conference in April 1945, with the participation of 50 states, that the UN Charter was
officially drafted.
As originally envisioned, the majority of the United Nations’ power would rest with these Allied
nations, and they became the five major powers sitting permanently on the Security Council: China,
France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. However, during the United Nations
Conference on International Organization (UNCIO) in San Francisco, the smaller states successfully
argued for stronger roles through the General Assembly, the Secretary-General, and the International
Court of Justice. As a result, the Charter was broadened, and these nations, now more truly “united”,
were empowered to act in economic and social areas as well. At the conclusion of UNCIO on 26 June
1945, the Charter was signed by all participating nations and came into force 24 October 1945. The
Charter was ratified by the present five permanent members of the Security Council and by a majority
of the signatory Member States.
Aims
The United Nations Charter was, and still is, a bold prescription for maintaining international peace
and security and promoting economic and social development. The founders were guided by the trauma
of two world wars, the suffering of mankind, and a deep longing for lasting peace based on equality,
dignity, and social and economic progress. Other themes throughout the document are peace, human
rights, freedom, sovereignty, and respect for treaties and international law, all of which are to be
achieved through tolerance, maintenance of international peace and security, and the promotion of the
economic and social advancement of all people. The Charter presents the purposes and principles of the
United Nations and sets out the structure of the United Nations, as well as the interrelations, principles,
1) Charter of the United Nations. Preamble. <https://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/preamble/index.html>.
14
Miguel Angel Carcano, Ambassador of Argentina to the United Kingdom and Vice-Chairman of
the delegation, signs the United Nations Charter at the San Francisco Conference. 26 June 1945.
UN Photo #1288 by I. McLain.
and rules forming its institutional framework. It begins with an inspiring Preamble, which expresses the
aims and ideals of the United Nations and ends with a formal declaration by all the signatory States
agreeing to the Charter and the establishment of an organization “to be known as the United Nations.”
One of the key differences from the Covenant of the League of Nations was the consideration of
collective security. The UN Charter maintains that Member States were to place armed forces at the
disposal of the Security Council toward the task of preventing war and suppressing acts of aggression, as
stated in Article 43.2 The Statute of the International Court of Justice in Chapter XIV is a distinguishing
part of the UN Charter as well, as it established the International Court of Justice, the official judicial
body of the United Nations. This “World Court” as it is sometimes referred is unique because of its
function to hear disputes between states.
Contents of the Charter
The Preamble is followed by 19 chapters, or 111 articles. The Chapters address four major areas:
peace and security; economic and social issues; the trusteeship system; and the judicial organs. The
articles describe the functions, rules, and procedures of the six principal organs, of which the General
Assembly can be considered as the principal legislative organ and the Secretariat as the executive
body. The Charter ends with Provisional Rules (among others, the privileges and immunities of United
Nations officials), Transitional Arrangements (needed at the end of World War II), Amendments, and the
Ratification and Signature.
Knowledge about the Charter is a prerequisite for understanding decision-making in international

affairs, the interrelationship between Member States and the United Nations, as well as the relations
between the Organization’s various entities. The United Nations family of organizations — known as the
UN system — is complex, as it tries to address almost all global areas of political, economic, and social
activity. The “system” consists of six principal organs, their subsidiary bodies, programmes and funds,
research and training institutes, functional and regional commissions, expert and ad hoc bodies, as well
2) UN Repertoire of the Practice of the Security Council. Charter of the United Nations. “E. Articles 43-47 – Command and deployment of military forces”.
<http://www.un.org/en/sc/repertoire/actions.shtml#rel5>.
15
View the UN Charter online »

To read the entire founding document of the United
Nations and to reference the articles mentioned in
this lesson, access the Charter online at
<www.un.org/en/charter-united-nations/index.html>.
as 15 specialized agencies, trust funds, secretariats of conventions, and other related organizations.
In addition, there is a large number of other international, governmental, non-governmental, and civil
society organizations which are in some way linked to the UN system. All of those actors, together
with other entities outside the system that are concerned with international issues, constitute what is
generally called the international community.
Section 1.2 Purposes and Principles of the United Nations
Purposes
According to the Charter, the UN has four purposes:
1. To maintain international peace and security;
2. To develop friendly relations among nations;
3. To cooperate in solving international problems and in promoting

respect for human rights;
4. To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations.
Articles 1 and 2 are the most important articles of the Charter because they describe the overall
objectives and principles of the United Nations. Article 1 sets out the primary purposes of the United
Nations by authorizing the Organization to maintain international peace and security by the following
actions:
“To take effective collective measures for the prevention and

removal of threats to peace, and for the suppression of acts of
aggression or other breaches of peace, and to bring by peaceful
means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and
international law, adjustment or settlement of international
disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of peace.”
16
The article also mandates the Organization to develop friendly relations among nations and to
achieve international cooperation in addressing economic, social, and cultural matters, and to address
fundamental rights issues concerning groups and individuals. The United Nations is to bring the family
of nations together to achieve these common ends.
Principles
According to the Charter, the UN has seven Principles:
1. Sovereign equality of all Member States;
2. All Member States should fulfil obligations in

accordance with the Charter;
3. Peaceful settlement of international disputes;
4. No threat or use of force against the territorial

integrity or political independence of any state;
5. All Members shall assist the UN in any action

taken in accordance with the Charter;
Henry Odein Ajumogobia, Minister for
Foreign Affairs of Nigeria, speaks with
6. Non-Member States should act in accordance with correspondents after chairing a Security
these Principles related to the maintenance of Council meeting on “Optimizing the use
of preventive diplomacy tools: Prospects
international peace and security;
and challenges in Africa”. 16 July 2010.
UN Photo #442048 by Eskinder Debebe.
7. Non-interference in internal affairs.
Article 2 stipulates the principles behind the United Nations’ and the Member States’ actions in
pursuit of the purposes of Article 1. The Article is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all
Member States that fulfil in good faith their obligations to the Charter. States are to refrain from the
threat or use of force against any other State, and international disputes are to be settled by peaceful
means without endangering peace, security, or justice. Members shall give the United Nations every
assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the Charter and shall not assist States against which
the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement action.
However, it should be stressed that traditionally these two articles have been secondary to the
principles of sovereignty and non-interference or non-intervention in domestic affairs. Article 2.7 states,
“nothing in the Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essential
within the domestic jurisdiction of any state.” This principle is, however, not immune to the application of
enforcement measures when authorized by the Security Council. The call for the unambiguous protection
of humanity and human rights has since spurred the international community to act collectively and
not always with the consent of the states concerned. In this way, the principles surrounding Right to
Protect (R2P) are gaining more traction in recent times as an ethical argument for the justification of
interference with a domestic situation, but this is not without controversy and struggle to interpret
effective practice.3 This will be discussed further later in the lesson.
3) Princeton University. “Non-intervention.” <http://pesd.princeton.edu/?q=node/258>.
17
Experiences
The architects of the United Nations envisioned a framework for relations between states, which
would act through cooperation instead of force as a means of achieving foreign policy goals or settling
conflicts. National sovereignty, non-intervention in the internal affairs of a Member State, and the
prohibition of the use of force in international relations are some of the Charter’s fundamental principles.
The United Nations Charter permits a departure from these principles only when action is necessary
to prevent a threat to international peace or to restore peace. The Charter calls on the Organization to
assist in the settlement of international disputes and in maintaining international peace and security.
This is the primary responsibility of the UN Security Council, which may, in fulfilling its duties, adopt a
range of measures as provided for in Chapter VI (Pacific Settlements of Disputes), Chapter VII (Action
with Respect to Peace), and Chapter VIII (Regional Arrangements).
Despite the Charter’s establishment of a framework for relations between states, the purposes
and the principles of the United Nations were constantly challenged during the Cold War era. Those
years witnessed competition between the superpowers, and their exercise of veto power in the Security
Council significantly hampered the effective discharge of responsibilities by the United Nations’ chief
security organ — the Security Council. The circumstances became an everyday political reality, and to a
certain extent, this inertia carried over from the Security Council to the rest of the UN system.
With the end of the Cold War and the easing of superpower rivalries and tensions, the Charter’s
relevance to the contemporary political environment improved. On the other hand, the end of the Cold
War and the years to follow witnessed conflicts of more internal character, where states’ functions
failed, did not exist, or were very limited, and consequently, the fundamental rights of the individuals
became increasingly abused. The tragic events of 11 September 2001 in the United States, the issue of
international terrorism, and the military and non-military aspects of security have further complicated
the general perception of the UN’s role in maintaining international peace and security.
Because the Security Council is still grounded by the hegemonic powers of the World War era, some
have questioned the relevance of the council structure for today’s world. Critics have pointed out that
while the permanent five once spoke for 40 percent of the world’s population, these days they speak
for only about 29 percent.4 This change can be explained by factors such as, at the time of the UN’s
founding in 1945, only three African nations participated. Now there are more than 50 Member States
from the African continent, yet none with veto power.5 Divisions in the Council and its paralysis in times
of danger strengthen the arguments for reforms to its composition to better reflect the reality of the
world in the present day.
Intervention and Use of Force
Following the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, war crimes, and crimes against humanity committed in
other internal conflicts, one of the Charter’s fundamental principles, “not to intervene in matters which
are essential within the domestic jurisdiction of any state,” has come under scrutiny. In 2005, the
UN General Assembly and the Security Council adopted respective resolutions on R2P, which stipulate
4) The Guardian Observer Editorial. “Don’t sideline the UN Security Council. Reinvent it for today”. 7 September 2013. <http://www.theguardian.com/
commentisfree/2013/sep/08/dont-sideline-un-security-council>.
5) Indo-Asian News Service. “India calls for early action to reform anachronistic UN Security Council”. 20 November 2014. <http://www.mid-day.com/
articles/india-calls-for-early-action-to-reform-anachronistic-un-security-council/15781151>.
18
that in cases of the worst atrocities against civilian populations, the UN has not only the right, but the
obligation to intervene.6 It is important to emphasize, however, that even in such cases, the intervention
must be authorized by the Security Council in order to be legal. The application of R2P in practice has
been highly controversial following the military intervention in Libya in 2011. This was the first case
that the UN Security Council authorized military intervention citing R2P. Controversy ensued over the
conduct and objectives of North Atlantic Treaty Organizaion (NATO) military intervention in Libya, with
the consequences of a high number of civilian casualties and regime change. India’s UN Ambassador
Hardeep Singh Puri has been quoted as saying that: “Libya has given R2P a bad name.”7 Consequently,
the Security Council has been divided over the application of R2P in the case of the Syrian Civil War.8
The development of an intervention norm, in favour of protecting civilians from the worst abuses, has
no doubt challenged the expectations of the international community.
Article 2.4 of the UN Charter defines that the use of force is legal only in two instances: in self-
defence or when authorized by the Security Council.9 Practical application and interpretation of this
principle has been controversial. Some say that this Charter principle was challenged during the NATO
military intervention against Serbia and Montenegro in 1999 and also during the US-led coalition military
invasion of Iraq in 2003.
The invasion of Iraq by the United States and its allies in 2003 was strongly opposed by a large
number of Member States who argued that invading the country was not justified in the context of
the UN report of 12 February 2003 by the United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection
Commission (UNMOVIC) and that it was not in accordance with the aims and principles of the UN
Charter.10 Consequently, the Security Council did not agree to authorize military action taken by the
United States and the United Kingdom. However, some have argued that specific interpretations of UN
Security Council Resolution 1441 (2002) did provide the legal justification for military action.11 This
uneven disagreement continues to fuel tension among the members of the Council.
Section 1.3 Legal Framework and Authority

The ratification of the Charter by the five major allies — China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom,
and the United States — and by a majority of the other signatory states provides the basis for its
constituent authority.
The United Nations is an international body subject to international laws, treaties, and conventions.
It is capable of possessing international rights and duties and it has the capacity to maintain its rights
by bringing international claims. The development of conventions, treaties, and standards within the
area of international law, which play a crucial role in economic and social development, human rights,
international peacekeeping, and security, represents some of the UN’s most impressive achievements.
6) UN General Assembly Resolution A/Res/60/1. 2005 World Summit Outcome, par. 138-140. 24 October 2005. <https://undocs.org/a/res/60/1>.
7) Bolopion, Philippe. Los Angeles Times. “After Libya, the question: to protect or dispose?” 25 August 2011. <http://articles.latimes.com/2011/aug/25/
opinion/la-oe-bolopion-libya-responsibility-t20110825>.
8) International Coalition for Responsibility to Protect. “The Crisis in Syria.” Accessed 05 June 2015. <http://www.responsibilitytoprotect.org/index.php/
crises/crisis-in-syria>.
9) United Nations. Purposes and Principles of the United Nations. “Article 2 (4) - Prohibition of threat or use of force in international relations”. <http://
www.un.org/en/sc/repertoire/principles.shtml#rel2>.
10) Richelson, Jeffrey. National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 80. “Iraq and Weapons of Mass Destruction,” paragraphs 5-6. <http://
nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB80/>. Updated 11 February 2004. Accessed 05 June 2015.
11) ProCon.org. “Did the UN Security Council Resolution 1441 provide sufficient legal basis for military action against Iraq?”. <http://usiraq.procon.org/
view.answers.php?questionID=000875>. Accessed 05 June 2015.
19
Eugène-Richard Gasana (left),

Permanent Representative
of the Republic of Rwanda to
the UN, addresses a meeting
of the Security Council on
the International Criminal
Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) and
International Criminal Tribunal
for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY). At right is Khalida
Rachid Khan, President of the
ICTR. 06 June 2011. UN Photo
#474947 by JC McIlwaine.
Courts and Tribunals
The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. All members
of the United Nations are automatically parties to the Statute of the Court. Consequently, they and a
few others can be parties to cases. The General Assembly and the Security Council can ask the Court for
advisory opinions on legal matters, while other organs of the United Nations and specialized agencies
can do so by authorization from the General Assembly.
The jurisdiction of the Court covers all questions that Member States may refer to and all matters as
provided in the Charter or in treaties and conventions in force. This will be explained further in Lesson 2.
The serious violations of international human rights and humanitarian law in the former Yugoslavia
and in Rwanda led the Security Council to establish two international tribunals with the power to
prosecute those individuals responsible for such violations. Thus, the International Criminal Tribunal
for the Former Yugoslavia was established in 1993 and the International Tribunal for Rwanda in 1994.
Special courts were also set up for Sierra Leone, Lebanon, Cambodia, and East Timor.12
The International Criminal Court (ICC) is an independent judicial body with jurisdiction over persons
charged with genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. The Court was established by the
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court on 17 July 1998, when 120 States participating in the
“United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International
Criminal Court” adopted the Statute.13 The United States has not ratified the Rome Statute. However,
the statute did not enter into force until 1 July 2002. In accordance with Article 2 of the Rome Statute,
the relationship with the United Nations system is governed by an agreement between the two
organizations.
»» Learn more about the International Criminal Court (ICC) at

<www.icc-cpi.int>.
12) United Nations, “International Law, Courts and Tribunals”. <https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/thematic-areas/international-law-courts-tribunals/>.

13) Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. <http://legal.un.org/icc/statute/99_corr/cstatute.htm>.
20
Principal Legal Bodies within the UN
The Sixth Committee of the General Assembly, one of the six

Main Committees of the General Assembly, deals with legal items Treaties, not war »
on the Assembly’s agenda. The decisions and resolutions of the Over the years, the United
Assembly are based on the recommendations from this Committee. Nations has facilitated
Among the principal legal bodies is the International Law the important work of
Commission, with its main objective of promoting the progressive bringing nations together in
development of international law and its codification. The United diplomatic agreements.
Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL)

A list of such treaties can
develops conventions, model laws, rules, and legal guides in order
be found at <https://
to facilitate and harmonize world trade. Under the Law of the Sea
treaties.un.org>.
Convention, there are three bodies: International Seabed Authority,
the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, and the Commission
on the Limits of the Continental Shelf.
Within the Secretariat, the Office of Legal Affairs provides legal advice to the Secretary-General
and acts on his or her behalf on legal matters. It also advises the Secretariat and other organs of the
United Nations on matters related to international, public, private and administrative laws. The Office is
also responsible for the registration and publication of treaties and conventions and, thus, publishes the
United Nations Treaty Series.
»» Learn more about the Office of Legal Affairs:

<legal.un.org/ola/>.
Legal Framework for Peacekeeping and Other Similar Operations
Peacekeeping was not foreseen by the founders of the United Nations and, therefore, was neither
mentioned nor provided for in the Charter. However, Article 29 of the UN Charter authorizes that the
Security Council “may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of
its functions.”14 Therefore, it has been concluded and generally accepted that the Security Council and
the General Assembly are legally justified in creating and mandating peacekeeping forces — and other
similar entities — as additional mechanisms toward fulfilling the UN’s task of maintaining international
peace and security.
As peacekeeping increasingly becomes a normative mechanism in maintaining peace and security,

it should be remembered that the Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and International
Humanitarian Law (IHL) are the guiding principles of all peacekeeping operations. While performing
peacekeeping duties, the United Nations must adhere to the Charter and the recognition of human
rights as a fundamental means of promoting peace and security. International Humanitarian Law, or the
law of armed conflict as it is also known, provides additional protection to those who do not participate
in hostilities, known as “non-combatants”. This will be discussed further in Lesson 4.
Some additional legal relationships must be established in order to facilitate relations between
the United Nations and the host country (the country where the operation is taking place), and also
14) UN Security Council. “Subsidiary Organs Overview”. <http://www.un.org/en/sc/repertoire/subsidiary_organs/overview.shtml>.
21
Rwandan troops with the African Union-UN Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) inspect an armoured personnel
carrier at their base’s mechanical workshop, in Zam Zam, North Darfur. 07 February 2012. UN Photo #503847 by
Albert González Farran.
between the United Nations and the troop-contributing countries (those countries offering military
forces to an operation, known as TCCs). These Status of Forces Agreements (SOFA) and Status of
Mission Agreements (SOMA) concern the way the mission or operation conducts itself legally and
bureaucratically. The SOFA/SOMA regulates jurisdiction, taxation, status of UN personnel, freedom of
movement, use of facilities, etc. The UN Police must follow the rules and regulations stipulated by the
United Nations Criminal Law and Justice Branch in their assigned duties.
The Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) is a similar agreement between the UN and the TCC.
It addresses the TCC’s responsibilities to United Nations, such as the size, type, and duration of the
contingents to be used, equipment, liability, claim, and compensation, administrative and budgetary
matters, etc.
The Charter and the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations both define
and provide the privileges and immunities deemed necessary for personnel working in connection with
the Organization. The 1994 Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel serves
as the legal instrument for protection and outlines duties to ensure safety and security, release and
return of detained personnel, crimes, and exercise of jurisdiction.
Section 1.4 Financial Principles and Budget of the United Nations
Regular Budget
The regular budget of the United Nations covers two years’ cost for the staff, infrastructure, and
activities of the principal organs, offices and regional commissions. The budget is submitted by the
Secretary-General and approved by the General Assembly after review by the Advisory Committee
on Administrative and Budgetary Questions (ACABQ), one of the most powerful committees in the UN
22
system. The main source of funds is the mandatory contributions from Member States, based on an
assessment scale approved by the General Assembly. The maximum contribution is 22 per cent, which
is paid by the United States. The minimum contribution is fixed at 0.001 per cent.15 As approved for
2014/15, the regular budget totalled approximately $5.53 billion.16
Extra Ordinary Budget
The extra ordinary budget makes up a large part of the funding acquired through voluntary
contributions from Member States. The budget covers the cost for the operational programmes and
funds: the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the World Food Programme (WFP), the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and others. UN specialized agencies have
separate budgets, which are voluntarily supplemented by states, but not all funding comes from the
Member States. The United Nations sometimes receives grants from private institutions or foundations
such as the Turner Foundation and Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
Peacekeeping Budget
The costs of the United Nations peacekeeping operations are covered by the Member States in
accordance with the Special Scale of Assessments. Since 2001, the Member States’ regular assessment
levels are adjusted according to their placement in one of ten levels, ranging from a premium payable
by permanent Members of the Security Council (Level A) to a 90 per cent discount for Last Developed
Countries (Level J). The total budget for the operations has increased from USD 2.5 billion in 2003 to USD
7 billion in 2015.17 The General Assembly approves this peacekeeping budget with the recommendations
of its Fifth Committee and after review by the ACABQ.
Section 1.5 The United Nations System

The six principal organs of the United Nations, including the General Assembly and Security Council,
are relatively well known. Though these entities have general oversight of the United Nations’ array of
global activities, the UN system goes well beyond them. The work of the Organization is controlled and
divided among many specialized entities known as funds, programmes, commissions, and agencies.
This section describes the main actors, including the principal organs, who make up what is called the
UN system, focusing on four main categories. Because of the complexity and comprehensiveness of the
system, a number of entities are not listed in this section.
The coordinating body of these entities is the UN System Chief Executives Board for Coordination
(CEB). It is chaired by the Secretary-General and meets twice a year.
The Principal Organs
The principal organs of the United Nations as provided for in the Charter of the United Nations are:
the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Trusteeship
Council, the International Court of Justice (ICJ), and the Secretariat. These six organs, described in
Lesson 2, form the core of the United Nations system. The principal organs are mainly located at UN
15) For more on the financing of UN peacekeeping operations, visit <https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/how-we-are-funded>.

16) UN General Assembly, Administrative and Budgetary Committee. <http://www.un.org/en/ga/fifth/68/pbis68.shtml>.
17) UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO). “How much does peacekeeping cost?”
23
The United Nations System

UN PRINCIPAL Subsidiary Organs Funds and Programmes1 Research and Training Other Entities Related Organizations
ORGANS • Main Committees UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNIDIR United Nations Institute for ITC International Trade Centre (UN/WTO) CTBTO PREPARATORY COMMISSION
• Disarmament Commission • UNCDF United Nations Capital Development Disarmament Research Preparatory Commission for the Comprehen-
UNCTAD1,8 United Nations Conference on Trade
Fund UNITAR United Nations Institute for sive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization
• Human Rights Council and Development
• UNV United Nations Volunteers Training and Research 1 IAEA1, 3 International Atomic Energy Agency
• International Law Commission UNHCR Office of the United Nations
UNEP8 United Nations Environment Programme UNSSC United Nations System Staff High Commissioner for Refugees ICC International Criminal Court
• Joint Inspection Unit (JIU) College
GENERAL UNOPS1 United Nations Office for IOM 1 International Organization for Migration
• Standing committees and UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
ASSEMBLY UNU United Nations University Project Services
ad hoc bodies UN-HABITAT8 United Nations Human ISA International Seabed Authority
Settlements Programme UNRWA1 United Nations Relief and Works ITLOS International Tribunal for the Law
Agency for Palestine Refugees in the of the Sea
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund Near East
WFP World Food Programme (UN/FAO) OPCW 3 Organization for the Prohibition of
UN-WOMEN 1 United Nations Entity for Gender Chemical Weapons
Equality and the Empowerment of Women
WTO1, 4 World Trade Organization
© 2019 United Nations. All rights reserved worldwide
SECURITY
COUNCIL
Subsidiary Organs • International Residual Mechanism for • Peacekeeping operations and political missions
Peacebuilding Commission HLPF High-level political
Criminal Tribunals • Sanctions committees (ad hoc) forum on sustainable
• Counter-Terrorism Committee • Military Staff Committee • Standing committees and ad hoc bodies development
ECONOMIC AND
Functional Commissions Regional Commissions 8 Other Bodies Specialized Agencies1, 5
SOCIAL COUNCIL
• Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice ECA Economic Commission for Africa • Committee for Development Policy FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of UNWTO World Tourism Organization
• Narcotic Drugs ECE Economic Commission for Europe • Committee of Experts on Public Administration the United Nations UPU Universal Postal Union
• Population and Development ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin • Committee on Non-Governmental Organizations ICAO International Civil Aviation WHO World Health Organization
America and the Caribbean Organization
• Science and Technology for Development • Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues WIPO World Intellectual Property
ESCAP Economic and Social Commission IFAD International Fund for Organization
• Social Development UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on Agricultural Development
for Asia and the Pacific WMO World Meteorological Organization
• Statistics HIV/AIDS
ESCWA Economic and Social Commission ILO International Labour Organization
• Status of Women UNGEGN United Nations Group of Experts on WORLD BANK GROUP7
or Western Asia IMF International Monetary Fund
SECRETARIAT Geographical Names • IBRD International Bank for
• United Nations Forum on Forests IMO International Maritime Organization Reconstruction and Development
Research and Training ITU International Telecommunication Union • IDA International Development
UNICRI United Nations Interregional Crime and UNESCO United Nations Educational, Association
Justice Research Institute Scientific and Cultural Organization • IFC International Finance Corporation
Departments and Offices 9 OCHA Office for the Coordination of UNRISD United Nations Research Institute for UNIDO United Nations Industrial
Humanitarian Affairs Development Organization
Social Development
EOSG Executive Office of the ODA Office for Disarmament Affairs
Secretary-General
OHCHR Office of the United Nations Notes:
INTERNATIONAL DESA Department of Economic and High Commissioner for Human Rights
Social Affairs 1 Members of the United Nations System Chief Executives Board for Coordination (CEB).
COURT OF JUSTICE UNISDR United Nations Office for Disaster
OIOS Office of Internal Oversight Services 2 UN Office for Partnerships (UNOP) is the UN’s focal point vis-a-vis the United Nations Foundation, Inc.
DGACM Department for General Assembly Risk Reduction
OLA Office of Legal Affairs 3 IAEA and OPCW report to the Security Council and the General Assembly (GA).
and Conference Management UNODC1 United Nations Office on Drugs 4 WTO has no reporting obligation to the GA, but contributes on an ad hoc basis to GA and Economic and
DGC Department of Global OSAA Office of the Special Adviser on Africa and Crime Social Council (ECOSOC) work on, inter alia, finance and development issues.
Communications SRSG/CAAC Office of the Special 5 Specialized agencies are autonomous organizations whose work is coordinated through ECOSOC (inter-
UNOG United Nations Office at Geneva
Published by the United Nations Department of Global Communications
Representative of the Secretary-General governmental level) and CEB (inter-secretariat level).

DMSPC Department of Management UN-OHRLLS Office of the High Representative
for Children and Armed Conflict 6 The Trusteeship Council suspended operation on 1 November 1994, as on 1 October 1994 Palau, the last
Strategy, Policy and Compliance for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked United Nations Trust Territory, became independent.
DOS Department of Operational Support SRSG/SVC Office of the Special Developing Countries and Small Island 7 International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) and Multilateral Investment Guarantee
Representative of the Secretary-General Developing States Agency (MIGA) are not specialized agencies in accordance with Articles 57 and 63 of the Charter, but are
TRUSTEESHIP DPO Department of Peace Operations on Sexual Violence in Conflict part of the World Bank Group.
DPPA Department of Political and UNON United Nations Office at Nairobi
COUNCIL6 SRSG/VAC Office of the Special 8 The secretariats of these organs are part of the UN Secretariat.
Peacebuilding Affairs Representative of the Secretary-General UNOP2 United Nations Office for Partnerships 9 The Secretariat also includes the following offices: The Ethics Office, United Nations Ombudsman and
DSS Department of Safety and Security on Violence Against Children UNOV United Nations Office at Vienna Mediation Services, and the Office of Administration of Justice.
This Chart is a reflection of the functional organization of the United Nations System and for informational
purposes only. It does not include all offices or entities of the United Nations System.
18-00159—1 January 2019
24
Headquarters in New York (UNHQ), except for the International Court of Justice, which is located in
The Hague, Netherlands. The United Nations Offices in Nairobi (UNON), Vienna (UNOV), and Geneva
(UNOG) — the latter located in the same building as the former League of Nations — are also all
considered part of the United Nations’ Headquarters.
The Charter also provides for the establishment of subsidiary bodies as the principal organs may find
necessary (e.g., various commissions, committees, temporarily constituted peacekeeping operations,
as well as a variety of observer, verification missions, etc.).
Reporting to the ECOSOC and operating under the authority of the Secretary-General are the five
Economic and Social Regional Commissions (Article 68). The basic mandate of these commissions is
to facilitate the promotion of the regional economic and social development of each region and to
strengthen the economic relations of the countries in that region both among themselves and with
other countries of the world. The five Commissions, with their own structures and secretariats, are
grouped as follows: The UN Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; the
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) in Bangkok, Thailand; UN Economic
Commission for Europe (UNECE) in Geneva, Switzerland; the Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean (ECLAC) in Santiago, Chile; and the UN Economic and Social Commission for Western
Asia (UN-ESCWA) in Beirut, Lebanon. These organs, offices, and commissions are financed through the
United Nations Regular Budget.
Programmes, Funds, and Bodies of the United Nations
The core of the United Nations includes various programmes and funds, which are generally
responsible for the operational development in programme countries. Today, there are 14 programmes
and funds including: the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), UNDP, United Nations Population
Fund (UNFPA), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), UNHCR, World Food Programme (WFP),
and United Nations Volunteers (UNV).
Although these programmes and offices are effectively autonomous, they all report through ECOSOC
to the General Assembly. They have their own governing bodies and set their own standards and
guidance. Their budgets are in large part funded through voluntary contributions from governments and
the private sector through the Extra Budgetary Resources.
In addition, there are a number of related programmes, such as the UN Institute for Training and
Research (UNITAR) and UN Institute for Disarmament Research. Other entities include the UN Office for
Project Services (UNOPS), United Nations University (UNU), and the Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS
(UNAIDS), among others.
Specialized Agencies
These agencies provide support and assistance to the development programmes. They are all
autonomous and work at the inter-governmental level through ECOSOC and at the inter-secretarial
level through the Chief Executives Board.
25
»» Major Specialized Agencies
The major specialized agencies and the Bretton Woods Institutions (the International Monetary Fund
[IMF] and World Bank founded at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944) are separately established by
governments and have their own constitutions, budgets, and governing boards and secretariats.
One group consists of five agencies: the International Labour Organization (ILO); the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO); the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); the
UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO); and the World Health Organization (WHO). These
organizations have all been brought into agreement with the United Nations and, thus, are formally
recognized under the Charter. Their budgets are raised by assessment from their Member States but not
as part of the United Nations’ regular budget.
The Bretton Woods Institutions consist of the IMF and the World Bank Group. The World Bank
is the lender of commercially raised capital for development projects, while the IMF, among other
things, promotes monetary cooperation and expansion of international trade. The World Bank Group
encompasses the main commercial-rate International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD),
the soft-loan International Development Association (IDA), the International Finance Corporation (IFC),
the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and the International Centre for Settlements of
Investment Disputes (ICSID). Their budgets are raised through the usual capital market procedures.
These two major organizations − IMF and the World Bank − have adopted a voting system where voting
is weighted in accordance to the members’ shares.
The third group includes the International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD), the World Trade
Organization (WTO), and the Conference on Disarmament (CD). The IFAD has a separate legal status
within the system. In 1995, the WTO, replaced the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) as
the mechanism to help trade flow as freely as possible. The WTO does not fall under the Charter as a
The History of Bretton Woods »

Prior to the formation of the United Nations in
June 1945, a number of meetings and events
helped set the stage for the creation of the
new international organization.
Forty-four United Nations and associated

nations met in Bretton Woods, New
Hampshire, to discuss monetary stabilization
as an aid to post-war trade. The United
Nations Monetary and Financial Conference
was held in July 1944. One subsequent result
was the establishment of the IMF. Bretton Woods Conference, 01 July 1944. UN Photo #97323 by
United Nations.
26
Secretary-General Ban Ki-

moon (at podium) speaks at
the World Trade Organization
(WTO) Public Forum “Why
Trade Matters to Everyone”,
in Geneva. The Forum this
year highlights the connections
between trade and people’s
daily lives, demonstrating
how trade impacts the day-
to-day lives of citizens around
the globe. 01 October 2014.
UN Photo #605682 by Jean-
Marc Ferré.
specialized agency but has cooperative arrangements with the United Nations. The International Trade
Centre UNCTAD/WTO operates as the technical cooperation agency of the WTO. The CD is the single
global negotiating forum and was established under the General Assembly’s Tenth Special Session. The
Conference has a special relationship with the United Nations, since it reports to the GA and is funded
from the regular budget.
»» Technical Specialized Agencies
The technical specialized agencies, with the same relations as those above, are some of the most
important technical organizations in the world. All agencies except the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA) had predecessors under the former League of Nations. The Universal Postal Union (UPU),
the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), and the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU) were established more than a century ago. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO),
the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) were
present before World War II, but after the war they were restructured into the existing organizations.
Outside Organizations Linked to the System
Non-government organizations (NGOs) have an important role in the United Nations’ activities.
In order to avoid a political dependency, most of the NGOs stand outside the governmental system.
Their experiences and technical knowledge are of great value to the United Nations, and, therefore,
approximately 2,100 NGOs have some sort of consultative status with ECOSOC. They are divided into
three categories: (i) NGOs concerned with most ECOSOC activities; (ii) NGOs with specific knowledge
in specific areas; and (iii) NGOs for ad hoc consultations. The most eminent member of the NGO group
is the International Committee of the Red Cross, which, in recognition of its formal mandate under the
Geneva Convention, is invited to participate in the work of the General Assembly.
27
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon (centre) speaks at a joint press conference with the heads
of major regional organizations, including the African Union (AU), the European Union, the
League of Arab States, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), following their
conference on Libya in Cairo, Egypt. Mr. Ban is flanked by Amre Moussa (left), Secretary General
of the League of Arab States, and Jean Ping, Chair of the A.U. Commission. 14 April 2011.
UN Photo #470224 by Paulo Filgueiras.
Additionally, there are a number regional organizations involved in peace, security, and social and
economic development. Some of them have entered into a framework agreement with the United
Nations, some are seeking observer status, and some have neither formal nor informal UN status. Their
links to the United Nations may fall under Article 52 of the Charter, which states that “Nothing in the
present Charter precludes the existence of regional arrangements or agencies for dealing with such
matters relating to the maintenance of international peace and security as are appropriate for regional
action provided that such arrangements or agencies and their activities are consistent with the Purposes
and Principles of the United Nations.”
Examples of regional organizations include African Union (AU), Organization of American States
(OAS), Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), European Union (EU), North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), etc.
Examples of inter-governmental organizations are the IAEA, which facilitates cooperation among
governments on issues of technology and nuclear policy. The IAEA works in cooperation with the
United Nations, submitting its reports to the General Assembly, Security Council, and other UN entities.
However, it exists as a separate and independent organization.18
The Committee of Non-Governmental Organizations (CNGO) is Further reading »

responsible to examine and report on the consultative relationship that
Renewing the United
ECOSOC should accord to NGOs.
Nations System: <www.
Further information about the various organizations linked to the daghammarskjold.se/
UN system can be found in Lesson 9. publication/renewing-
united-nations-system/>.
18) International Atomic Energy Agency. “The Statute of the IAEA,” <https://www.iaea.org/about/statute>. Accessed 05 June 2015.
28
Section 1.6 Measurable Global Impact

The United Nations celebrated its 70th anniversary in 2015. While the Organization has faced its
share of criticism throughout that time, the world would be a much different place without the work it
has achieved in the past seven decades. Reviewing the following facts and figures corroborates this in
a very quantifiable way.
Since its beginning, the United Nations

has assisted more than 80 countries in their
transition to independence from colonialism.19
The United Nations
Within the field of International Law, more Provides food to 90 million people in
than 500 multilateral treaties have been 80 countries
concluded.20
Vaccinates 58 per cent of the world’s
Now more than ever, the United Nations children, saving 3 million lives a year
is engaged in service to all the world’s nations
and peoples. As of 2014, the Secretariat had
Assists over 38.7 million refugees and
a staff of approximately 40,000 around the
people fleeing war, famine or persecution
world.21 Works with 193 countries to combat climate
change and make development sustainable
Furthermore, the UN achieves these
accomplishments at a fraction of the cost of UN
Keeps peace with 120,000 peacekeepers in
conflict. Costs of the UN system’s operational 16 operations on 4 continents
activities for development are estimated at Fights poverty, helping improve the health
USD 8 billion a year (excluding the World Bank, and well-being of 420 million rural poor
International Monetary Fund, and International
Protects and promotes human rights on site
Fund for Agriculture Development). This is
and through some 80 treaties/declarations
equal to 0.60 per cent of world total military
expenditures of over USD 1.2 trillion.22 Seventy
Mobilizes USD 22 billion in humanitarian aid
to help people affected by emergencies
per cent of the work of the UN system is
devoted to helping developing countries build Uses diplomacy to prevent conflict: assists
the capacity to help themselves. This includes: some 60 countries a year with their elections
promoting and protecting democracy and Promotes maternal health, saving
human rights; saving children from starvation the lives of 30 million women a year
and disease; providing relief assistance to
United Nations - Department of Public Information - 2014/2015
refugees and disaster victims; countering
global crime, drugs, and disease; and assisting
countries devastated by war and the long-term
threat of landmines.23
19) UN Department of Public Information (DPI). Sixty Ways the UN Makes a Difference. October 2005.
20) Ibid.
21) UN General Assembly Document A/62/292. Composition of the Secretariat: Staff Demographics. 29 August 2014.
22) Global Issues. “World Military Spending.” <http://www.globalissues.org/article/75/world-military-spending#WorldMilitarySpending>.
23) UN Factsheet for the International Day of Peace. 21 September 2006. <http://www.un.org/en/events/peaceday/2006/factsheet.shtml>.
29
End-of-Lesson Quiz »
1. Which world event inspired the founding 7. The principal judicial organ of the United
of the United Nations? Nations is the:
A. The Great Depression A. International Court of Justice
B. The Second World War B. International Criminal Court
C. The Cold War C. Supreme Court
D. The Israel-Palestine Conflict D. Security Council
2. The _____ was in many ways a 8. The International Criminal Court (ICC)
predecessor to the United Nations. has jurisdiction over whom?
A. United States A. Nation states and territories, exclusively
B. World Court B. Persons charged with genocide, crimes
C. League of Nations against humanity, and war crimes
D. Organization of American States C. Former colonies and territories

D. Persons charged with civil suits in
3. Which Member State is NOT a Permanent international settings
Member of the UN Security Council?
A. China 9. What is the main source of funds for the
B. France
United Nations?
C. Nigeria A. Private donations
D. Russia B. Voluntary contributions from Member States

C. Mandatory contributions from Member
4. Name the four purposes for the United States, at a required flat rate
Nations’ founding.
D. Mandatory contributions from Member
States, with payments based on a scale
5. Which of the following is one of the
principles of the United Nations?
10. How many principal organs does the UN
A. Interference in internal affairs system contain?
B. Use of force against the territorial integrity A. One
or political independence of any state B. Four
C. Sovereignty removed from all Member States C. Six
D. Non-interference in internal affairs D. 193
6. Article 2.4 of the UN Charter defines that

the use of force is legal in which two
instances only?
A. In self-defence or when authorized by the
Security Council
B. As a pre-emptive means or in self-defence
C. When authorized by the General Assembly or
the Security Council
D. When authorized by each nation-state’s
Constitution
Answer Key provided on the next page.
30
Discussion Questions
1. What are the fundamental principles for relations between

Member States stated in the UN Charter and how are they
changing or being challenged today?
2. How do regionally focused development organizations relate to

the work of the UN system?
3. How would you explain the UN’s impact on the world’s course of
development to a friend?
No answers are provided for discussion questions. They are for reflection and consideration only.
Answer Key »
1. B
2. C
3. C
4. To maintain international peace and

security; To develop friendly relations
among nations; To cooperate in solving
international problems and in promoting
respect for human rights; To be a centre
for harmonizing the actions of nations.
5. D
6. A
7. A
8. B
9. D
10. C
31
LESSON
The Principal Organs of the
2 United Nations
This lesson will provide

a deeper explanation of
the institutional core of
the United Nations: its six
principal organs.
UN Photo #631257 by Rick Bajornas.
Section 2.1 General Assembly • Learn the role and function of the General
Assembly.
Section 2.2 Security Council
• Learn the role and function of the Security
Section 2.3 Economic and Social Council
Council.
Section 2.4 Secretariat and the
• Recognize the main purpose of the Economic and
Secretary-General
Social Council.
Section 2.5 International Court of Justice
• Understand the role of the Secretary-General.
Section 2.6 Trusteeship Council
• Identify the two major roles of the International
Court of Justice.
• Consider the possibilities of the Trusteeship

Council’s future.
32
LESSON 2 | The Principal Organs of the United Nations
A view of participants during a panel discussion held as part of the General Assembly high-level event on the demographic dividend and
youth employment. 1 June 2015. UN Photo #632948 by Loey Felipe.
As the first lesson explains, the UN Charter

authorizes the establishment of these six principal
organs. These are: the General Assembly (as
provisioned in Chapter IV of the Charter), the Security
Council (Chapter V), the Economic and Social Council
(Chapter X), the Trusteeship Council (Chapter XII),
the ICJ (Chapter XIV), and the executing Secretariat
(Chapter XV). View a video introduction of this
lesson at <www.peaceopstraining.org/
The roles, interrelationships, and functions of videos/368/principal-organs-of-united-
these organs will be explored, as well as how their nations/>.
work is carried out. Each has its own set of internal

organizations, mandates, and procedures, and
members of these organs are selected in accordance
with specific rules and regulations. Nevertheless, the
total of their work adds up to a great part of the United
Nations’ global effort and contribution.
33
Section 2.1 General Assembly
Role and Function
The General Assembly is considered the main deliberative, policy-making, and representative organ
of the United Nations. All UN Member States participate in the General Assembly. Each State has one
vote in the General Assembly, though a Member State that is behinds in its financial contribution to
the Organization may lose its right to vote. The Holy See and Palestine are non-Member States but
have permanent UN observer status, meaning they have the right to participate in the general debate
and have access to documentation but do not hold voting power. Many regional and international
organizations are also observers in the work and annual sessions of the General Assembly.
The General Assembly meets every year at the UN Headquarters in New York in a regular annual
session commencing on Tuesday of the third week in September. Nine months before, the president for
that session as well as 21 vice-presidents and the chairpersons of the six Main Committees are elected.
Then approximately 60 days before the session begins, the Secretary-General must provide agenda
directives for that session. Once the session commences, the General Assembly works intensively to
address each item on the agenda — which often lasts until just before the next session starts.
Jointly, the General Assembly and the Security Council elect judges to the ICJ and appoint the
Secretary-General.
The first session of the General Assembly opened on 10 January 1946 at Central Hall in London,
United Kingdom. The first resolution adopted by the General Assembly was on “Establishment of a
Commission to Deal with the Problems Raised by the Discovery of Atomic Energy”, which focused on the
peaceful uses of atomic energy and the elimination of atomic and other weapons of mass destruction and
paved the way for following conversations within the international community regarding disarmament,
global challenges, and threats to peace.1
During the General Assembly’s regular session, a wide range of international issues are addressed,
and any matter that is within the scope of the Charter may be discussed. Most of these issues will be
deliberated further in various committees or other bodies established by the General Assembly. Their
findings and recommendations will be presented to the plenary session, which will make decisions by
adopting relevant resolutions. In particular, the General Assembly shall initiate studies and is empowered
to make non-binding recommendations for the purpose of international cooperation in the political,
economic, and social fields, as provisioned in Article 13. Recommendations may also be made directly
to Member States or to the Security Council on any such question, though the Security Council may
exercise any functions assigned to it in the Charter regardless of the General Assembly’s position. At the
request of the Security Council or a majority of the Member States, the General Assembly may meet
in special session on specific topics, such as the HIV/AIDS epidemic, human settlements, or climate
change, or in emergency special sessions on specifics topic related to the maintenance of international
peace and security. However, it is notable that on the question of Palestine, the General Assembly has
acted directly in its plenary meetings.2
1) United Nations General Assembly. “First Committee”. <http://www.un.org/en/ga/first/>.

2) United Nations General Assembly. “Question of Palestine”. <http://www.un.org/en/ga/62/plenary/palestine/bkg.shtml>.
34
Global Conversation »
During debates of the General
Assembly and its subordinate
committees, speakers’
interventions are delivered in
one of the six official languages
of the United Nations: Arabic,
Chinese, English, French,
Russian, and Spanish. All
of their speech is then
simultaneously translated into
the other five languages.
A view of UN interpreters at work, covering a meeting of the Security Council to

consider its own draft annual report to the General Assembly. 22 October 2014.
UN Photo #608119 by Rick Bajornas.
Decisions about important questions are made by two-thirds majority of the Members present and
voting. These questions include: budget, admission of new Member States, expulsion or suspension
of Members, election of the non-permanent members to the Security Council, members of ECOSOC
and Trusteeship Council, and recommendations related to the maintenance of international peace and
security. Decisions on other questions are made by a simple majority of the members present and
voting. However, in many cases, decisions are passed by consensus.
Organization
The bulk of the work involved in preparing General Assembly resolutions is performed by the six
Main Committees. All Member States are represented on each Main Committee and all of the Open-
ended Ad Hoc Working Groups. Together, their composition and working agenda reflect the entire work
of the UN General Assembly.
The following are the six Main Committees’ general responsibilities:
»» First Committee: Disarmament and international security
»» Second Committee: Economic and financial issues
»» Third Committee: Social, humanitarian, and cultural issues
»» Fourth Committee: Special political affairs and de-colonization
»» Fifth Committee: Administrative and budgetary questions
»» Sixth Committee: Legal issues
35
Apart from the Main Committees, the following bodies also report directly to the General Assembly:
• Subsidiary bodies (committees, commissions, boards, councils, working groups, and others);
• Advisory subsidiary body (Peacebuilding commission);
• Programmes and Funds (e.g. UNHCR, UNICEF, UNDP, UNODC, UNEP, WFP, and others);
• Research and Training Institutes (UNITAR, UNIDIR, and others); and
• Other UN entities (e.g. UNOPS, UNU, UN Women).
Amina Mohammed, the Secretary-

General’s Special Adviser on
Post-2015 Development Planning,
addresses a panel discussion on “The
Role of Parliaments, Cities and Local
Authorities in the Implementation
of the Post-2015 Development
Agenda”. The discussion was part of
a two-day General Assembly high-
level thematic debate on “Means of
Implementation for a Transformative
Post-2015 Development Agenda”.
10 February 2015. UN Photo
#622273 by Loey Felipe.
These committees and various working groups also consider agenda items referred to them by
the General Assembly and make recommendations. In some cases, they also draft resolutions for
submission to the General Assembly plenary session.
In order to vitalize and broaden actions and discussion around human rights, the World Summit
2005 mandated the establishment of the UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC) as a Subsidiary and Inter-
Governmental Organ of the General Assembly. The UN Peacebuilding Commission is an also an Advisory
Subsidiary Organ reporting directly to the Security Council and the General Assembly and has a non-
subsidiary relationship with the Economic and Social Council and the Office of the Secretary-General.
Comments
The General Assembly is in many ways the most democratic organ of the UN. Each member state has
a vote of equal weight. The decolonization of a number of nations in the 1960s brought new members
to the United Nations, and the General Assembly’s influence grew significantly during this period. The
consolidation of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) provided an opportunity for the developing countries,
to a certain extent, to balance the power of the Permanent Five in the Security Council.
36
Although the Security Council is responsible for international peace and security, the General
Assembly also periodically plays a role in these areas. In 1950, the General Assembly adopted Resolution
377, which was given the title “Uniting for Peace”. The adoption of this resolution came as a response to
the strategy of the USSR to block any determination by the Security Council on measures to be taken
in order to protect the Republic of Korea against the aggression launched against it by military forces
from North Korea. The most important part of Resolution 377 is Section A, which states that when the
Security Council fails to exercise its primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace
and security due to lack of unanimity among the permanent members, the General Assembly shall
seize responsibility of the matter. A session shall be
convened for making appropriate recommendations
for collective measures, including the use of armed
force when necessary.3 However, the language of the
resolution clearly asserts that the General Assembly
can never become a full substitute for the Security
Council in this area, since only “recommendations”,
meaning pronouncements devoid of any binding legal
force, are mentioned.
Sometimes the General Assembly has become a

forum for expressing dissatisfaction over the Security The Security Council held a briefing attended by interior
ministers and their equivalents on countering the flow
Council’s handling of conflicts. For example, the
of foreign terrorist fighters into conflict zones. 29 May
General Assembly was very vocal over the questions 2015. UN Photo #632737 by Devra Berkowitz.
of the Middle East and Palestine as well as conflicts
in the former Yugoslavia (Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo) and Iraq. The General Assembly has also
used its role as a forum for the promotion of issues related to peacebuilding, such as the human rights
monitoring mission to Haiti and General Assembly-initiated electoral monitoring missions.
The General Assembly has recently established an ad hoc working group on the revitalization of the
work of the General Assembly, open to all Member States, to identify further ways to enhance the role,
authority, effectiveness, and efficiency of the Assembly.4
Section 2.2 Security Council
Role and Power
Article 24 of the Charter confers the Security Council with the primary responsibility of maintaining
international peace and security. The specific powers granted to the Security Council for these duties
are established in the following sections:
• Chapter VI (Pacific Settlement of Disputes);
• Chapter VII (Action in Respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of
Aggression);
• Chapter VIII (Regional Arrangements); and
• Chapter XII (International Trusteeship System).

3) UN Audiovisual Library of International Law. “United for Peace: Resolution 377”, <http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/ufp/ufp.html>.
4) United Nations. Revitalization of the work of the General Assembly. 2014. <http://www.un.org/en/ga/revitalization/revital_current.shtml>.
37
The Council is granted special power to facilitate peaceful settlements of disputes (Art. 33-38) and
to determine any threat or breach of peace, or act of aggression. The Council also has the responsibility
to take action to maintain or restore peace and security (Art. 39-51). Thus, it has the legal right to
authorize the use of force (for example, sanctions or military force if deemed necessary (Art. 42)).
While the other principal organs can make recommendations to governments, the Security Council,
when discharging its duties, acts on behalf of all Members of the United Nations, and its decisions are
mandatory. However, in discharging these duties, the Security Council must act in accordance with the
Purposes and Principles of the UN (Art. 24). As a whole, the Member States agree to accept and carry
out the decisions of the Council in accordance with the Charter (Art. 25). The Council may establish
the subsidiary organs it deems necessary for the performance of its functions, such as a peacekeeping
operation (Art. 29).
When the Council examines a complaint concerning a threat to peace, it first explores ways
of reaching agreement by peaceful means. It may set forth principles for a peaceful settlement or
undertake mediation. The Council may take measures to enforce its decisions. It may impose economic
sanctions or an arms embargo. When a dispute leads to fighting, the Council seeks to cease violence
and resolve the conflict as soon as possible. It may send peacekeeping forces to supervise a truce and
keep opposing forces apart. In some occasions, the Council has authorized Member States to take “all
available means”, including collective military action, to ensure that its decisions are carried out.
The Council also recommends a candidate for the post of Secretary-General to the General Assembly
and proposes the admission of new Member States. The Security Council jointly elects judges to the ICJ
with the General Assembly.
Organization and Function
The Security Council is organized to function continuously. Although most of its meetings are during
normal working hours, a meeting of the Security Council can be called any day or time, especially
during a crisis. Membership in the Security Council consists of five permanent members (China, France,
Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and ten non-permanent members.
Five new non-permanent members are elected each year by the General Assembly for a two-year term,
starting on 1 January (Art. 23). The president of the Security Council, whose seat rotates monthly
amongst the Members in alphabetical order, guides the work of the Council.
Each member of the Security Council has one vote. Substantive decisions by the Security Council
are made with an affirmative vote from nine members including the concurring votes (“yes,” “abstain,” or
no vote) of the permanent members. The concurring vote of the permanent five emanates from Article
27 in the Charter where concurring votes on substantive issues are required from the five permanent
members of the Security Council. A vote of “no” from one of the five permanent members constitutes a
veto and, consequently, blocks the Security Council from adopting the resolution under consideration.
For a procedural vote, a straight majority of nine votes is necessary (Art. 27).
The Security Council’s organizational structure contains a number of different committees, working
groups, and commissions. In addition, all peacekeeping operations and criminal tribunals are vested
under the Council’s authorization. The following subsidiary bodies are established under the provisional
rules of the Security Council and report directly to the Council:
38
Bashar Ja’afari, Permanent

Representative of the Syrian Arab
Republic to the UN, speaks to journalists,
following a Security Council meeting.
The Security Council adopted resolution
2209 (2015), expressing support for the
4 February 2015 by the Executive Council
of the Organization for the Prohibition of
Chemical Weapons (OPCW) to continue
the work of the OPCW Fact-Finding
Mission to study all available information
relating to allegations of use of chemical
weapons in Syria. The resolution was
adopted by a vote of 14 in favour and one
against (Venezuela). 06 March 2015. UN
Photo #624893 by Devra Berkowitz.
• Standing Committees (Procedures, Meetings, and Admission of new Members);
• Ad Hoc Committees: established as needed and meet in closed sessions;
• Ad Hoc Working Groups (e.g., Peacekeeping, Conflict Prevention in Africa, Measures to be

Imposed to Individuals/Groups Involved in Terrorism, Children and Armed Conflicts);
• Military Staff Committee (Current composition/mandates working methods are reconsidered:

World Summit 2005);
• Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC);
• Sanction Committees (11 different committees);
• 1540 Committee (refrain from acquiring, developing, manufacturing, etc., NBC weapons);
• Peacekeeping Operations (19 operations as of 2014 — see Lesson 3);
• Political and Peacebuilding Missions (13 missions as of 2014 — see Lesson 3);
• Commissions (e.g., Peacebuilding Commission; Compensation Commission);
• International Tribunals for former Yugoslavia and Rwanda; and
• Other organizations (e.g., UN Command in Korea).
Except for the Standing Committees and the Military Staff Committee, the other entities are
essentially temporary subsidiary bodies established by Security Council resolutions. Each one deals
with a specific situation, has an operational mandate, and reports its recommendations to the Council,
limiting their operational time and scope.
General Assembly resolution 60/160 (2005) and Security Council resolution 1645 (2005) authorized
the important establishment of the Peacebuilding Commission (PBC) to assist countries emerging
from conflicts. The PBC works as an inter-governmental advisory body of the Council and has a direct
reporting relationship both with the Security Council and the General Assembly.
39
Comments
While the General Assembly generally assumes responsibility for establishing the principles and
ideals on global order should rest, the Security Council is meant to uphold and enforce these principles,
thus speedily preventing any breach or attempted breach of international peace and security.
Unfortunately, during the Cold War, the competition and the mistrust between the superpowers
hampered the Council’s decision-making process, and instead of an early response to crisis, the Council
found itself crippled and ineffective by the heavy use of veto. The end of the Cold War resulted in more
cooperative work in the Council and a significant drop in the use of veto. The Council has been operating
largely unanimously and has been divided only regarding a limited number of issues.
However, the question of Iraq badly fractured the Council in 2003, and a full-fledged war was
launched against a Member State without proper Security Council authorization and in contravention
of the Charter, which stipulates that all Member States should refrain from the “threat or use of force
against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state” (Art. 2). This, as well as NATO
military intervention against Serbia and Montenegro in 1999, also without the authorization of the
Security Council, and events in Libya in 2011, underscored the importance of addressing concerns
about the Council’s membership in general and the role of the permanent five in particular.
The question of equitable representation and increase in the membership of the Security Council,
as well as the use of veto power, remain of central importance to the wider membership. Recently, the
Council has been divided over the question of the Syrian Civil War, with Russia and China casting vetoes
on four occasions. At the same time, however, the Council unanimously adopted six resolutions on Syria.
These issues are being addressed in the ongoing intergovernmental negotiations in the framework of
the regular sessions of the General Assembly.
The use of mandatory sanctions has been another topic of discussion. Under Chapter VII of the
Charter, the Security Council can take enforcement measures to maintain or restore international
peace and security. Such measures range from comprehensive economic and trade sanctions to more
targeted measures such as arms embargoes, travel bans, and financial or diplomatic restrictions. They
are important instruments to enforce the Security Council’s decisions. However, many States and
humanitarian organizations express concerns at the adverse consequences of sanctions to the most
vulnerable segments of the population and the negative impact sanctions can have on the economies
of third countries.
In response to these concerns, the Security Council established an Informal Working Group on
General Issues of Sanctions, which continues to develop general recommendations and best practices on
how to improve the effectiveness of UN sanctions and apply a more refined approach to the application
and implementation of sanctions, such as targeted measures and humanitarian exceptions. In 2006,
this took the form of document S/2006/997. Nevertheless, the High Level Review of United Nations
Sanctions continues to assess the effectiveness and evolution of strategy for this technique and may
propose updated policies in coming years.5
5) Security Council Report. “Sanctions”. 30 October 2014. <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/monthly-forecast/2014-11/sanctions.php>
40
Section 2.3 Economic and Social Council
Role and Power
Based on the universal principles of equal

rights and self-determination, the United Nations is
determined to advance a wide range of issues within
the fields of economic and social developments
(Art. 55). Under the authority of the General
Assembly, ECOSOC has the responsibility for
the overall guidance of United Nations activities
in the economic and social fields (Art. 60).
The UN Charter affirms that stability and well-
being are fundamental conditions for peaceful and
Guy Ryder, Director-General of the International Labour
friendly relations among the Member States. As Organization (ILO), speaks on a panel during the
such, ECOSOC coordinates the related work of 14 UN ECOSOC segment on integrating the three dimensions
of sustainable development: economic development,
specialized agencies, functional commissions, and
social development, and environmental protection. 30
five regional commissions working together toward March 2015. UN Photo #627218 by Eskinder Debebe.
this global standard.
ECOSOC is empowered to initiate studies and make recommendations to the General Assembly,
governments, and to the United Nations’ linked specialized agencies concerning economic, social,
cultural, educational, health, and other related matters. ECOSOC is also authorized to make
recommendations for the purpose of promoting respect for and observance of human rights (Art. 62). In
order to achieve these objectives, ECOSOC is mandated to enter into agreements (subject to approval
by the General Assembly) through consultations and coordination with concerned agencies (Art. 63).
ECOSOC responsibilities also include assisting the Security Council when so required (Art. 65).
Organization and Function
Today, ECOSOC counts 54 Members, each with one vote. Of these geographically distributed
members, 18 are elected each year by the General Assembly and serve for a three-year term. ECOSOC
meets in an annual four-week session alternating between New York and Geneva, in addition to holding
short sessions throughout the year. A simple majority rules the voting procedures. Although its sessions
are substantial in terms of agendas and decisions, the year-round operational work is carried out through
ECOSOC’s various subsidiary bodies, which report to its committees and regional commissions. None of
the other United Nations principal organs have as many subsidiary bodies as ECOSOC.
The high-level segment provides a forum for ministers and senior executives. In addition, over
2,200 non-governmental organizations have consultative status with ECOSOC (See Lesson 1). This
sprawling machinery has the following subsidiary bodies:
• Nine Functional Commissions: Social Development; Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice;
Population and Development; Narcotic Drugs; Science and Technology for Development;
Sustainable Development; Status of Women; National Statistics; and Forum on Forests;
41
• Five Regional Commissions to promote the regional economic and social development in
Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Western Asia;
• Standing Committees on Programme and Coordination and Negotiations with the

Intergovernmental Agencies and on Non-Governmental Organizations;
• Expert Bodies (Transport, Geographic Names, International Standards, Development, ESCO

rights, Administration, and Indigenous Issues);
• Executive Committees such as UN System CEB, High Level Committee on Management

(HLCM), and High Level Committee on Programmes (HLCP). These three mechanisms are the
centre of gravity and where most of the coordination takes place within the High Level Segment
of the UN system.
Other related bodies are: The Executive Board of the International Research and Training Institute
for the Advancement of Women, International Narcotics Control Board, Committee for the United Nations
Population Award, and the Programme Coordinating Board of the Joint United Nations Programme on
HIV/AIDS.
Comments
The socio-economic agenda and the role of ECOSOC have been debated from its beginning. As
originally envisioned, the United Nations was supposed to help formulate and coordinate global economic
policy.
However, the United Nations never became a major global economic architect, instead allowing the
separate Bretton Woods Institutions — the World Bank Group and the International Monetary Fund — to
fill this role. As a result, the United Nations was diverted away from economic policy formulation and
later into the less controversial development assistance. Macro-economic policy was formulated by the
industrial powers through the vehicles of the Bretton Woods system.
This arrangement did not successfully promote global economic development. The economic
inequities between developed and developing countries prevailed, and to this day, growing income
disparities present a threat to international peace and security. Many specialists, including Nobel
Laureate of Economics and former chief economist of the World Bank Mr. Joseph Stiglitz, have argued the
inherent dangers of income inequality and the corrupt behaviours that have led to staggering disparities
in opportunity for people around the world.6 This perspective on economic development is gaining more
traction and the Bretton Woods Institutions are also actively seeking to “redefine” the notions of certain
social investments as a lucrative venture rather than a risk.7
In their efforts to further strengthen ECOSOC at the World Summit in 2005, the Member States
recognized it as the “principal body for coordination, policy review, dialogue and recommendations on
issues of economic and social development.” Pursuant to General Assembly resolution (A/RES/61/16),
the Annual Ministerial Review (AMR) was established and mandated to assess the progress made in the
implementation of goals and targets agreed upon at the major UN conferences and summits over the
past 15 years. The same resolution mandated ECOSOC to launch a biennial Development Cooperation
Forum as a principal medium for global dialogue on development cooperation.
6) Joseph Stiglitz. The Price of Inequality: How Today’s Divided Society Endangers Our Future. W.W. Norton. 2012.
7) World Bank. “Changing the Conversation on Development Finance”. 17 April 2015. <http://live.worldbank.org/changing-the-conversation-
development-finance>.
42
While ECOSOC serves as a key UN coordinator and mediator on socio-economic activities, the
question of ECOSOC’s fundamental role in shaping the global economy as foreseen in the Charter still
remains. In 2013, the General Assembly adopted Resolution 68/1, “Review of the implementation of
General Assembly resolution 61/16 on the strengthening of the Economic and Social Council”. The
resolution recognizes the lead role of ECOSOC in identifying emerging challenges and promoting
reflection, debate and innovative thinking on development, as well as in achieving a balanced integration
of the three dimensions of sustainable development. The adoption of resolution 68/1 constitutes the
most far-reaching reform of ECOSOC since 1991. Among other provisions, it mandates the Council
to provide substantive leadership to the system through adoption of an annual theme, stagger the
segments of the Council throughout the year (with
a work programme cycle beginning in July), and
convene an integration segment to monitor and
promote the balanced integration of the three
dimensions of sustainable development in the
work of the ECOSOC system. The resolution also
mandates that the Council will convene its meetings
at United Nations Headquarters in New York, with the
Humanitarian Affairs Segment continuing to alternate
An upward view of the Secretariat (left) and Dag
between New York and Geneva, while envisaging that
Hammarskjöld Library buildings at UN Headquarters. 10
ECOSOC could convene special or ad hoc meetings at November 2011. UN Photo #494224 by JC McIlwaine.
another UN location to address urgent developments.
Section 2.4 Secretariat and the Secretary-General
Role and Function of the Secretariat
The Secretariat carries out the substantive and administrative work of the United Nations as directed
by the General Assembly, the Security Council, and the other organs. The Secretary-General leads the
Secretariat and provides overall administrative guidance to the departments and offices which comprise
it around the world. These approximately 44,000 personnel coordinate the programmes and policies
envisioned by the five other principal organs (Art. 97-101).8
While the central political activities of the United Nations are conducted at UNHQ, UNOG is the focal
point of conferences, multilateral diplomacy, and activities concerning human rights and disarmament.
UNOV focuses on activities in the field of international substance abuse control, crime prevention and
criminal justice, peaceful use of outer space, and international trade law. UNON is the headquarters for
activities that concern the environment and human settlements.
The duties carried out by the Secretariat are as varied as the problems dealt with by the United
Nations. These range from administering peacekeeping operations to mediating international disputes.
Secretariat staff are usually involved in the following areas of development:
• Survey economic and social trends and problems, prepare studies on subjects such as human
rights and sustainable development;
8) United Nations. About the UN Secretariat. <http://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/secretariat/index.html>.
43
• Organize international conferences on issues of worldwide concern;
• Monitor the extent to which the decisions of United Nations bodies are being carried out;
• Interpret speeches and translate documents into the Organization’s official languages; and
• Conduct information programmes to acquaint the world’s communications media with the work
of the United Nations.
The main functions of the Secretariat’s 13 departments and offices9 in the Headquarters are as
follows:
• Executive Office of the Secretary-General (OSG): Composed of the Secretary-General’s

senior advisers and provides overall guidelines to the Organization.
• Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS): Monitors, evaluates, and audits UN operations.
• Office of Legal Affairs (OLA): Provides legal services to the Organization.
• Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs (DPPA): Provides advice and support to
the Secretary-General on all political matters and carries out, among others, activities related
to the prevention, control, and resolution of conflicts, peacebuilding, and electoral assistance.
• Office of Disarmament Affairs (ODA): Promotes the goals of disarmament and provides
support for norm setting in this area.
• Department of Peace Operations (DPO): Is responsible for the planning, preparation,

management, and direction of peacekeeping operations.
• Department of Operational Support (DOS): Bolsters the UN’s capacity to mount and sustain
peace operations.
• Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA): Strengthens the coordination
among the UN entities that give assistance in response to emergencies.
• Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA): Generates and analyses relevant
data, facilitates negotiations, and advises, at request, the translation of policy agreements into
programmes at the country level.
• Department for General Assembly and Conference Management (DGACM): Provides

technical and secretariat support to the General Assembly as well as to intergovernmental and
expert bodies’ meetings in Nеw York; also provides translation and publishing services.
• Department of Public Information (DPI): Informs globally about UN purposes and activities.
• Department of Management (DM): Provides to the Secretariat policy guidance and support
concerning finance, human resources, and support service.
• Department of Safety and Security (DSS): Ensures coherent response to emergency

situations and has responsibility for the security of UN personnel and operations worldwide.
»» For more information about the locations of the Secretariat’s

work around the world, visit <www.unsceb.org/directory>.
9) As part of organizational restructuring beginning 1 January 2019, the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) became the Department
of Peace Operations (DPO), the Department of Field Service (DFS) became the Department of Operational Support (DOS), and the Department of
Political Affairs (DPA) became the Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs (DPPA).
44
In Public Service »
“I grew up in war,” Secretary-
General Ban Ki-moon said,
“and saw the United Nations
help my country to recover
and rebuild. That experience
was a big part of what led me
to pursue a career in public
service. As Secretary-General,
I am determined to see this
Organization deliver tangible,
meaningful results that advance
peace, development, and
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon (centre left) visits Santa Rita, a rural indigenous human rights.”
community, with President of the Plurinational State of Bolivia Evo Morales
Ayma (left). Also pictured, Sacha Sergio Llorentty Solíz (right), Permanent Read more: <www.un.org/sg/
Representative of the Plurinational State of Bolivia to the United Nations. biography.shtml>.
13 June 2014. UN Photo #591949 by United Nations.
Special Advisors, Representatives, and Envoys
As of 2014, more than 44,000 men and women from some 180 countries made up the worldwide
Secretariat staff under the regular budget. As international civil servants, the Secretary-General and the
Secretariat staff answer directly to the United Nations and are required to take an oath to not seek or
receive instructions from any government or outside authority. As specified in Article 100 of the Charter,
each Member State must respect the exclusively international character of the responsibilities of the
Secretary-General and the Secretariat staff and avoid any and all attempts to an improper influence of
the staff in the discharge of their duties.
Role and Functions of the Secretary-General
The Secretary-General is appointed for a period of five years by the General Assembly after
recommendation from the Security Council. The Secretary-General is perhaps best known to the general
public for using his stature and impartiality — his “good offices” — in the interests of “preventive
diplomacy” (conflict prevention and peacemaking). This refers to steps taken by the Secretary-General
or his senior staff — both publicly and in private — to prevent international disputes from arising,
escalating, or spreading.
The Charter call the Secretary-General the “chief administrative officer” of the Organization (Art.
97). Described as “equal parts diplomat and advocate, civil servant and CEO, the Secretary-General is a
symbol of United Nations ideals and a spokesman for the interests of the world’s peoples, in particular
the poor and vulnerable among them.”10
As directed by the Charter, the Secretary-General should bring any matter that threatens international
peace and security to the attention of the Security Council. The Charter also calls upon him the duty
to perform other functions as are entrusted to him by the Security Council, the General Assembly, and
10) United Nations. The Role of Secretary-General. <https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/role-secretary-general>.
45
A view of the conference chamber, as Zeid Ra’ad Al-Hussein, UN High Commissioner for Human
Rights, briefs the Human Rights Council on the activities of his Office, at the opening of the
Council’s twenty-ninth regular session. 15 June 2015. UN Photo #634380 by Pierre Albouy.
the other main United Nations organs (Art. 99). With a dual role as spokesperson for the international
community and servant of the Member States, the Secretary-General lives an extraordinary mandate
for action in the most tense and even volatile of global situations.
Reorganization and Reforms
The United Nations and its Secretariat have undergone considerable reorganization in order to
streamline the Organization and reduce its budget. To that end, the General Assembly has adopted
several reform packages, consolidating programmes, and activities with the aim of creating closer
cooperation and better coherence throughout the system. Within the Secretariat, a senior management
group and four sectoral committees facilitate the day-by-day management of the internal work. Fruitful
partnerships have been built with a wide range of non-State actors. The consolidation and reorganization
of the reform programme has also required the elimination of more than 1,000 staff posts.
In the field, the establishment of a standard, unified country team has brought together the
representatives of the Organization’s multiple funds, programmes, and specialized agencies and has
led to better transparency and coordination at the country level and throughout the whole UN system.
Significant improvements have been made in the management, deployment, implementation, and
support of complex peacekeeping operations, and the UN’s peacebuilding capacity has been further
strengthened as well. The creation of the Human Rights Council and the establishment of the Office of
the High Commissioner for Human Rights and sub-offices in the field has enhanced the human rights
monitoring capacity. The UN’s budgeting process has shifted its focus from detailed descriptions of
activities to processes that identify outcomes and measurable indicators of achievement.
Although the United Nations has become more professional, there is still the need for a series of
improvements that for a number of years will affect both the management and the governing structures.
Delivering the mandates entrusted to the United Nations around the world also requires a workforce
that is dynamic, adaptable, and mobile.
46
However, the reform programme is a never-ending undertaking. The Secretary-General called

for “streamlining of the world body’s contracts system and a continued focus on better governance,
performance, accountability and transparency”.11 In June 2011, the Secretary-General created the
Changed Management Team to streamline and increase the accountability of the organization.
Section 2.5 International Court of Justice
Role and Composition
The ICJ, which has its seat at the Peace Palace at

The Hague in the Netherlands, is the principal judicial
organ of the United Nations. It was established
under the Charter of the United Nations in June
1945 and began its activities in April 1946. The basic
documents governing the Court are the Charter of
the United Nations and the Statute of the Court,
which is annexed to the Charter. All Member States
are party to the Statute. These are supplemented by
the Rules of Court and Practice Directions and by the
resolution concerning the internal judicial practice
of the Court. It is the only international court of a View of the ICJ Judges in the Great Hall of Justice at the
universal character with general jurisdiction. That Peace Palace in The Hague, during opening hearings on
the case concerning maritime access in Bolivia v. Chile.
jurisdiction is twofold: in contentious cases and in
4 May 2015. UN Photo #630788 by United Nations/ICJ.
advisory proceedings.
The Court has two major roles:
• To settle the legal disputes submitted to it by States in accordance with international law; and
• To give advisory opinions to the General Assembly and the Security Council on legal questions
referred to it.
The same service is also given to other UN organs and specialized agencies, which are authorized by
the General Assembly to request them (Chapter XIV, Art. 92-96).
The ICJ is composed of 15 judges sitting independently of each other and may not include more
than one judge of any nationality. Judges are elected to nine-year terms of office by the United Nations
General Assembly and Security Council. Elections are held every three years for one-third of the seats,
and retiring judges may be re-elected. The Members of the Court do not represent their governments
but are elected as independent magistrates. In accordance with Article 31 of the Statute, parties that
have no judge of their nationality on the Bench may choose an ad hoc judge for the purposes of the case
that concerns them. The judges must possess the qualifications required in their respective countries
for appointment to the highest judicial offices, or they must be jurists of recognized competence in
international law. The composition of the Court also must reflect the main forms of civilization and the
principal legal systems of the world. The court is assisted by a Registry organ and an administrative
entity, as well as a chamber for environmental issues.
11) UN News Centre, “Secretary-General lays out challenging UN agenda for 2008”. <http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=25214#.
VYCOmflViko>.
47
Members of the Delegation of Belgium during the reading of the ICJ’s Judgment in the case
concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal).
The Court ruled that, in compliance with its obligations under the Convention Against Torture,
Senegal must prosecute or extradite former Chadian President Hissène Habré. 20 July 2012.
UN/ICJ Photo #521287 by Frank van Beek.
Every year the Court submits a report on its activities to the General Assembly. The Report covers
the period from 1 August of one year to 31 July of the next. It generally includes an introductory
summary and information relating to the organization; jurisdiction and judicial work of the Court; visits,
events, and lectures; the Court’s publications and documents; and administrative and budgetary issues.
Functions
Only States may apply to and appear before the Court. UN Member States and other States that
have become parties to Statute of the Court (under conditions laid down by the Security Council) are
so entitled.
The Court may entertain a dispute only if the States concerned have accepted its jurisdiction in one
or more of the following ways:
• By the conclusion between them of a special agreement to

Reference »
submit the dispute to the Court;
Read the Statute of the
• By virtue of a jurisdictional clause, i.e., typically, when they are
International Court of
parties to a treaty containing a provision whereby, in the event
Justice: <www.icj-cij.org/
of a disagreement over its interpretation or application, one of
en/statute>.
them may refer the dispute to the Court; or
• Through the reciprocal effect of declarations made by them under the Statute whereby each has
accepted the jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory in the event of a dispute with another State
having made a similar declaration.
• Also, in cases of doubt as to whether the Court has jurisdiction, it is the Court itself that decides.
Seventy States have now made a declaration (some with reservations) recognizing the jurisdiction
of the Court as compulsory, as contemplated by Article 36 of the Statute.
48
Contentious Cases
The procedure (Statute of the Court, Chapter III Art. 43-60) followed by the Court in contentious
cases is defined in its Statute and in the Rules of Court adopted by it under the Statute. The proceedings
include a written phase and an oral phase. After the oral proceedings, the Court deliberates on camera
and then delivers its judgment at a public sitting. The judgment is final and without appeal.
Should one of the States involved fail to comply with the judgements passed by the Court, the other
party involved may have recourse to the Security Council of the United Nations.
Since 1946, the Court has delivered judgments on disputes concerning inter alia land frontiers
and maritime boundaries, territorial sovereignty, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal
affairs of States, diplomatic relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum, nationality, guardianship,
freedom of movement, and economic rights. The Court decides in accordance with international treaties
and conventions in force, international custom, general principles of law, and, as subsidiary means,
judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists.
Advisory Capacity
The advisory procedure (Statute of the Court, Chapter III) of the Court is open solely to international
organizations. The only bodies at present authorized to request advisory opinions of the Court are
the five principal organs and the specialized agencies (e.g., UNHCR) of the United Nations family. On
receiving a request, the Court decides which States and organizations might provide useful information
and gives them an opportunity of presenting written or oral statements. The Court’s advisory procedure
is otherwise modelled on that for contentious proceedings, and the sources of applicable law are the
same.
In principle, the Court’s advisory opinions are consultative in character and are, therefore, not
binding on the requesting bodies. Certain instruments or regulations can, however, provide in advance
that the advisory opinion shall be binding. Since 1946, the Court has given advisory opinions, concerning
inter alia admission to United Nations membership, reparation for injuries suffered in the service of
the United Nations, territorial status of South-West Africa (Namibia) and Western Sahara, judgments
rendered by international administrative tribunals, expenses of certain United Nations operations,
applicability of the United Nations Headquarters Agreement, the status of human rights rapporteurs,
and the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons. A recent contentious case was the advisory
opinion of 22 July 2010 on the adoption of a declaration of independence in Kosovo.
Comments
The principal judicial organ of the United Nations is held in high regard worldwide because of its role
in resolving inter-State disputes. The Court is unique in terms of the cost-benefit it offers as a peaceful
means of settling such disputes. This is borne out by the large number of cases that continue to be
submitted to it. In carrying out its judicial mission, the Court helps to further advance the objectives
and principles enshrined in the Charter, not the least of which is the promotion of the rule of law on the
international plane. Through its judgments and advisory opinions, it contributes to strengthening and
clarifying international law.
49
Mr. Jacques Rapoport, a member of

the UN Secretariat, and two friends
he made while on the highlands
of New Guinea during a visiting
mission of the Trusteeship Council.
This trip observed the progress
and developments of the four UN
Trust Territories in the Pacific, which
included the trust territory of the
Pacific Islands, administered by
the United States; Nauru and New
Guinea, administered by Australia;
and Western Samoa, administered
by New Zealand. 01 June 1956.
Cases referred to the Court are growing in factual and legal complexity. In addition, they frequently
involve a number of phases as a result of inter alia: the filing of preliminary objections to jurisdiction
or admissibility, the submission of requests for the indication of provisional measures (which have to
be dealt with as a matter of urgency), applications for permission to intervene, and declarations of
intervention filed by third States.
Section 2.6 Trusteeship Council

Chapter XIII of the Charter provides for the establishment of “an international trusteeship system
for the administration and supervision of such territories (trust territories) as may be placed there under
subsequent individual agreements” (Art. 75). The trusteeship system was relevant in the aftermath
of the two World Wars and during the de-colonization period between the 1960s and 1970s, serving
to supervise and promote advancement and progress towards the independence of the 60 territories
placed under the system. Such territories were either (i) territories held under mandates established by
the League of Nations (e.g., Namibia); (ii) territories which have been detached from enemy states as
a result of World War I; or (iii) territories voluntarily placed under the system. The trust territories were
to be administered by a designated authority (to be called the administering authority), which could be
one or more states or the United Nations. Under the authority of the General Assembly, the Trusteeship
Council monitored the administering authority to act under the purposes and principles of the Charter.
By 1994, all Trust territories had achieved either independence or autonomy. With the termination
of the Trusteeship Agreement on Palau, the Trusteeship Council completed its task as envisaged in the
Charter and became inactive. The Secretary-General therefore recommended the General Assembly take
necessary steps to abolish the organ. It was not done in order to avoid amending the Charter. Instead,
some alternatives have been suggested. The Commission on Global Governance’s 1994 report proposed
50
that the Trusteeship Council be reconstituted as an institution for collective trusteeship of the integrity
of the global environment, including common resources and areas such as the oceans, atmosphere, and
outer space. In 1998, a task force was mandated to prepare proposals on environmental and human
settlement areas and the hypothetical role of a reformed trusteeship was discussed.12 Despite this
initiative, the rhetoric at the 2005 World Summit still suggested that Chapter XIII of the Charter and
other related references to the Trusteeship Council should come to an end. The present status of the
Council continues to be inactive.13
12) United Nations. General Assembly A/53/463. 06 October 1998. <http://www.un.org/documents/ga/docs/53/plenary/a53-463.htm>

13) United Nations. Trusteeship Council. <https://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/trusteeship-council/index.html>.
51
1. Which is the main deliberative, policy- 6. The Secretary-General is appointed

making, and representative organ of the for a period of five years by the _____
United Nations? after recommendation from the Security
A. The Great Council Council.
B. The Secretariat
7. The International Court of Justice (ICJ)
C. The General Assembly
settles legal disputes submitted to it by
D. The Security Council States in accordance with what?
A. International law
2. Who are the members of the General
Assembly? B. The laws of the plaintiff state
C. The laws of the judges’ home countries
A. All Member States of the United Nations
D. Law of Armed Conflict
B. Only Member States on the Security Council
C. Only countries with a population greater
8. The ICJ is composed of 15 judges sitting
than 10 million independently of each other and may not
D. It changes every year include _____.
A. Any European judges
3. Article 24 of the Charter confers the
_____ with the primary responsibility B. More than one judge of any nationality
of maintaining international peace and C. More than five female judges
security. D. Any judge from the same continent
A. Secretary-General
9. Which organ supervised and promoted
B. Security Council
advancement and progress towards the
C. United States independence of 60 territories?
D. General Assembly
A. ECOSOC
B. Trusteeship Council
4. The _____ has responsibility for the
overall guidance of United Nations C. Secretariat
activities in the economic and social D. Security Council
fields.
A. General Assembly (GA) 10. What is the current status of the
Trusteeship Council?
B. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
A. It remains active as provided for in the
C. Secretary-General
Charter
D. UN Treasury
B. It underwent a period of transition before
5. The _____ leads the Secretariat and redefining its mandate in 1994
provides overall administrative guidance C. It guards the world’s natural resources by
to the departments and offices which
force
comprise it around the world.
D. It is inactive
A. Security Council
B. UN Minister
C. General Assembly
D. Secretary-General
52
1. What does the Secretary-General symbolize for the world?
2. How has the ICJ contributed to conflict prevention between

states?
3. What role could the Trusteeship Council play in today’s world?
Answer Key »
1. C
2. A
3. B
4. B
5. D
6. General Assembly
7. A
8. B
9. B
10. D
53
LESSON
The Role of the United Nations
3 in Global Peace and Security
The maintenance of
international peace and
security is one of the
main purposes of the
United Nations.
UN Photo #512431 by Logan Abassi.
Section 3.1 The Evolving UN Response to • Understand the conflict environment that the
Global Conflict international community faces in the post-Cold
War and “War on Terror” era.
Section 3.2 Mechanisms for Stronger Peace
and Security • Conceptualize the role of the United Nations in

supporting international security.
Section 3.3 The Guiding Principles of Peace
Operations • Identify the principles of UN peacekeeping

and the different applications of peacekeeping
Section 3.4 Multidimensional Components
operations.
Section 3.5 Types of Peace Operations
• Understand how the use of force is justified and
Section 3.6 Planning and Preparation authorized in this context.
Section 3.7 Implementation • Recognize the chain of command for missions in

the field.
Section 3.8 Management Responsibilities
• Define the Peacekeeping Partnership.
Section 3.9 The Peacekeeping Partnership
54
LESSON 3 | The Role of the United Nations in Global Peace and Security
The UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) conducts a training exercise in riot control for its peacekeepers in Juba. Participants included
members of the Rwandan, Nepalese, Chinese and Ethiopian Battalions, as well as Nepalese Formed Police Units (FPUs). 07 May 2015.
UN Photo #630801 by JC McIlwaine.
The UN Charter established a collective security

system, which the Security Council is obliged to monitor
and enforce. The SC may adopt a range of measures,
such as sanctions and trade embargoes to enforce its
decisions. Their means also include the establishment of
UN peacekeeping operations. However, while exercising
these responsibilities and powers, the purposes and
principles of the Charter, such as respect for principles of View a video introduction of this
political independence, sovereign equality, and territorial
videos/369/role-of-united-nations-in-
integrity of all States, should be upheld. The Member global-peace-and-security/>.
States should also comply with their obligations under
international law.
The United Nations plays a role at all stages of a

conflict, from prevention to settlement to post-conflict
building. Over the years, the Organization has developed
a wide range of instruments that make up a coherent and
55
integrated approach to the maintenance of the international peace and security, consisting of preventive
diplomacy, peace-making, peacekeeping, and peacebuilding. Different instruments of the UN’s peace
efforts come into play at different stages of conflict, and the boundaries between them are increasingly
blurred. This lesson addresses the UN’s concept and management of peace operations and how such
operations respond to the international call for conflict transformation and resolution.
Section 3.1 The Evolving UN Response to Global Conflict

As the Cold War ended, a new global political environment began to evolve. Superpower rivalry
appeared to have ended and the international community looked forward to a new global security
system based on equality, individual’s rights, and social and economic development. Yet to this day,
violence persists. While the number of interstate conflicts decreased, the world witnessed a dramatic
increase of intrastate (internal) conflicts. In 2014, there were at least 10 internationalized wars and
a further 20 internal conflicts continuing around the world.1 Peace operations today are increasingly
called on to confront politically complex and challenging conflicts, often in volatile security environments
where operations themselves are often directly targeted.
The past decade clearly demonstrated the complexity of contemporary conflict. Consequently, the
international community, also transformed by geopolitical, economic, technological, and environmental
changes, has focused intensively on identifying the major factors contributing to systemic and intractable
violent conflict.
The following are commonly identified sources of instability and roadblocks to peace and
development:
• Sectarianism and extremism;
• Socioeconomic exclusion and income inequality;
• Corruption and criminality;
• Weak state capacity and lack of institutional legitimacy;
• Pressures related to resources, demographics and the environment;
• Rampant human rights violations and the use of violence against civilians; and
• Unstable neighbours and porous borders permitting illicit flows of weapons, narcotics, and
people.
These factors, combined with technological innovation, have strengthened the hand of armed
criminal and extremist elements, providing them with enhanced means to significantly harm through
asymmetric tactics. International non-state actors and terrorist organizations often using non-
conventional weapons threaten international security. Such groups tend to be well-equipped and well-
resourced, with unprecedented transnational reach, and are sometimes ideologically driven, such as
in the case of the self-proclaimed Islamic State (ISIS). Events in Ukraine have also raised fears of a
dangerous escalation and a volatile reincarnation of past expansionist conflicts.
1) Themnér, Lotta & Peter Wallensteen, 2014 “Armed Conflict, 1946-2013”. Journal of Peace Research 51(4). See also <http://www.pcr.uu.se/research/
ucdp/datasets/ucdp_prio_armed_conflict_dataset/>.
56
How the UN builds security »

• Peace-making and Preventive Action;
• Peacekeeping and Peacebuilding;
• Disarmament;
• Countering Terrorism;
• Decolonization and Electoral Assistance;
• Protection of Children in Armed Conflict;
• Gender mainstreaming;
• Mine Action;
• Sport for Development and Peace;
• Protection from Sexual Exploitation and

Students of the school celebrate a friendly UN-themed quiz competition
Abuse; and
is organized at a school in Bamako, Mali, as part of celebrations for UN
Day. 25 October 2013. UN Photo #568296 by Marco Dormino. • Deterring Organized Crime.
The Call to Action
The current political and security environment requires a comprehensive, coherent, and integrated
approach to the maintenance of international peace and security by preventing conflicts, preventing
relapse, and building sustainable peace through effective preventive diplomacy, peace-making,
peacekeeping, and peacebuilding strategies. It also calls for a broad and collaborative approach,
involving both military and non-military actors. Although the military continues to play an important
role in global peace and security, cooperative non-military conflict prevention methods such as arms
control, disarmament, and the establishment of non-violent norms and values have become some of
the driving forces in building confidence between nations and structures. Consequently, international
development relies on these notions of human rights, interdependence, and globalization.
The Evolution and Reform of UN Peacekeeping
UN peacekeeping ranges from traditional peacekeeping missions to complex multidimensional

operations. Traditional missions were deployed primarily to support the implementation of inter-state
ceasefires or peace agreements, such as the first peacekeeping mission, the United Nations Truce
Supervision Organization (UNTSO). UNTSO was set up in 1948 to monitor four armistice agreements
between Israel and its Arab neighbours. The UN Mission on the Golan Heights (UNDOF), which began
in 1974 to monitor the disengagement of forces between Syria and Israel, is another example of a
traditional mission.
Today, peacekeeping missions are mostly deployed to intrastate conflicts where they are required to
play an active role in peace-making efforts and peacebuilding activities in order to address root causes of
conflict. These complex operations, known as multidimensional peacekeeping missions, include military,
police, and civilian components. Multidimensional peacekeeping operations monitor ceasefires, facilitate
the political process, protect civilians, assist in the disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration of
former combatants, support the organization of elections, protect and promote human rights, and assist
in restoring the rule of law. The UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) is one example.
57
The changing role of UN peacekeeping has also been reflected in policy and strategy reform
documents. In March 2000, the Secretary-General appointed the Panel on United Nations Peace
Operations to assess the shortcomings of the system and to make specific and realistic recommendations
for change. The result, known as the “Brahimi Report”, after the Chair of the Panel Lakhdar Brahimi,
called for renewed political commitment on the part of Member States, significant institutional change,
and increased financial support. The Brahimi Panel noted that in order to be effective, UN peacekeeping
operations must be properly resourced and equipped, and operate under clear, credible, and achievable
mandates.2
After the Brahimi Report, UN Member States and the UN Secretariat continued major reform efforts
through the following mechanisms:
»» The Peacebuilding Commission, established at the 2005 World

Summit;3
»» Peace Operations 2010 (2006), the reform strategy of the

Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO);4
»» The Capstone Doctrine (2008), which outlines a universal set of

principles and guidelines for UN peacekeepers in the field;5 and
»» A New Partnership Agenda: Charting a New Horizon for UN

Peacekeeping (2009).6
In 2014, the Secretary-General established a High Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations
chaired by Jose Ramos-Horta, Nobel Laureate and former president of Timor-Leste. This was the first
such panel to examine both peacekeeping operations and special political missions. The panel recently
released its comprehensive assessment of the state of UN peace operations today and the emerging
needs of the future. Four “essential shifts” were identified:7
1. Primacy of politics: Lasting peace is achieved through political

solutions and not through military and technical engagements
alone. Political solutions must guide all UN peace operations.
2. Responsive operations: UN missions should be tailored to

context. The UN should embrace the term ‘peace operations’ to
denote the full spectrum of responses.
3. Stronger partnerships: A more resilient global and regional

architecture for international peace and security is needed
for the future. The UN must lay out a vision and help enable
others.
2) United Nations. Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations (2000). <http://www.un.org/en/events/pastevents/brahimi_report.shtml>.
3) United Nations Peacebuilding Commission Mandate. <http://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/mandate.shtml>.
4) UN Peacekeeping Operations Reform Strategy. Excerpts from the Secretary-General. <https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/po2010.pdf>.
5) Principles of UN Peacekeeping. <https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/principles-of-peacekeeping>.
6) DPKO. A New Partnership Agenda. <http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/newhorizon.pdf>.
7) Information note on High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations. 16 June 2015. <https://www.un.org/undpa/en/speeches-
statements/16062015/HIPPO-report>.
58
4. Field-focused and people-centred: UN Headquarters should

focus more on enabling field missions and UN personnel must
renew their resolve to serve and protect the people.
Many additional and detailed thematic recommendations were also submitted, on topics such as the
protection of civilians, the use of force, and sustainable peace. The recommendations will be considered
by the General Assembly during the 2015 General Debate.
Section 3.2 Mechanisms for Stronger Peace and Security

The United Nations continually implements several strategies within peace operations, including
preventive actions and peacemaking, peacekeeping, peacebuilding, and peace enforcement. While
preventative actions, peacemaking, and peacekeeping can only be employed with the consent of
the parties involved, peace enforcements are coercive measures and thus do not require consent.
Collectively, these instruments, methods, and operations create a system for preventing, managing,
and resolving conflicts at various levels.
Available Response Mechanisms
Conflict prevention aims to prevent international or internal disputes and tensions from arising,
escalating into violence, or spreading. With the mounting complexity and growing costs of addressing
crisis situations, the imperative to prevent conflict is higher than ever. Preventive actions can be carried
out through diplomatic means, confidence-building exercises, preventive deployment of troops, or
combinations of all of these. Preventive action may also include the United Nations’ means to fight
international terrorism.
UNPREDEP »
The UN Preventitive Deployment Force
(UNPREDEP) in the Former Yugoslav
Republic of Macedonia from 1995-
1999 was the first UN mission with a
mandate of conflict prevention.
An UNPREDEP peacekeeper is shown monitoring

the border of the Former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia for hostilities. 23 October 1998. UN
Photo #945 by Igor Vasilev.
Peacemaking usually addresses conflict in progress. While the immediate priority is to stop the
violence, the UN also works to facilitate a political process, with particular attention to the need for
reconciliation. It is a diplomatic action to bring hostile parties to mediation in order to negotiate a
settlement to their dispute through peaceful means, as those foreseen under Chapters VI and VIII of
the UN Charter. Peacemaking is central to all peace processes and is often conducted by envoys from
regional organizations, state authorities, or the United Nations. Even the Secretary-General may exercise
59
his or her “good offices”, drawing upon a position of impartiality and integrity, by sending a Special
Representatives with an envoy. Civilian-led political missions are deployed to the field with mandates
to encourage dialogue and cooperation within and between nations, or to promote reconciliation and
democratic governance in societies rebuilding after civil wars. UN regional offices in West Africa, Central
Africa, and Central Asia play a significant role in fostering conflict prevention and mediation partnerships
with regional organizations, in addition to rapid responses to regional crises. The UN could also lend
support to national actors in their conflict prevention and mediation efforts. At the request of the parties,
the UN often provides constitutional support, electoral assistance, or reform support, thus contributing
directly to promoting peace and preventing conflict. Underpinning these activities is the conviction that
political issues lie at the root of many conflicts, and thus political solutions are required to resolve them.
Peacekeeping is an impartial United Nations presence in the field, with the consent of the conflicting
parties. The purpose of peacekeeping is to preserve peace and to assist in implementing agreements
achieved by peacemakers. In the past, peacekeeping operations could only deploy on the condition
of a ceasefire, with the idea that there must be “a peace to keep”. Recently, peacekeeping operations
have been deployed earlier in the conflict continuum, before any peace or ceasefire agreement is
reached. Peacekeeping is a practical mechanism for containing inter-state conflicts and facilitating their
settlement, while protecting human life.
Peacebuilding is the effort to strengthen national capacities for conflict management and building
a foundation for sustainable peace. Peacebuilding is the critical link between the end of hostilities and
the continuation of economic and social development. United Nations agencies, governmental, and non-
governmental organizations play important roles in consolidating peace. The Peacebuilding Commission
discussed earlier in the lesson provides support to peacebuilders in order to better anticipate and
respond to the challenges of peacebuilding.
Peace enforcement may be needed when all other

efforts fail. It is an assortment of coercive activities to What is robust
peacekeeping? »
repress conflict between parties and may include the use
of armed force. It is only permitted in situations where Although they seem similar, robust
peacekeeping should not be confused
the Security Council has determined an “existence of
with peace enforcement, as envisaged
any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of
under Chapter VII of the Charter.
aggression,” as noted in Chapter VII, Article 39 of the
Charter. Sanctions and embargoes may be used as other Robust peacekeeping involves the use
enforcement tools, using economic pressure against of force at the tactical level with the
authorization of the Security Council and
States in order “to comply with the objectives set by the
consent of the host nation and/or the
Security Council.”8
main parties to the conflict. By contrast,
Disarmament is sometimes an integral part of peace peace enforcement does not require the
enforcement and traditionally refers to the reduction and/ consent of the main parties and may
or eventual elimination of weapons of mass destruction, involve the use of military force, which
is normally prohibited under Article 2(4)
such as nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons.9 New
of the Charter, unless authorized by the
political realities have led the term to include limitations
Security Council.
of various conventional armaments like small arms and
8) UN Security Council Sanction Committees. <http://www.un.org/sc/committees/>.
9) UN Office for Disarmament Affairs. <http://www.un.org/disarmament/HomePage/DisarmamentCommission/UNDiscom.shtml>.
60
landmines. Disarmament can also be part of institutionalized programmes known as disarmament,

demobilization, and reintegration (DDR), often monitored by international organizations or UN entities
within a mission.10
Combating Terrorism
The United Nations has adopted a global strategy to counter terrorism, based on the consensus of
world leaders to condemn terrorism in all its forms and manifestations.11 The concrete plan of action
includes efforts to:
• Prevent and fight terrorism, and build state capacity to fight terrorism;
• Strengthen the role of the United Nations in countering terrorism;
• Ensure the respect for human rights and the rule of law as the foundation in combating terrorism;
and
• Address the conditions conducive to the spread of terrorism.
Section 3.3 The Guiding Principles of Peace Operations
The Conceptual Approach
Peace, security, and development cannot be dealt with as separate issues. There are no such things
as “hard issues” and “soft issues”. Peacekeeping, peacebuilding, and long-term sustainable development
form one continuum. They are interrelated and must be addressed together. To this end, the United
Nations systematically cooperates with regional and national organizations, institutions, NGOs, the
private sector, and others involved in acting in defence of people and nations under threat. This is
complicated by the necessity that all these actors adhere to the principles and guidelines set forth by
the United Nations. These principles must apply to the entire structure of any operation involved in any
UN-mandated operation, from Headquarters in New York down to the smallest entity of a mission.
Authorization
The evolution of peace operations and peacekeeping in particular should be seen as an effort to
make the United Nations’ vision of collective security a reality. The legal basis for this can be found in
Chapters V, VI, VII, and VIII of the Charter.
Chapter V (Art. 29) deals with the establishment of subsidiary organs (among other peacekeeping
operations and DPO). Chapter VI “Pacific Settlement of Disputes” authorizes the parties to any dispute
to seek a solution “by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement,
resort to regional agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means of their own choice.” Chapter VII
“Action with Respect to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace and Acts of Aggression” authorizes economic
sanctions to prevent aggression and/ or the use of armed force, if necessary, in order to maintain peace.
Chapter VIII “Regional Arrangements” foresaw the existence of regional arrangements or agencies for
dealing with such matters relating to maintenance international peace and security.
The Charter grants the Security Council the specific power to discharge the duties of ensuring
international peace and security as stipulated in Chapters VI, VII, and VIII.
10) DPKO. Disarmament, Demobilization, Reintegration. <http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/issues/ddr.shtml>.
11) United Nations Actions to Counter Terrorism. <http://www.un.org/en/terrorism/>.
61
Three Basic Principles of UN Peacekeeping
»» Consent
Any peace operation other than peace enforcement is set up with the consent of the main parties
involved in the conflict. Consent is an inherent requirement not only for the establishment of the
operation, but also for the direction of the operation in implementing its mandate. In reference to a
peacekeeping mission, consent refers to the acceptance of activities of the United Nations force by all
recognized parties to the conflict. As the complexity of a peacekeeping mission increases, universality
of consent becomes less probable. Seeking and promoting consent is, therefore, an important activity
in which all personnel engage.
»» Impartiality
UN forces should be impartial in character. The

force should not take sides, lest it becomes a part
of the conflict it has been mandated to control or
resolve. A mission’s impartiality is defined by its
objective, even-handed, and consistent pursuit
of the mandate, regardless of provocations and
challenges. Without impartiality, there is little
prospect of preserving the consent and cooperation
of conflicting parties. Therefore, peacekeepers
should not take action that would create an United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization
Mission in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA), carried
impression of favouring one side over another.
out a military operation to ensure freedom of movement
This will result in loss of credibility and increased in Bria. The operation against the ex-Seleka and in
difficulties in executing operational tasks. However, support of State authority restoration resulted in several
weapons seized. International Forces regained control for
impartiality is not neutrality and it is not inaction.
the State several administrative buildings. 11 February
Violations of human rights or attacks on civilians 2015. UN Photo #622485 by Nektarios Markogiannis.
must be dealt with firmly and without favour.
Recent events in the Congo and elsewhere have led the Security Council to sanction much more
robust peacekeeping. This includes the deployment of a UN Brigade supported by attack helicopters to
“neutralize and disarm” rebel groups. Does this put the entire question of impartiality in doubt?
»» Non-Use of Force
In peacekeeping operations, force may not be used to carry out the mandate. However, non-use of
force excludes defence of United Nations personnel and property or the use of armed forces in resisting
armed attempts that prevent peacekeeping forces from discharging their duties and mandates. Under
these circumstances, the peacekeepers may use force as a means of self-defence, such as in the case
of the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL).12
Peacekeepers are sometimes tasked to operate in areas where the general security situation has
seriously deteriorated. Absence of law and order, presence of various militia groups, and threats posed
to the civilian population may be a few of the dangerous circumstances in which a peacekeeper may
12) UN Interim Force in Lebanon. Background: <https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unifil>.
62
operate. In order to improve these unstable security conditions, peacekeepers may be required to
use force beyond self-defence. Under these circumstances, the Security Council, acting under Chapter
VII with the consent of the main parties, may authorize “use of all necessary means” to enable the
peacekeepers to perform peacekeeping, which may involve the use of force at the tactical level.
Peacekeepers serving with the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) during celebrations
commemorating United Nations Day in Juba. 24 October 2014. UN Photo #609087 by JC McIlwaine.
Other Success Factors
»» Legitimacy
A peacekeeping mission derives its legitimacy from international support, adherence to statuary
law, and conventions. The mission is established and mandated by the Security Council, which by the
Charter is responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security. Having the full support
of the Security Council is vital when an operation encounters difficulties.
A mission’s legitimacy is further enhanced by the multinational composition of a mission, involving

personnel from a wide range of Member States. In addition, it is essential that the mission have a
clear and achievable mandate and act within both international and national laws, conventions, and
rules provided in the mandate. Failure to do so may jeopardize the mission’s authority and affect the
mission’s operational effectiveness.
»» Credibility
The following definition is originally found in the Capstone Doctrine: “The credibility of a United
Nations peacekeeping operation is a direct reflection of the international and local communities’
belief in the mission’s ability to achieve its mandate. Credibility is a function of a mission’s capability,
effectiveness and ability to manage and meet expectations. Ideally, in order to be credible, a United
Nations peacekeeping operation must deploy as rapidly as possible, be properly resourced, and strive to
maintain a confident, capable, and unified posture. Experience has shown that the early establishment
63
of a credible presence can help to deter spoilers and diminish the likelihood that a mission will need to
use force to implement its mandate. To achieve and maintain its credibility, a mission must therefore
have a clear and deliverable mandate, with resources and capabilities to match; and a sound mission
plan that is understood, communicated, and impartially and effectively implemented at every level.”13
»» Unity
A multidimensional operation involves a wide spectrum of civilian and military functions. The civilians
and military personnel active in an operation will come from a variety of nationalities and also bring their
own culture, professional background, and perspectives to the operation. Regardless of its diversity, a
peacekeeping force must act as an integrated unit and reflect the will of the international community as
a whole. A unified command and knowledge of the mandate and operational principles are prerequisites
for a successful operation. In order to fulfil the political objectives defined in each mission’s mandate,
the head of the mission is responsible for establishing the unity and the inter-operability among the
mission’s various components.
»» Transparency
Common for all peace operations, however, are those that provide full transparency throughout the
mission, especially a transparency that is consistent with the prevailing requirements for security. All
personnel (and parties) should be fully aware of the motives, mission, and intentions of the operation,
since incomplete or inaccurate communication will foster suspicion and undermine confidence and trust.
To that effect, liaison between the mission staff and the parties to the conflict must be the physical
mechanism that promotes transparency and ensures timely passage of information. In addition,
transparency should include wearing the distinctive and easily recognizable United Nations insignia that
enhances overt and visible operations.
»» The Right to Peace Enforcement
Peace enforcement, as authorized by the Security Council, falls under Chapter VII of the Charter but
does not require the consent of the main parties. Peace enforcement may range from diplomatic and
economic sanctions to the use of international military armed force. The purpose of peace enforcement
is to coerce the party to comply with the will of the international community and with previously agreed-
upon commitments. Under these circumstances, the use of armed force will be focused at the strategic
level. The mandate authorizes the use of force but only for limited and local purposes and not to bring
a war to an end. Examples of missions where such situations have applied include:
• UN Protection Force in the former Yugoslavia (UNPROFOR);
• UN Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO);
• UN Mission in Sudan (UNMIS), as well as UNMISS; and
• UN Mission in Somalia (UNOSOM).
The United Nations does not have a standing force of its own, and the Military Staff Committee
of the Security Council has not undertaken any strategic directives of forces put at its disposal as
authorized by the Council. The Security Council has nevertheless authorized States “to enforce peace”
13) DPKO, United Nations Peacekeeping Operations Principles and Guidelines, 2008. <https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/blog/document/united-nations-
peacekeeping-operations-principles-and-guidelines-the-capstone-doctrine/>.
64
on the Korean peninsula in 1950 and against Iraq in 1991, but has never itself commanded such an
operation. In 2003, a similar “to enforce peace” action took place against Iraq but was never authorized
by the United Nations.
The use of force has political implications and should always be considered as a measure of last
resort. The general rule for application of force is that only necessary force should be used — and if
used, it should be done in an appropriate and proportional manner. For that purpose, the United Nations
has developed Rules of Engagement (ROE) for the military and the Directives on the Use of Force (DUF)
for police. ROE and DUF clarify the different levels of force that can apply in a variety of situations.
Section 3.4 Multidimensional Components

In the past, traditional peacekeeping operations were generally military operations where observation,
supervision of ceasefire agreements, and interposing were considered the means to contain a conflict
and create suitable conditions for peace negotiations. Missions were limited in both time and scope and
had a limited role in the political process. However, after the Cold War, a new style of peacekeeping
emerged. The traditional “hold and contain” model for operations became increasingly integrated with
the entire peace process, and the second generation of peacekeeping was born. These missions began
to utilize both military and police units as well as an array of civilian components enabling them to
manage preventive deployment, aid in free elections, participate in humanitarian assistance, provide
security, and maintain law and order. Today, peacekeeping operations are frequently multidimensional
integrated operations whose structures are determined by their mandates.
Along with peacekeeping operations, the UN may also mandate political and peacebuilding support
missions. Such operations are frequently deployed in the aftermath of violent internal conflicts and
in failed or failing states where the state’s ability to deliver services and to maintain law and order
is limited or non-existent. This is no small task. These operations are meant to have the capabilities
to support implementation of peace agreements and to promote political processes in seeking a just
and sustainable peace in environments where civil unrest, shattered and damaged infrastructure, a
displaced and traumatized population, and a weak social fabric further deteriorate the political state of
affairs and humane living conditions.
While DPO in the UN Secretariat provides the peacekeeping operations with policy guidelines and
strategic directions, DPPA has assumed that same responsibility for the political and peacebuilding
support missions. DOS provides logistical and administrative support to all operations and missions.
Military Component
In a multidimensional mission, the military component is generally mandated to stabilize and secure
the setting so that substantive peace work may take place. By protecting civilians, UN personnel,
infrastructure, and property, other mission components and the local population can make advances in
their work with better concentration and access to resources.
The military component is led by a Force Commander. The rest of the component personnel includes
headquarters, which plans and manages all military operations; specialized units capable of carrying out
operational and humanitarian activities; and logistic elements for transport, maintenance, and supply.
65
Paolo Bonano, Acting Chief of Operations for the UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission
in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA), attends the final practice of the Close Protection Training
Course held by the African-led International Support Mission to the Central African Republic (MISCA) and
Formed Police Unit (FPU) commanders of the UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the
Central African Republic (MINUSCA). 05 September 2014. UN Photo #598902 by Catianne Tijerina.
Police Component
Today, the objectives of the UN Police in peace operations focus primarily on the reform and
restructuring of local police forces in addition to traditional advisory, training, and monitoring tasks. In
this specific role, the UN Police monitors have proven to be an effective presence in the peacekeeping
environment. Also, in some cases, their more civilian appearance has made them less politically
controversial than uniformed soldiers.
In the early 1960s, one of the first civilian police missions was deployed in Cyprus as a complement
to the already existing peacekeeping force located there (UNFICYP). Under the umbrella of the force, the
police mission had a limited mandate, and its effectiveness was sometimes questioned. However, the
changing dynamics of United Nations peacekeeping led to an increased deployment of police contingents,
and with the United Nations Mission in Namibia, the police elements became an increasingly important
part of peacekeeping.
The UN Police are organized in headquarters, supported by a logistic element, and work in teams.
A Police Commissioner heads the component. In most cases, UN Police have no actual day-to-day
law enforcement authority, but the operations in Eastern Slavonia, Kosovo (UNMIK) and East Timor
(UNMISET) authorized the police to assume the responsibilities for interim law enforcement.14
Military and Civilian Observers
Various types of observer missions exist. They operate either independently, jointly with the force
level missions, or in tandem with other units. Military Observer missions began in the end of the 1940s
to supervise ceasefires and/or armistice agreements. Observer missions may be composed of a small
headquarters headed by a Chief Military Observer (CMO), a logistics element, which provides necessary
logistical support, and some civilian entities necessary for the fulfilment of the mission mandate. In
14) UN Mission of Support in East Timor. Mandate. <https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/unmiset/mandate.html>.
66
carrying out their tasks, the unarmed observers work in teams, normally deployed on both sides of a
border or a ceasefire line. They observe and report any violation of a ceasefire or any other activities
that are considered breaches of an agreement. Active observer missions include UN Truce Supervision
Organization (UNTSO) and United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP).
In a number of operations, UN military observers (UNMOs) have been able to promote consent
and positive cooperation, not only between the United Nations and the conflicting parties, but also
between the parties themselves. Their tasks have gradually been expanded to include duties within
humanitarian, political, administrative, and logistical areas.
With the expansion of United Nations peacekeeping operations, other types of observer missions
were established, such as police monitor missions; geographical observer missions; “verifiers”; election
monitors; election observers; and European Commission (EC) monitors. In general, these missions only
employ civilians (although some have military backgrounds) whose functional titles, such as supervisor,
monitor, and observer, indicate their level of responsibility. The United Nations Observer Mission in
Georgia (UNOMIG) was one of these missions. The United Nations Monitoring, Verification, and Inspection
Commission in Iraq (UNMOVIC) was of special interest since the Commission was empowered by the
Security Council to disarm a country of weapons of mass destruction. The joint UN Mission organized by
OPCW was given the same task for chemical weapons in Syria in 2013.
Transitional Authority »
Following a violent reaction to East Timor’s
referendum vote for independence in
1999, international support was needed
to guide the development of the new state
and protect its vulnerabilities. The UN
Transitional Administration in East Timor
(UNTAET), which operated from 1999 to
2002, is an example a mission in which the
UN took on all governing responsibilities
until free and fair elections could take
place.
Similarly, the UN Transitional Administration

for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western
Secretary-General Kofi Annan (second from left) travelled to East
Sirmium (UNTAES) in 1996 in Croatia and
Timor to attend the country’s Independence Day celebrations. An
the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia official gathering was held at the Government Building (former
(UNTAC) from 1992-1993 were also UNTAET building), during the celebrations. On the right is East Timor’s
governing missions. flag. 20 May 2002. UN Photo #23187 by Sergey Bermeniev.
67
Section 3.5 Types of Peace Operations

When conducting peacekeeping operations, the United Nations relies on activities that are
consistent with the Charter as well as principles and methods that have proven effective in the past.
In general, the experiences indicate three types of peacekeeping operations, including (but not limited
to):
• Preventive deployment;
• Traditional peacekeeping, such as the monitoring and supervision of agreements and

interposition; and
• Multidimensional peacekeeping with various interrelated activities, such as humanitarian

assistance and implementation of comprehensive settlements.
While peacekeeping is a mechanism to prevent, contain, and assist, it can be said that
peacebuilding is more focused on promotion, confidence, and rebuilding. As such, peacebuilding
involves a number of activities that generally continue in the aftermath of a conflict and beyond.
However, maintaining and building peace are closely related and overlap each other in most operations
mandated by the Security Council.
Preventive Deployment
Conflict prevention is normally a combination of early warning, preventive diplomacy, and preventive
deployment. Together, these may be regarded as confidence-building measures in order to maintain
peace and security in a specific area. Identification of a conflict by early warning allows more time for
preventive diplomacy or military action. Such military action may take place as a preventive deployment
when concerned parties decide that UN presence along a border can discourage hostilities. As mentioned
earlier, UNPREDEP is a key example of this type of mission.
Traditional Peacekeeping
The traditional peacekeeping operation was most common before the end of the Cold War. It is
deployed with the consent of the conflicting parties and engages a neutral and lightly-armed military
force. A ceasefire agreement is normally in place prior to deployment. Observation, supervision,
and interposition are the most common tools of traditional peacekeeping operations. Patrolling and
UNDOF »
The UN Disengagement
Observer Force (UNDOF) in the
Golan Heights has worked to
enforce the ceasefire between
Israel and Syria since 1974.
An UNDOF vehicle on duty perched

above the Golan Heights, near Camp
Faouar, Syria. 15 August 2011. UN
Photo #494849 by Wolfgang Grebien.
68
monitoring a buffer zone between the conflicting parties usually permits an atmosphere conducive
to further negotiations. By monitoring and reporting on the parties’ agreed commitments, traditional
operations constitute an important confidence-building measure. UNEF II and UNDOF are considered
traditional peacekeeping operations, as are UNFICYP and the United Nations Mission for the Referendum
in Western Sahara (MINURSO).
Multidimensional Operations
Multidimensional operations became more frequent after the end of the Cold War. Their mandates
are multifaceted and may encompass nation-building responsibilities like capacity building, institution
and state-building, along with the provisions of security, disarmament, demobilization, and demining.
As explained by the Capstone Doctrine, the core functions of a multidimensional United Nations
peacekeeping operation are to:
• Create a secure and stable environment while strengthening the State’s ability to provide
security, with full respect for the rule of law and human rights;
• Facilitate the political process by promoting dialogue and reconciliation and supporting the
establishment of legitimate and effective institutions of governance; and
• Provide a framework for ensuring that all United Nations and other international actors pursue
their activities at the country-level in a coherent and coordinated manner.
These operations require a deeper engagement from the United Nations system, from the
Member States, and from the international community with its array of inter- and non-governmental
organizations. Some of the missions are more comprehensive than others. Normally, the operations
must carry out multifaceted tasks in politically complicated environments.
MONUSCO »
In 2010, MONUC transitioned to
the UN Organization Stabilization
Mission in the Democratic Republic
of the Congo (MONUSCO). The
new mission was authorized to
use all necessary means to carry
out its mandate relating, among
other things, to the protection of
civilians, humanitarian personnel
and human rights defenders under
imminent threat of violence and
to support the Government of the
DRC in its stabilization and peace
consolidation efforts.
For more information about

UN peacekeepers visit a remote community in the Democratic Republic of the
MONUSCO’s mandate, visit
Congo (DRC), where Civilian Liaison Assistants work to create a link between
MONUSCO and communities whose civilians MONUSCO seeks to protect from <https://monusco.unmissions.org/
violence. 12 July 2013. UN Photo #556774 by Myriam Asmani. en/mandate>.
69
UN Peacekeepers with the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) take part in a search and rescue
exercise. 31 May 2012. UN Photo #535535 by Staton Winter.
Humanitarian Assistance and Protection of Humanitarian Operations
Volatile political situations and man-made disasters have often created dreadful circumstances
for civilian populations. Although these problems are primarily the concern of other United Nations
agencies, international organizations, or non-governmental relief organizations, they may require the
involvement of a United Nations force, sometimes deployed under conditions of continuing warfare. The
mandate includes a number of tasks, such as stabilizing a situation, protecting the civilian population, and
protecting and assisting the humanitarian agencies in providing humanitarian supply and refugee relief,
while simultaneously working with the concerned parties towards a negotiated settlement. Although
authorized under Chapter VII of the Charter, these non-UN operations are also required to remain
neutral and impartial between the warring parties. Examples of past missions with similar operations
are the United Nations Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II)15 and the United Nations Operation in
Mozambique (ONUMOZ).16 UNMIL is another example.
Maintenance of Ceasefire and Separation of Forces
Generally, these operations take place with the consent of the parties and have a rather uncomplicated
mandate. The force is usually tasked to implement a ceasefire agreement by interposing itself in a buffer
zone between the conflicting parties or combatants to monitor the ceasefire. Over the years, the task “to
maintain ceasefire and to separate forces” has expanded from the more traditional peacekeeping actions
to include other, more wide-ranging responsibilities. The mandates have frequently become broadened
to comprise demobilization as part of the force separation, as in the United Nations Observer Group in
Central America (ONUCA).17 Other tasks may include the organization and conduct of a referendum or
assistance in an election process, as in MINURSO.
15) UN Operation in Somalia II. Mandate. <https://www.un.org/Depts/DPKO/Missions/unosom2b.htm>.
16) UN Operation in Mozambique. Mandate. <https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/past/onumozM.htm>.
17) UN Observer Mission in Central America. Mandate. <https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/onucamandate.html>.
70
Implementation of Comprehensive Settlements
Such operations are usually established with the mandate to assist the conflicting parties in
implementing an already agreed-upon settlement. The tasks may involve functions such as: monitoring a
ceasefire; the demobilization of military units; assisting elections; rebuilding infrastructure; temporarily
taking over some of the functions of the national government; monitoring national civil police; and
repatriation and rehabilitation of refugees. Prime examples from past operations include: UNTAG
(Namibia), UNTAC (Cambodia), ONUSAL (El Salvador), and UNAMSIL (Sierra Leone). In addition to an
already complicated mandate, the present mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) has been tasked to carry
out humanitarian assistance and to protect and promote human rights. Other similar operations are
the UN-mandated but EU-led EUFOR (previous SFOR) in Bosnia-Herzegovina and the NATO-led KFOR
in Kosovo, as well as the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan, which works
together with the United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA).
Peacebuilding Activities Related to Peace Operations
Almost all peacekeeping operations include activities that are related to peacebuilding. Even if
peacebuilding is a long-term undertaking, peacekeeping is often accompanied by various short-term
peacebuilding activities in order to prevent a relapse into conflict, as well as to generate a favourable
climate for a forthcoming peacebuilding mission. The most frequent activities include:
• DDR: The programme is considered to be a part of the security reform or force reduction
programme. Mission example: ONUCA (Central America).
• Security Sector Reforms (SSR): These activities provide advice and assistance on reform
of the security sector in a mission area. The purpose is to contribute to creating necessary
conditions for implementation of a National Security Sector Reform Strategy. Mission example:
ONUB (Burundi).
• Mine action: This entails education on the removal and destruction of mines from the ground.
Medical assistance and rehabilitation services to victims are other key components of the UN
mine action programmes. Mission example: United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea
(UNMEE).
• Protection and promotion of human rights: This is of principal concern for the United
Nations. For that purpose and under various international conventions, a machinery has been
set up as to “establish standards, monitor implementation, promote compliance, and investigate
violations of human rights.” Peacekeeping is one of the mechanisms to ensure promotion and
protection of human rights. Mission example: United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor
(UNMISET).
• Electoral assistance programme: This can be part of a comprehensive settlement. Upon

request by Member States, the peacekeeping operation may be mandated to provide technical
assistance and to monitor the electoral process and the voting procedure.18
18) DPPA. Elections. <https://dppa.un.org/en/elections>.
71
Ex-combatants receiving technical

training in Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire.
Participants attending an
international seminar to share
Côte d’Ivoire’s experience in
disarmament, demobilisation,
and reintegration (DDR) went
on a field trip to Bouaké to
see concrete evidence of the
disarmament, resocialisation,
training and reinsertion of ex-
combatants. The seminar was
organized by the Ivorian Authority
for DDR (ADDR), the Operation in
Côte d’Ivoire (UNOCI), and the UN
Development Programme (UNDP).
06 November 2014. UN Photo
#612741 by Abdul Fatai.
Peacebuilding
While DPO has the responsibility to provide necessary guidance and strategic directives to the
peacekeeping operations, DPPA has assumed the same role for special political missions and peacebuilding
support offices engaged in conflict prevention, peace-making and post-conflict peacebuilding.
Peacebuilding is perceived as the umbrella concept that encompasses not only long-term transformative
efforts but also early warning response efforts and advocacy work.
Attainment of a sustainable peace requires progress in at least four critical areas:
1. Restoring the State’s ability to provide security and maintain public order;
2. Strengthening the rule of law and respect for human rights;
3. Supporting the emergence of legitimate political institutions and participatory

processes; and
4. Promoting social and economic recovery and development, including the safe return
or resettlement of internally displaced persons and refugees uprooted by conflict.
With the creation of the Peacebuilding Commission within the Department of Political Affairs (now
DPPA), the United Nations established a mechanism to deal with peace in a broader context. The
Peacebuilding Commission aims to prevent outbreak, recurrence, or continuation of armed conflicts
by handling the intricate processes that concern political, developmental, humanitarian, and human
rights issues. As of 2014, there were 11 peacebuilding or political missions set up worldwide. Some of
them were set up in the aftermath of peace operations, such as the United Nations Office for Somalia
(UNSOM) and the United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq (UNAMI).
Economic and social problems that arise in the aftermath of a conflict are also critical, as are the
foundation of legal institutions and the respect for human rights and international humanitarian law.
These issues must all be addressed if the United Nations is to achieve a long-lasting peace. The United
Nations Peacebuilding Support Office in Guinea-Bissau (UNOGBIS) is an example of a resource.
72
DPPA provides guidance and support to Envoys of the Secretary-General who are active in promoting
prevention and resolution of conflicts around the world. These activities currently include UN Envoys
to Cyprus, Yemen, Myanmar, Western Sahara, and the Sahel. DPPA also provides assistance to the
International Commission Against Impunity in Guatemala. The integration between DPO and DPPA is
evident in the operations in Sudan and Sierra Leone. After the signing of peace agreements in Sudan,
the political mission overseen by DPPA has been replaced by a peacekeeping mission supervised by
DPO. In Sierra Leone, on the other hand, the peacekeeping operation has given way to a special political
mission that oversees the peacebuilding activities and is supervised by DPPA. In other cases, as in the
United Nations Integrated Office in Burundi (BINUB), the mission is set up by DPPA but directed and
supported by DPO.
Section 3.6 Planning and Preparation

Peacekeeping operations are established in the midst of situations characterized by crisis. Whereas
ad hoc preparations were acceptable in the past, there is now a more institutional approach. The
implementation of a mandate requires cooperation of all concerned parties, effective management
and timely advice by United Nations Headquarters, appropriate and unified command structure in the
field, and adequate logistical and financial support. Peacekeeping operations do not exclusively rely
on military actions but rather an amalgamation of military, diplomatic, economic, and humanitarian
endeavours to pursue the political objectives. Consequently, planning must be a coherent effort in order
to effectively assess, identify, define, and later implement a given mandate. The planning should also
include different scenarios describing the conditions and procedures for withdrawing a mission.
Assessment
The effective execution of peacekeeping operations requires a strategic assessment of the situation
in order to identify possible options for UN engagement. The assessment should be done through the
combined efforts of the various departments of the Secretariat and involve other actors within the United
Nations system, including potential contributing countries, regional actors, and host governments. The
planning process involves substantial departments such as DPO, DPPA, OCHA, DPI, and OLA.
As soon as the security situation permits, the Secretariat dispatches a Technical Assessment Mission
(TAM) to the pre-designated mission area. Working with the United Nations Country Team (UNCT),
this fact-finding mission will analyse the conditions in the field, facilitate forthcoming liaisons, and
make recommendations for operational activities. These recommendations enable the Secretary-
General to address the Security Council and to submit a report with possible options for a peacekeeping
operation. The Security Council may then pass a resolution mandating the establishment and the size
and scope of the mission. However, a resolution usually requires the consent of the parties to the
conflict. When consent is not given, the complexity and comprehensiveness of the planning process
increases dramatically and may involve other regional actors, particularly if the mission is going to
operate under Chapter VII. In order to quickly move the mission forward, the planning process will
sometimes commence prior to a formal decision.
73
The Planning Process
In approving the Secretary-General’s report, the Council also decides the duration of the operation
and how the operation will be financed. Based on the operation’s planning concept and mandate from
the Security Council, the Secretariat develops a comprehensive deployment and implementation plan
that takes into account the allocation of troops, personnel equipment, level of sustainability, and all
other functions that are to be performed in the mission.
For that purpose, the United Nations has adopted an Integrated Mission Planning Process (IMPP)
to “help the United Nations system to arrive at a common understanding of the strategic directives.”
Other similar processes linked to the various appeals or assessments initiated by other actors within the
United Nations may be enacted in concert with the IMPP.
The Secretary-General then makes arrangements for the nomination of the head of the mission
and requests that the Member States provide troops, police, civilian personnel, supplies, equipment,
transportation, and all other necessities prerequisite for a mission. The existing stand-by arrangements
that concern required equipment and troops have greatly facilitated these activities.
While DPO plans and formulates the operational tasks, DOS prepares and puts together the logistics.
It is a cumbersome undertaking covering all the logistic elements in the field, including personnel,
budget/finance, equipment, transport, and communication. DOS relies on the stand-by arrangements
between the United Nations and the contributing countries. This arrangement, which is a negotiated
formal agreement known as the MOU, establishes the responsibility and standards for the provision of
personnel, major equipment, and self-sustainment support services to the United Nations, as well as to
the contributing country.
In 2013, the UN adopted Integrated Assessment and Planning (IAP) process, which defines minimum
and mandatory requirements for UN-wide planning — not just mission planning. The IAP is applied when
and where an integrated UN presence is in place or is being considered in order to maximize individual
and collective impact of peace consolidation interventions throughout the lifecycle of the integrated UN
presence.19
The IAP requirements are:
• Strategic assessment (joint analysis of situation as the basis for individual and collective
planning);
• Common vision, priorities, and responsibilities (directive to SRSG/RC/HC from UNHQ and ISF/
equivalent to be developed in the field);
• Integrated mechanisms in UNHQ and the field (light but effective and senior leadership owned);
and
• Integrated monitoring and reporting (decision making and mutual accountability).
Integrated Training
The increasing demands for peacekeeping operations underscore the urgent need for the United
Nations to train more peacekeepers. Since attitudes, tactics, and methods of peacekeeping operations
are continuously evolving processes, training has become a prerequisite for a successful operation.
19) United Nations. Integrated Assessment and Planning Handbook. 2014. <https://undg.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/2014-IAP-HandBook.pdf>.
74
Training is an integrated part of the planning process. Based on generic objectives, the Member
States assume the full responsibilities to prepare their own national contingents in performing their
duties in an efficient and professional manner. Additionally, the various operations have their own training
that applies to specific mission requirements (Mission Training Focal Point). Other training entities,
like the Integrated Mission Training Centres (IMTC), manage common field training such as Senior
Mission Administrative and Resource Training (SMART), as well as other similar activities. Although
peacekeeping training has improved considerably, it is not realistic to expect that training can meet all
demands. The United Nations has limited resources, but training must always adhere to the current
peacekeeping doctrine along with the agreed priorities.
Within DPO, the Integrated Training Service (ITS) provides UN training policies, guidance, and
training products to regional and national training centres. Utilizing modern information technology,
ITS disseminates the training products to the customers. Mobile Support Teams and Pre-deployment
Training Standards (PDT) further ensure that police officers, civilians, and military experts have the
necessary knowledge to meet the challenges in the field. Training must always be on the cutting edge.
Consequently, DPO and DOS have a training strategy that focuses on standard settings and needs.
The Involvement of the Host and the Contributing Countries
The assurance of support from the contributing countries and the country whose territory is to
be the operational theatre is essential. The contributing countries, and especially the troop/police-
contributing countries (TCCs/PCCs), must assure the provision of manpower and equipment, and the
host country must guarantee that they will make every effort to facilitate the mission. Although the
stand-by agreements do not guarantee unconditional contributions from the Member States for a specific
operation, they do reflect potential input on a case-by-case basis. For that purpose, consultations take
place with the TCC/PCC in every phase of the planning. The TCC/PCC must be continuously informed
during the implementation phase, because changes in the mandates, the security situation, political
development, or any other significant changes can affect TCC/PCC personnel in the field. Correspondingly,
regular consultations with the TCC/PCC provide the Secretariat with valuable information.
The Secretary-General then undertakes the conclusion of a status agreement with the host
government(s) concerning the work of the mission: the Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA). This
agreement outlines the relationship between the United Nations operation and the host country and
covers the right for travel and transportation, communication, freedom of movement, import of goods
and use of facilities, etc. The mission personnel enjoy the status, privilege, and immunities of the United
Nations as provided for in the Charter (Art. 105) and in the Convention on Privileges and Immunities of
the United Nations.
Section 3.7 Implementation

A peacekeeping operation is performed in three integrated phases: deployment, mandate
implementation, and the exit or transition. The time frame for a successful deployment has always been
a critical issue. Preferably, an operation should be deployed when the greatest impact can be made —
within two to three months after a peace agreement has been signed and when the peace process is
most fragile. Ideal deployment is not always possible, but the new Integrated Mission Planning Process,
75
the regional/national stand-by forces, and the available Strategic Deployment Stocks in Brindisi, Italy
and in Entebbe, Uganda have provided the Secretariat with some very useful tools.20
Deployment
The pre-deployment process includes a readiness assessment of troops and equipment; negotiation
of the SOFA; tenders for supply and commodities; services contracts for the mission sites; and
mobilization of the Strategic Deployment Stocks. Rapid deployment then dispatches small advance
teams to the mission area. They make necessary arrangements and preparations to smooth the way for
the reception of the large number of staff and contingents.
When the mission headquarters arrives, the command and control structure will be formed, and the
liaison and logistical system will be set up. Logistics are handled by the Joint Logistics Operations Centre
(JLOC), which is responsible for the overall coordination of the logistical needs to all civilian and military
components. Additionally, the Centre often serves as a focal point for the logistic issues that emerge
when linking between UN peacekeeping, UN agencies, and NGOs.
The arrival and deployment of all other substantive components are prerequisites for a successful
operation. This part of the deployment phase also entails the start-up of sector headquarters and field
offices and engages key civilian personnel, military, and police. At this point, the mission is now fully
operational and prepared to carry out the mandate as given by the Security Council.
Implementation
The implementation of the mandate requires that the operational objectives are well defined and
that they are achieved through an active, visible, overt, professional, and coordinated operational
performance. Consequently, the success of a peacekeeping operation does not simply rely on
sophisticated weaponry or superior firepower, but on the dedication and competence of units and
individuals. The operation and its success depends on a number of factors described in the remaining
lessons of this course.
Withdrawal
There might be a number of reasons for a peacekeeping operation to withdraw. The concerned
parties may have arrived at a peaceful settlement of their disputes that allows the operation to cease.
The mandate may be changed, another UN partner may begin operations under a new mandate, or the
operation may be handed over to regional actors. An exit or a handover necessitates the same careful
planning as the deployment of a mission and must be considered already in the pre-planning process
of the mission.
The withdrawal planning process must consider which conditions will prevail on the ground once the
operation leaves, including the political and security implications of such a change.
Failure or Success
The failure or success of a mission rests on a number of crucial requirements. First, there must
be peace. This peace is expressed in the political will of the warring parties to cease fighting. The
peacekeeping operation should also have the full backing of a united Security Council with a clear
20) United Nations Logistics Base. Strategic Deployment Stocks.
76
and achievable mandate combined with matching financial resources. Favourable regional factors are
necessary as well. The most important requirement, however, is the consent of the parties involved and
support from regional actors, expressed in a positive engagement strategy. The efficiency, capability,
and operational and human performances of any peacekeeping entity will also be highly decisive factors.
Malaysian police officers, formerly serving with the UN Integrated Mission in Timor-Leste (UNMIT),
say goodbye as they board their return flight home in Dili. 13 November 2012. UN Photo #534342 by
Bernardino Soares.
Section 3.8 Management Responsibilities

Peacekeeping management in the past was a relatively uncomplicated exercise. Mandates were
simple. The involvement of external actors was less frequent than today, and the modern information
technology used widely had not yet been invented. Management of the operations depended on the
personal qualities of the mission head and his/her ability to interpret political winds and the wishes of
UNHQ in New York.
Management today is very different. The complexity of intrastate conflicts, delicate political
mandates, involvement of external and national/local forces and NGOs, development assistance, and
media coverage are intricate, sensitive activities, which require not only professional civilian and military
units but also innovative and competent leadership and management at all levels.
At Headquarters
The Security Council has the responsibility for the maintenance of peace and security and acts on
behalf of all Member States. The Secretariat carries out decisions taken by the other principal organs
(General Assembly, Security Council, etc.), while DPO and DOS are responsible for peacekeeping
activities. A peacekeeping operation is established following a resolution decided by the Security Council
77
or, in some historical cases, by the General Assembly. Although the strategic policies derive from the
Security Council, the mission receives policy guidance and strategic directives from DPO. DOS provides
the mission with directives for logistical and administrative support.
In the Field
When a peacekeeping force performs non-military functions or is not limited to military tasks (such
as in an integrated mission), overall command in the field is vested in a civilian Special Representative
of the Secretary-General (SRSG). In this capacity, he or she also serves as the Head of Mission (HOM),
to whom the heads of the various components report. The SRSG/HOM is responsible for coordinating
activities of the entire UN system in the field, reports to the Secretary-General, and has the mandate
and authority to fully set the direction of the mission, including the promotion of necessary political
processes. In these duties, the SRSG/HOM is now normally assisted by the Deputy SRSG (Political) and
the DSRSG/Humanitarian Coordinator (normally the UNDP Resident Representative), and other senior
officials. Together, they form the Mission Leadership Team (MLT).
Basic Structure of an Integrated Mission’s Management
SRSG/HOM
MISSION HQ Human Rights

and MLT Component
Force Commander Head UNPOL Head Election

Component Component
Chief Military Observer
Chief Administrative Officer Head Humanitarian Component
Section 3.9 The Peacekeeping Partnership

Partnership has become a key word in peacekeeping and other similar operations. Its purpose is to
provide a framework for enhanced political and military cooperation for joint multilateral activities, such
as humanitarian assistance, peacekeeping, and crisis management.
This enables partners to improve their respective interoperability. NATO runs the Partnership
for Peace (PFP) programme, which goes beyond traditional NATO roles and purposely involves new
democratic partners from the former Soviet bloc and Europe’s traditionally more neutral countries in
order to enhance European collective security.
78
The Partnership Concept
The term “partnership” applies to individuals and organizations that work together in order
to improve the effectiveness of modern peacekeeping operations. The partnership concept was
visualized as an interoperable function where various actors and individuals, as well as organizations
and institutes, develop a mutual awareness of each other’s characteristics and capabilities. It is now
commonly accepted as the formal and informal link between the various players who have different
roles in a multidimensional activity. Peacekeeping Partnership involves, among others, the military,
humanitarian aid agencies, good governance officials, non-governmental organizations, and police.
In fact, all those who are or will likely be involved
in any operation of multidimensional character
NATO Partnership for Peace »
are part of the Peacekeeping Partnership. A New
To read more about this cooperation project,
Partnership Agenda: Charting a New Horizon for UN
visit <www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/
Peacekeeping presents substantive examples on how topics_50349.htm>.
the Organization and its peacekeeping partners seek
to further reform and improve peacekeeping.21
Through integrated planning, training exercises, seminars, workshops, and other learning activities,
ideas and opportunities are exchanged. Entities and individuals benefit from each other with the
purpose of maximizing the efficiency of a field operation. Since the partnership is a kind of interchange
of information, it must extensively affect the planning processes. Several organizations have come to
recognize the importance of maintaining an awareness of others in partnership and have, therefore,
established exchange or liaison programmes where staff personnel and officials are assigned for duty
with other organizations. This is beneficial for both parties, as the arrangements allow for early joint
awareness in both strategic and operational planning, which will be discussed further in Lesson 5.
21) DPKO. A New Partnership Agenda. <https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/newhorizon_0.pdf>.
79
1. Since the Cold War, violence between 7. As explained by the Capstone Doctrine,
states (interstate conflict) has _____. the core functions of a multidimensional
United Nations peacekeeping operation
A. Decreased
are to _____.
B. Increased
A. Create a secure and stable environment
C. Not changed
while strengthening the State’s ability to
D. Reduced to zero
provide security, with full respect for the rule
2. Since the Cold War, intrastate or internal of law and human rights
violence has _____. B. Facilitate the political process by promoting
A. Decreased dialogue and reconciliation and supporting

the establishment of legitimate and effective
B. Increased
institutions of governance
C. Not changed
C. Provide a framework for ensuring that all
D. Reduced to zero
United Nations and other international actors
3. The first peacekeeping mission, the pursue their activities at the country-level in
United Nations Truce Supervision a coherent and coordinated manner
Organization (UNTSO) was established D. All of the above
to monitor:
A. Disarmament 8. Which agreement outlines the
B. Economic sanctions
relationship between the United
Nations operation and the host country
C. Political movements
and covers the right for travel and
D. Armistice agreements transportation, communication, freedom
of movement, import of goods and use of
4. The monitoring of ceasefires is an facilities, etc.?
example of _____ peacekeeping.
A. Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA)
A. Multidimensional
B. Status of Mission Agreement (SOMA)
B. Complex
C. UN Charter
C. Traditional
D. The host nation’s constitution
D. Robust
9. Which is NOT one of the three basic
5. The _____ called for renewed political principles of peacekeeping?
commitment on the part of Member
A. Consent
States, significant institutional change,
and increased financial support. B. Impartiality
C. Use of Force
A. Charter Preamble
D. Non-use of Force
B. Brahimi Report
C. Marshall Plan
10. When a peacekeeping force performs
D. Secretary-General non-military functions or is not limited to
military tasks (such as in an integrated
6. _____ is the effort to strengthen mission), overall command in the field is
national capacities for conflict vested in whom?
management and building a foundation
A. A UN Military Observer
for sustainable peace.
B. A civilian Special Representative of the
A. Ceasefire
Secretary-General (SRSG)
B. Disarmament
C. The Secretary-General directly
C. Peacebuilding
D. The Force Commander
D. Peacekeeping
80
1. How are cooperative military and non-military conflict

prevention methods such as arms control, disarmament, and the
establishment of non-violent norms reforming peace operations
in the field?
2. What are the key differences between peace enforcement and

robust peacekeeping?
3. What are four critical areas where progress is required in order

to attain sustainable peace?
4. What is the partnership concept and how can it make

peacekeeping and global security more effective?
Answer Key »
1. A
2. B
3. D
4. C
5. B
6. C
7. D
8. A
9. C
10. B
81
LESSON The Role of the United Nations
4 in Global Development and

Humanitarian Action
Development and other related

activities should be regarded
as an integrated part of the
United Nations’ main objective:
to maintain international peace
and security.
UN Photo #571068 by Marco Dormino.
Section 4.1 The Development Concept • Understand the development concept.
Section 4.2 The Interface Between Disaster • Identify the main features of the UN Development
Relief and Development Programme’s work.
Section 4.3 Humanitarian Imperatives • Recognize the interface between disaster relief
and development.
Section 4.4 Distinctions and Similarities
between Human Rights Law and • Know the implications of humanitarian
International Humanitarian Law imperatives for peace operations.
Section 4.5 Principles of International • Define participatory development and
Humanitarian Law reconciliation.
Section 4.6 Principles of Human Rights

• Identify the differences and similarities between
International Humanitarian Law and the Universal
Section 4.7 Human Development and
Declaration of Human Rights.
Climate Change
• Understand the implications of humanitarian law
for the conduct of military operations.
82
LESSON 4 | The Role of the United Nations in Global Development and Humanitarian Action
Members of the Argentinean battalion of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) unload food and water packages
for distribution to the victims of the tropical storm “Hanna”. 03 September 2008. UN Photo #191136 by Marco Dormino.
Development activities are restorative measures

that also aim to resolve the root causes of conflict,
making them a major enabler for lasting peace. This
lesson addresses the main features of development in
order to illustrate the long process of reconstruction
and continued progress. Sections on human rights and
humanitarian law have been included in this lesson
because they are considered vital elements in the View a video introduction of this lesson at
<www.peaceopstraining.org/videos/370/
stabilization process following a conflict.
role-of-united-nations-in-global-
The reconstruction of a society is one of the most development-and-humanitarian-action/>.
complex endeavours the international community can

pursue. It entails several phases, from disaster relief to
reconciliation to ongoing development and the creation
of sustainable institutions. The entire process requires
a broad, integrated, and humanitarian approach.
Above all, it takes time.
83
Consequently, solutions designed to create confidence among conflicting parties through economic
and social development have become imperative and essential mechanisms to enhance local, regional,
and international security. The protection and promotion of human rights are equally essential and must
be considered part of the development concept as well. Respect for human rights and human dignity
is a necessary political condition for prosperous development. Therefore, the protection of human
rights should be thought of as a natural bridge between security and development. Although security,
development, and the advancement of human rights are fundamental to the process of creating good
governance, the process itself can never be fully achieved in a traumatized society if it does not include
reconciliation and addressing the causes of the conflict.
Section 4.1 The Development Concept

Crises are often the result of unresolved development problems. Economic or social injustice
generates poverty, which can be a root cause for conflict and can even lead to disaster. Poverty creates
conflicts over resources and generates distrust and dissent if living conditions are in disparity due to
class systems. Violence becomes a form of expression in a system where people have no voice. Conflicts
over ethnic and religious differences are compounded by social inequality and power imbalances.
Strategy
United Nations activities are well known in the fields of

peace and security. Political and humanitarian emergencies,
civil unrest, and other natural or man-made disasters
easily capture the interest of the world media, and the UN’s
immediate response to crisis is easily visible to the global
audience. However, the UN’s work doesn’t stop once the
cameras have gone away. Long-term development is a
tenet of UN programming and responsible for the majority
of the Organization’s budget. These efforts are based on the
conviction that lasting international peace and security are
possible only if the economic prosperity and the well-being The Economic and Social Council discusses
a report of the Secretary-General Boutros
of people everywhere are assured. Former UN Secretary-
Boutros-Ghali entitled “An Agenda for
General Boutros Boutros-Ghali asserted this in 1995 with the Peace”. 28 June 1993. UN Photo #286691
companion release of An Agenda for Development with An by United Nations.
Agenda for Peace, stating, “both Agendas are inextricably

linked.”1
Prior to the Cold War era, development was conceptualized in a paternalistic give-and-receive
formula that tended to create dependency among the beneficiaries. In the era of globalization, that
concept has evolved drastically. Development is not a quantifiable limited engagement. Development
is about the constant improvement of human well-being and eradication of poverty, diseases, and
ignorance. It is about creating productive employment and meeting the priority needs of all people in a
locally sustainable way. Such an endeavour requires strategic undertaking and an integrated framework
1) United Nations Department of Public Information (DPI), New York, 1995. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Development. <http://www.unesco.
org/education/educprog/wche/pafd.htm>.
84
These UN infographics show the world’s progress in reaching the Millennium Development Goals and the challenges that remain.
See the results for all eight target goals at: <www.un.org/millenniumgoals/multimedia.shtml#prettyPhoto>.
to address objectives concerning democratic, economic, social, and human rights policies on a macro
level. This integrated approach is generally acknowledged to result in progress and international
cooperation. Thus, development is a part of a social and economic transformation taking place globally.
The United Nations serves as the main stage for consensus-building and advocating development
policies and strategic goals.
Development Goals: Past, Present, and Future
International development goals have been articulated by UN-driven policy initiatives for more than
50 years, ever since the 1960s were declared the “Decade of Development”.2
Perhaps the most well-known set of goals related to development are the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs), specified at the 2000 Millennium Summit. The eight MDGs — which range from reducing
extreme poverty to halting the spread of HIV/AIDS to providing universal primary education by 2015 —
formed a blueprint agreed to by Member States and the world’s leading institutions. These targets have
galvanized unprecedented efforts and measurable results to meet the needs of the world’s poorest.3
The World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa in 2002 affirmed that
“integration of economic, social and environmental considerations” was necessary for implementation
to be effective.4 The World Summits in 2005 and 2008 represented the continued commitment by world
leaders to achieve the MDGs by 2015. The 2010 Summit concluded with the global action plan titled
“Keeping the Promise: United to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals” and the announcement
of a number of initiatives against poverty, hunger, and disease. In a major push to accelerate progress
on women’s and children’s health, a number of Heads of State and Government from developed and
developing countries, along with the private sector, foundations, international organizations, civil society,
and research organizations, pledged over $40 billion in resources for the next five years.
2) UNESCO. “1960s: Decade of Development”. <http://www.unicef.org/sowc96/1960s.htm>.

3) International Monetary Fund. Fact Sheet: The IMF and the Millennium Development Goals. 2015. <www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/mdg.htm>.
4) “UN takes first steps toward implementing Johannesburg outcome.” 2002. <www.johannesburgsummit.org/html/whats_new/feature_story40.html>.
85
Sustainable Development Goals »

“2015 is the year when countries will
shape and adopt a new development
agenda that will build on the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs).”
The UN Sustainable Development

Agenda and its six components
depicted in the graphic provide a
new holistic framework for integrated
global development while illustrating
that solutions to development in
any given category are related to
building success in all categories.
For more information, visit: : <www.
u n . o r g / s u s t a i n a b l e d e ve l o p m e n t /
development-agenda/>.
United Nations Sustainable Development Agenda 2015.
In September 2013, Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon presented a report entitled A Life of Dignity for
All: Accelerating Progress towards the Millennium Development Goals and advancing the United Nations
Development Agenda Beyond 2015. It stated:
“A new post-2015 era demands a new vision and a responsive

framework,” the Secretary-General’s report begins. “Sustainable
development — enabled by the integration of economic growth,
social justice, and environmental stewardship — must become
our global guiding principle and operational standard. [...] As
we make the transition to this new era, we need to continue the
work begun with the Millennium Development Goals and ensure
that extreme poverty is ended within a generation.”5
In response to this call to action, world leaders have agreed to hold a high-level Summit in
September 2015 to adopt a new set of goals to build on the achievements of the MDGs. The new agenda
is expected to promote the next generation of benchmarks, called the Sustainable Development Goals.6
The issue of climate change will also play a more prominent role for the first time, acknowledging
the security implications that a stressed natural environment has on civilization due to issues such as
drought, rising seas, and limited resources.7
5) UN Document A/68/202, “A Life of Dignity for All.” 2013. <http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/A%20Life%20of%20Dignity%20for%20All.pdf>.

6) United Nations Sustainable Development Agenda. <http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/>.
7) Zero Draft of the Outcome for the UN Summit to adopt the Post-2015 Development Agenda. <https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/>.
86
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon

(centre) records a video message
with young students on the post-
2015 development agenda. The UN
is working to build on the momentum
generated by the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) and
carry on with an ambitious post-2015
sustainable development agenda
that is expected to be adopted by
UN Member States at the Special
Summit on Sustainable Development
in September 2015. 07 January 2015.
UN Photo # 618555 by Mark Garten.
Implementation
While the ECOSOC is the United Nations’ principal body for coordinating these activities, the United
Nations Development Group — consisting of Secretariat entities as well as development programmes and
funds — assists in management and coordination for development projects. Within the Secretariat, the
Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) is responsible for policy, analysis, and coordination,
among other tasks, and serves as the substantive element in formulating global policy, while the five
Regional Commissions assist in formulating the regional policy in Africa (ECA); Europe (ECE); Latin
America and the Caribbean (ECLAC); Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP); and Western Asia (ESCWA).
The UN system has devoted substantial resources to the promotion of the development of human
skills and potential. In the operational field, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is the
main coordinator of development assistance. The programme works worldwide and is represented in
more than 130 countries, where it assists countries in developing their own capacity to build sustainable
human development. The UNDP annual programme expenditure, including assessed and voluntary
contribution, amounts to USD 4.1 billion (2013).
UNDP, in close cooperation with over 170 Member States and other UN agencies, designs and
implements projects within four focus areas:
• Poverty reduction and achievement of the MDGs;
• Democratic governance;
• Crisis prevention and recovery; and
• Environment and sustainable development.8
Capacity building cuts across these four areas and defines how the organization contributes to
development results for agriculture, industry, education, and the environment. It supports thousands of
projects with cumulative programme expenditures of USD 20 billion, of which USD 4 billion was spent
in 2013 alone. It is the largest multilateral source of grant development assistance. In addition, UNICEF
spent more than USD 3 billion in 2013, primarily on immunizations, health care, nutrition, and basic
education in 157 countries.
8) UNDP Annual Report 2013. <https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/corporate/annual-report-2013.html>.
87
Developing countries require assistance to strengthen their economies. The World Bank Group, with
its market-promotional policies, plays an active role in lending money and providing technical assistance
and policy advice. The Group, which is at the forefront in mobilizing support for developing countries
worldwide, has, ending the fiscal year 2013, disbursed loans, grants, and equities totalling more than
USD 40 billion. Another supporting financing institution is the International Monetary Fund (IMF),
the multilateral instrument for “coherent macro-economic policies designed to achieve the Charter’s
economic and social goals”.9 Even if the Fund does not play a central role in UN action, it has the crucial
responsibility of providing temporary credits to Member States experiencing “balance-of-payments
difficulties” and financial support of economic adjustment programmes.
Other institutions providing financial assistance in the international arena are: the World Trade
Organization (WTO), which has the responsibility of overseeing international trade; the United Nations
Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), which is mandated to promote industrial development
and cooperation; the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), for rural development; the International
Labour Organization (ILO); the World Health Organization (WHO); the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); and many others that are all part of the development
framework. Despite their different purposes, all of these organizations share a common goal: to
advance the Charter’s pledge to “promote higher standards of living, full employment and conditions of
economic and social progress and development.” Those efforts are backed by the broadest engagement,
including by civil society and the private sector. In addition to the UN funds and programmes, there
are numerous governmental and non-governmental bodies that are instrumental in implementing
sustainable development as well.
Section 4.2 The Interface Between Disaster Relief and Development

Societies affected by natural or man-made
disasters often need international assistance in
order to recover and return to “normal” conditions.
Therefore, it is necessary to understand that the
transition from an emergency state to a period of
development requires a sound and comprehensive
rehabilitation phase in order to minimize the
probability of a reiteration of the emergency. In
other words, there is a need for a concerted effort
to eliminate the root causes. Subsequently, the
A Security Council delegation visits Nerrette in
rehabilitation phase requires a firm policy that links Petionville area, Haiti, one of the first neighbourhoods
not only the rehabilitation but also the relief efforts rehabilitated after the 2010 earthquake. 24 January
2015. UN Photo #620592 by Logan Abassi.
to the future development activities. In theory, this is
very clear, but in practice, it is more difficult.
Since relief activities focus on providing the basics for survival, such as food, water, shelter, medical
supplies, and protection, it is crucial to find the mechanisms and actors that can promote a necessary
environment favourable to the development process. The rehabilitation tools that bridge relief and
9) Erskine Childers and Brian Urquhart. Renewing the United Nations System: Development Dialogue 1994:1. Uppsala: Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation,
1994, p. 83.
88
Ruediger John, Ambassador of Germany

to Ghana, officially handed over
400 motor bicycles donated by his
Government to the UN Mission for Ebola
Emergency Response (UNMEER). “It’s
very important logistically,” said Mr.
John. “These bikes will speed up the help
that we can provide together.” Anthony
Banbury, head of UNMEER, thanked
the German people for their donation.
“It’s really been a great partnership. It’s
an excellent example of international
collaboration,” he said. The 400 motor
bikes will be used to deliver blood
samples to laboratories in the most
affected areas Guinea, Liberia and Sierra
Leone. 04 December 2014. UN Photo
#615206 by Martine Perret.
development are sometimes difficult to obtain, but they should include activities such as conditions
for security and stability; strengthening the social fabric; rebuilding damaged infrastructure; the
promotion and protection of human rights; and the reintegration of displaced persons — in other words,
peacebuilding. Any actors involved in relief activities must be aware that disputes within the nation
and the involvement of local, national, regional, and international actors can cause a highly charged,
sensitive atmosphere.
As stated above, the interface between disaster relief and development covers a wide range of
activities. Some of these are far-reaching both in terms of scope and permanency, while others are
more limited. Consequently, it is vital that Field Officers have a sound knowledge of the prevailing policy
concerning rehabilitation and development. Without weakening national or local authorities or other
formal structures, the planned activities must also take into account the environmental and cultural
conditions, and, most important of all, consultation with and the participation of the local population.
Security Council Resolution 2086 (2013) on Peacekeeping reaffirmed the primary responsibility of
national authorities in identifying their priorities and strategies for post-conflict peacebuilding, and in this
regard, reiterated that national ownership, responsibility and political will as well as concerted efforts
of national governments, and the international community, are critical in building sustainable peace.
It also emphasized the vital role of the United Nations, in consultations with international partners,
to support national authorities in consolidating peace and in developing strategies for peacebuilding
priorities as well as to ensure that these strategies strengthen coherence between political, security,
human rights, and rule of law activities.
Section 4.3 Humanitarian Imperatives

Humanitarian imperatives can never be limited to just emergency operations and must be considered
part of an overall strategy, regardless of their application to emergencies or development. They are a
part of the overall political strategy and must be in step with the political concept if the peace process
is to be fully realized. Human interaction is a key concept if goals such as social welfare, justice, and
peace are to be achieved.
89
Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Operations
In the past, the international community’s response to various emergencies was more or less
concentrated on providing relief to populations suffering from natural disasters. The end of the Cold War
witnessed other types of disasters, where man-made emergencies caused by injustice, ethnic/religious
conflicts, and political power struggles became more frequent. These kinds of emergencies produced
more uncontrollable conditions since they contained political violence, civil unrest, and breakdowns
of state institutions. By the end of 2013, more than 50 million people were in need of humanitarian
assistance. The world community recognized that responses to crises in this new political environment
had to be far more complex than in the past. Relief operations became multifaceted and began to
include a number of responsive aid mechanisms, frequently including military units for the protection
of the humanitarian mandate and occasionally for enforcement activities. Under these particular
circumstances, development became an even more important part of the United Nations’ efforts to
achieve a durable peace. “As the international community prepares for post-2015 development and
disaster risk reduction frameworks and the World Humanitarian Summit in 2016, it will be important to
recognize that development cannot be sustainable unless the risk of crises is addressed proactively as
a joint priority.”10
The humanitarian consequences of sanctions or other enforcement activities must always be

considered. If the enforcement encompasses economic sanctions, it may cause shortages of commodities
of vital importance for the population. The most frequent criticism of sanctions is that they hurt the
common people, not those who rule them. When condoning the use of sanctions, the UN has been
accused of acting as an aggressor. Humanitarian organizations may be reluctant to cooperate with the
UN if they believe that a possible linkage to the military or to UN policy might jeopardize their own
independence and, even worse, their humanitarian mandates.
The Humanitarian Dimension
The new pattern of conflicts and wars emerging towards the end of the 20th century challenged
the international community intellectually, politically, and morally. Contemporary wars seem to be
increasingly societal, with violence directed at civil institutions. Civilians, civilian resources, and social,
economic, and cultural structures were increasingly targeted. Under these conditions, the ordinary citizen
suffered the most. Emergency assistance, followed by peacebuilding, rehabilitation, reconstruction, and
other confidence-building measures became the pillars in the reestablishment of the normality lost
in a society torn apart. Development became the curative strategy in the rebuilding efforts. Although
the international community is able to ease the living conditions of these victims, as well as to bring
peace and development to affected areas, it has become apparent that conditions other than traditional
political and socioeconomic notions must be recognized if a long-lasting peace is to be accomplished.
With the involvement of various components including the military, it is essential to keep humanitarian
imperatives in mind when these kinds of operations are implemented. As part of an overall strategy,
humanitarian aid must be provided in response to political realities, and subsequently, aid activities
must be integrated with and replaced by indigenous political, security, and humanitarian structures.
Thus, the humanitarian dimension of political problems must be considered, and human needs must be
10) UN Humanitarian Assistance. <https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/thematic-areas/international-law-courts-tribunals/humanitarian-assistance/>.
90
considered and linked to political solutions. In this perspective, social and economic relationships must
be understood as well.
Separately from the strategic aspects, the new dimension of humanitarian aid also encompasses
a broader agenda. Assistance to create new institutions and capacity building entities, as well as
demining, demobilization, integration of refugees, monitoring of human rights issues, gender issues, and
strengthening a nation’s social fabric, reconciliation, promote burden-sharing and involve humanitarian
actors. This demands a coherent view of humanitarian problems as well as operational coordination in
the field. Analysis of the roots and causes of a conflict must be linked to the treatment of symptoms as
part of the development strategy.
UN Coordination Mechanism
In order to meet these challenges, the UN Executive Committee on Humanitarian Affairs (ECHA)
was created. Aiming to enhance the coordination between UN agencies in various fields, the ECHA is
composed of executives at the highest level. ECHA Core Group is tasked to focus on a broad range of
humanitarian issues, ranging from policy matters from the humanitarian reform agenda and preserving
humanitarian space in integrated missions to more specific discussions.
In December 1991, the General Assembly adopted resolution 46/182. It was designed to strengthen
the United Nations response to complex emergencies and natural disasters, while improving the overall
effectiveness of humanitarian operations in the field. The resolution also created the high-level position
of Emergency Relief Coordinator (ERC), as well as the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC),
the Consolidated Appeals Process, and the Central Emergency Revolving Fund as key coordination
mechanisms and tools of the ERC.
Coordination of humanitarian assistance among the key UN and non-UN humanitarian partners is
done through the IASC, chaired by the ERC. Participants include all humanitarian partners: from United
Nations agencies, funds, and programmes, to the Red Cross movement and NGOs. The IASC ensures
inter-agency decision-making in response to complex
emergencies. It develops humanitarian policies,
agrees on a clear division of responsibility for the
various aspects of humanitarian assistance, identifies
and addresses gaps in response, and advocates for
effective application of humanitarian principles.
In 1992, the Secretary-General established the

Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA), which
was reorganized in 1998 into the Office for the
Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance (OCHA).
This is the part of the Secretariat responsible for
bringing together humanitarian actors to ensure
A young man and a bicycle are seen next to a mobile
a coherent response to emergencies. OCHA also tent installed by the Office of the United Nations
ensures there is a framework within which each High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) for the
repatriation of Congolese refugees. 27 October 2010.
actor can contribute to the overall response
UN Photo #455418 by Sebastian Villar.
effort. OCHA’s mission is to: mobilize and coordinate
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effective and principled humanitarian action in

partnership with national and international actors
in order to alleviate human suffering in disasters
and emergencies; advocate the rights of people in
need; promote preparedness and prevention; and
facilitate sustainable solutions.
The Office of the United Nations High

Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was
established in 1950 by the General Assembly.
The agency is mandated to lead and coordinate
international action to protect refugees and resolve
refugee problems worldwide. Its primary purpose is Rigoberta Menchú (right), Guatemalan human rights
activist and Nobel Laureate, addresses a conference
to safeguard the rights and well-being of refugees.
on the work of the International Commission against
It strives to ensure that everyone can exercise the Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG). At left is Eduardo Stein
right to seek asylum and find safe refuge in another Barillas, former Vice President of Guatemala. 20 April
2010. UN Photo #434506 by Evan Schneider.
State with the option to return home voluntarily,
integrate locally, or to resettle in a third country. It
also has a mandate to help stateless people.
The UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) was created in 1999 as part of the Secretariat
with the purpose of ensuring the implementation of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction.
The Strategy reflects a major shift from the traditional emphasis on disaster response to disaster
reduction, and in effect, seeks to promote a culture of prevention.
Reconciliation
Field experiences have indicated that the human wounds from a conflict in which many people have
suffered can only be cured if preceded by a healing process and reconciliation. Such a reconciliation
may take different forms. While national reconciliation may refer to the reinstitution of psychological,
cultural, economic, and political conditions, human reconciliation may involve participatory dialogues
between former adversaries and/or between brothers and enemies. Even if there is no normative
system for the reconciliation processes, they are occasionally set up by states emerging from periods of
internal unrest. Examples of past reconciliation processes include the Historical Clarification Commission
(Guatemala) and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa).
With a few exceptions, governmental organizations are not geared to handle these deeply human
aspects of complex conflicts, and very little is understood about the process that has inspired people
to go through genuine reconciliation and forgiveness. In addition, even if the importance of the
reconciliation process is accepted as a stepping-stone in achieving sustainable peace and development,
there remains the open question of how the international community can best implement reconciliation
as an indisputable part of the peace process.
92
Ex-combatants being airlifted by

helicopters from Kibuye to Muyinga
in Burundi, where the United Nations
Operation in Burundi (ONUB) started
a big operation consisting of deploying
ex-combatants to provinces to start
their new police training. 11 May 2005.
UN Photo #74846 by Martine Perret.
People-Centred Activities
In a peace operation, development and all other humanitarian activities require the involvement
of local people. Recognizing the necessity of humanitarian-oriented operations, the UN has adopted
people-centred strategies involving the local population. This approach ensures that projects and similar
activities are well anchored in the communities. No project can be decided and implemented with just a
top-down approach. In order to achieve full success and to achieve a continuum of projects within the
community after the peace operation withdraws, the local residents should be involved from the very
outset. It is paramount that their needs and interests are identified and pursued in the decision-making
process, as well as in the project implementation. Likewise, the project/activity should utilize local
knowledge and skill. Although this is a natural expectation, many projects/activities do not implement
this aspect of local involvement. Nevertheless, all projects/activities require a strategy that outlines the
best way in getting people involved in projects, particularly those that affect their living conditions.
Section 4.4 Distinctions and Similarities between Human Rights Law

and International Humanitarian Law
In general, human rights (HR) are universal and apply at all times, while International Humanitarian
Law (IHL) is specifically protective in conflict situations.11 As such, they are complementary. It is
essential to clarify both the differences and the similarities between these two bodies of international
law, especially in the context of UN peace operations.
Human rights law describes the inherent and fundamental rights of all people. It guarantees
rights and freedoms while ensuring that every person can fully evolve in his/her society, as well as
protect himself/herself against every kind of abuse. These rights are linked to national laws and to the
constitutions of States. Additionally, human rights law adheres to the international law of human rights
or the protection of human rights, which are the rules that States have agreed to observe with regards
to rights and freedoms of individuals.
International Humanitarian Law is applicable in inter- or intra-state armed conflicts and provides:
• (i) the standards for protection of conflict victims (Geneva Conventions); and
• (ii) rules related to the means and methods of combat and conduct of hostilities (The Hague
Conventions).
11) ICRC. IHL and Human Rights. <www.icrc.org/eng/war-and-law/ihl-other-legal-regmies/ihl-human-rights/overview-ihl-and-human-rights.htm>.
93
These two sets of laws have been merged in the two Protocols additional to the Geneva Convention,
were adopted in 1977, and are sometimes known as the Law of War. While human rights law is relevant
at all times, including during peace and stability, International Humanitarian Law aims at safeguarding
the fundamental rights of non-combatants and victims of armed conflicts.
The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and the International Committee of
the Red Cross (ICRC) are the two principal organizations that monitor the application of HR and IHL, as
well as the mechanisms used for their implementation. In emergency operations, the two organizations
work in partnership with various civilian and military components.
Section 4.5 Principles of International Humanitarian Law

As previously stated, IHL is based on the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the Hague Convention.
These two sets of laws respectively deal with the (i) protections of persons who are not participating in
the conflict (non-combatants) and (ii) limitation of methods and means of warfare.
Law of Geneva (Geneva Conventions of 1949)
This document is the principal blueprint for the protection of and aid to all victims of war and
evolves around the four Geneva Conventions of 1949. They are:
»» The First Convention, which protects the wounded and sick in

armed forces in the field;
»» The Second Convention, which protects the wounded, sick,

and shipwrecked among armed forces at sea;
»» The Third Convention, which protects prisoners of war; and
»» The Fourth Convention, which protects civilians.
Each of the Geneva Conventions is headed under three provisions:
• (i) General Provisions that deal with the respect for the convention and their application in
international conflict, followed by a number of articles with provisions about the duration of
application, special agreement which Contracting Parties may conclude, the right of protected
persons, duties of Protecting Powers, activities of the ICRC and the conciliation procedure
between Contracting Parties;
• (ii) Repression of Breaches of the Conventions; and
• (iii) Final Provisions which defines “the procedures for the signature, ratification.”
Law of The Hague
This body of law is based on two fundamental principles, namely, those of military necessity and
those of humanity. This means that actions necessary for defeat of the opposing side are allowed,
whereas causing excessive suffering or losses is forbidden. Thus, the purpose of the law is to regulate
the choice of targets and the use of weapons. As such, the law regulates the conduct of hostilities on
land, sea, and air and also sets the rules respecting the rights and duties of neutral powers, as well as
regulations on the use of specific weapons and ammunition.
94
Of special interest is that the law binds individuals as well as states. Members of armed forces who
are found guilty of committing or authorizing unlawful acts may be tried by legal bodies of their own
state or, due to certain circumstances, by equivalent bodies of other states. The establishment of the
two War Crimes Tribunals for former Yugoslavia and Rwanda are examples of this.
Summary of the Provisions of International Humanitarian Law
At present, the Law of Geneva and the Law of The Hague have been merged into two Protocols
additional to the Geneva Conventions and adopted in 1977. Protocol I strengthens the protection of
victims of international armed conflicts and Protocol II strengthens the protection of victims of internal
conflicts. The following seven points summarize the provisions of International Humanitarian Law:
1. Persons hors de combat12 and those who do not take a

direct part in hostilities are entitled to the respect of their
lives and their moral and physical integrity. They shall, in all
circumstances, be protected and treated in a humane way,
without any adverse distinction.
2. It is forbidden to kill or injure an enemy who surrenders or who

is hors de combat.
3. The wounded and sick shall be collected and cared for by the
party to the conflict and who has them in its power. Protection
also covers medical personnel, establishments, transports, and
equipment. The emblem of the Red Cross or the Red Crescent
is the sign of such protection and must be respected.
4. Captured combatants and civilians under the authority of an

adverse party are entitled to the respect for their lives, dignity,
personal rights, and convictions. They shall be protected
against all acts of violence and reprisals. They shall have the
right to correspond with their families and to receive relief.
5. Everyone shall be entitled to benefit from fundamental judicial

guarantees. No one shall be held responsible for an act he/
she has not committed. No one shall be subjected to physical
or mental torture, corporal punishment, or cruel and degrading
treatment.
6. Parties to a conflict and members of their armed forces do not

have an unlimited choice of methods and means of warfare.
It is prohibited to employ weapons or methods of warfare of a
nature to cause unnecessary losses or excessive suffering.
12) Persons hors de combat is French meaning “persons outside the fight”.
95
7. Parties to a conflict shall at all times distinguish between the

civilian population and combatants in order to spare the civilian
population and property. Neither the civilian population nor
civilian persons shall be the objects of attack. Attacks shall be
directed solely against military objectives.
Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt of the United States holding a Declaration of Human Rights poster in
English. 01 November 1949. UN Photo #1292 by United Nations.
Thus, it may be said that IHL and its application to the field is the guiding instrument for those
concerned in a conflict or in a post-conflict area where certain rules have to apply. Aid workers and
others working in [former] war zones must understand the principles of IHL in order to observe and
report breaches of these principles. However, it must be understood that although IHL applies to
international human rights standards, including but not always limited to humanitarian law, it also
applies to situations of armed conflicts.
Section 4.6 Principles of Human Rights

Human rights are central to the work of the Organization. Human rights are rights inherent to all
human beings, regardless of nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion,
language, or any other status. We are all equally entitled to our human rights without discrimination.
These rights are all interrelated, interdependent, and indivisible.
Universal human rights are often expressed and guaranteed by law in the forms of treaties,
customary international law, general principles, and other sources of international law. International
human rights law lays down obligations of governments to act in certain ways or to refrain from certain
acts in order to promote and protect human rights and fundamental freedoms of individuals or groups.
The principle of universality of human rights is the cornerstone of international human rights law. It
is the duty of States to promote and protect all human rights and fundamental freedoms, regardless of
their political, economic and cultural systems. Human rights are inalienable. They should not be taken
away, except in specific situations and according to due process.
96
Non-discrimination is a cross-cutting principle in human rights law. The principle applies to everyone
in relation to all human rights and freedoms and it prohibits discrimination on the basis of a list of
non-exhaustive categories such as sex, race, colour and so on. The principle of non-discrimination is
complemented by the principle of equality, as stated in Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights: “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.”
Human rights entail both rights and obligations. States assume obligations and duties under
international law to respect, to protect and to fulfil human rights. The obligation to respect means
that States must refrain from interfering with or curtailing the enjoyment of human rights. States are
obligated to protect individuals and groups against human rights abuses. The obligation to fulfil means
that States must take positive action to facilitate the enjoyment of basic human rights. And while we
are entitled our human rights at the individual level, we should also respect the human rights of others.
Establishment
The League of Nations, the predecessor to the UN, The Universal Declaration of
acknowledged human rights. When the Charter of the Human Rights »
United Nations was drafted and ratified, it specified
“Everyone is entitled to all the rights and
that one of main purposes of the UN is to cooperate
freedoms set forth in this Declaration,
in promoting respect for human rights. In 1946,
without distinction of any kind, such as race,
the Commission on Human Rights was established
colour, sex, language, religion, political
under Economic and Social Council Resolution 9.
or other opinion, national or social origin,
Since then, a large number of various declarations,
property, birth or other status. Furthermore,
conventions, and protocols on human rights have
no distinction shall be made on the basis of
been adopted, progressively increasing in scope and
the political, jurisdictional or international
number over the years. This development indicates
status of the country or territory to which a
the importance of human rights as one of the most
person belongs, whether it be independent,
fundamental purposes of the UN as envisaged in the
trust, non-self-governing or under any other
Charter. Today, these human rights instruments have
limitation of sovereignty.” -Article 2.
a global impact not only on the individual human
being, but also serve as a foundation of international Read the Universal Declaration of Human
peace and security and promotion of development. Rights: <www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/>.
Instruments
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) sets out a list of basic rights — a “common
standard of achievement” for “everyone in the world, whatever their race, colour, sex, language, religion,
political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.” Two instruments, both
adopted in 1968, later followed the Declaration: the International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights with corresponding Optional
Protocol. The three together constitute what is called the International Bill of Human Rights. The last
covenant also provided the establishment of the Human Rights Committee. One of the most important
events in the development of human rights was the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in
1993, at which the States were recommended to draw up an action plan in order to identify steps to
improve the promotion and protection of human rights. This plan was known as the Vienna Declaration
and Programme of Action.
97
Scene from the Protection of Civilians (POC) site of the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS),
located in the Tomping area of Juba. 03 December 2014. UN Photo #614687 by JC McIlwaine.
In the 1980s and 1990s, as well as through the first decade of the new millennium, the world
witnessed internal conflicts of frightening brutality. The 2005 World Summit (General Assembly
Resolution 60/1) unanimously affirmed that “each individual State has the responsibility to protect
its populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity.” They
agreed that, when appropriate, the international community should assist States in exercising that
responsibility by building their protective capacities before crises and conflicts arise. However, when a
state is “manifestly failing” to protect its population from the four specified crimes, the Heads of State
and Government confirmed that the international community was prepared to take collective action
through the Security Council and in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.
Subsequently, the Security Council adopted Resolution 1674 (2006) on the protection of civilians in
armed conflict, endorsing the Summit decision regarding the responsibility to protect (R2P) populations
from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. A three-pillar strategy is
then outlined for advancing the R2P agenda, as follows:
»» Pillar one: The protection responsibilities of the State;
»» Pillar two: International assistance and capacity building; and
»» Pillar three: Timely and decisive response.
The Secretary-General established special offices within the Secretariat to deal with these issues
and appointed Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide and Special Adviser on R2P. The mandates
of the two Special Advisers are distinct but complementary. The efforts of their Offices include alerting
relevant actors to the risk of genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity,
enhancing the capacity of the United Nations to prevent these crimes, including their incitement, and
working with Member States, regional, and sub-regional arrangements, and civil society to develop
more effective means of response when they do occur.
98
Libya was the first case when UN SC authorized military intervention citing R2P (2011). However,
the controversy over the conduct and the objectives of NATO military intervention in Libya (civilian
casualties, regime change) still reverberates in the Council, and the Council remains divided over
possible future application of R2P in Syria, South Sudan, and other regions.
It should be emphasized that the protection of civilians mandate is clearly distinct from the concept
of the responsibility to protect. The protection of civilians is a mandated task in peacekeeping from
the Security Council that is regularly reviewed by the General Assembly. The responsibility to protect
is aimed at addressing mass atrocities and endorses, as a last resort, intervention by the international
community without the consent of the host state. Thus, the responsibility to protect approves a range
of action that is not compatible with the principles of peacekeeping, which require the consent of the
host state. The protection of civilians and the responsibility to protect share some legal and conceptual
foundations, but they are distinct.
At the high-level meeting of the General Assembly on the rule of law in 2012, Member States also
made a commitment to ensuring that impunity is not tolerated for genocide, war crimes, and crimes
against humanity, or for violations of international humanitarian law and gross violations of human
rights law. Given the atrocious violations witnessed in the past few years in numerous states, it remains
to be seen how long it will take to bring all the world’s offenders to justice.
Monitoring
The comprehensiveness and complexity of

UN Human Rights Council »
human rights raised the demand for a mechanism
To learn more, visit <www.ohchr.org/hrc>.
empowered to both promote and monitor human
rights globally and independently. The rising global awareness of human rights advocated, among other
measures, the establishment of the UN Human Rights Council — which replaced the Commission on
Human Rights in 2006. As a subsidiary body of the General Assembly, the Human Rights Council assesses
and addresses the human rights situation in all 193 UN Member States and makes recommendations
to the GA. This intergovernmental body, which meets in Geneva 10 weeks a year, is composed of 47
elected United Nations Member States who serve for an initial period of three years and cannot be
elected for more than two consecutive terms. The HRC is a forum empowered to prevent abuses,
inequity, and discrimination, protect the most vulnerable, and expose perpetrators.
Special Procedures is the general name given to the mechanisms applied by the UN HRC to address
either specific country situations or thematic issues in all parts of the world. Special Procedures are either
an individual such as a special rapporteur, representative, or independent expert, or a working group.
They are prominent, independent experts working on a voluntary basis, appointed by the UN HRC.
Special Procedures’ mandates usually call on mandate-holders to examine, monitor, advise and publicly
report on human rights situations in specific countries or territories, known as country mandates, or
on major phenomena of human rights violations worldwide, known as thematic mandates. All report
their findings and recommendations to the UN HRC. They are sometimes the only mechanism that will
alert the international community on certain human rights issues. As of 2014, there are 39 thematic
mandates and 14 country mandates.13
13) UN Human Rights Commission. Charter-based bodies. <http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/Pages/HumanRightsBodies.aspx>.
99
Ivan Simonovic (front, second from left), Assistant Secretary-General in the Office of the
High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), and Scott Campbell (right of Mr. Simonovic),
OHCHR Director in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), visit Shabunda, in the DRC’s
South Kivu province. 03 May 2012. UN Photo #513859 by Sylvain Liechti.
The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) is a part of the Secretariat in
Geneva. Its primary responsibility is to promote and protect the enjoyment and full realization of human
rights for all. The mandate of OHCHR is derived from the Charter (Art. 1, 13, and 15) and the General
Assembly resolution of December 1993.
OHCHR’s thematic priorities are:
• Strengthening international human rights mechanisms;
• Enhancing equality and countering discrimination;
• Combating impunity and strengthening accountability and the rule of law;
• Integrating human rights in development and in the economic sphere;
• Widening the democratic space; and
• Early warning and protection of human rights in situations of conflict, violence, and insecurity.
In implementing its various strategies, OHCHR

works in close relation with UN human rights Office of the High Commissioner
mechanisms including the human rights treaty for Human Rights »
bodies and the Human Rights Council. Promotion To learn more, visit <www.ohchr.org>.
and protection of HR is channelled through three
branches, which are responsible for: (i) research and strategy development; (ii) technical assistance
to countries; and (iii) support to the United Nations human rights bodies. Through the Technical
Cooperation Programme, OHCHR assists States in building and strengthening national structures for the
overall observance of human rights and maintenance of the rule of law. This is done through various
approaches. At the institutional level, there are treaty-monitoring bodies that monitor implementation
of the principal human rights treaties. At request, States may also be given assistance in the training
of armed forces, police forces, or legal professionals and may also provide advisory service for the
100
incorporation of international human rights norms and standards into the national legislation. Promotion
and protection of HR can also be done through special rapporteurs or through the establishment of a
long-term presence to accompany the field presence and may include monitoring components.
However, the fundamental basis of establishing and promoting human rights is the practice by
which any one may bring a human rights problem to the attention of the United Nations, as is done by
thousands of people every year. These reporting mechanisms are an essential part of the monitoring
system. A report on a human rights violation must describe the facts surrounding the situation, the
purpose of the report, and the human rights that have been violated. Abusive language or insulting
remarks about the concerned State is not tolerated, and the inclusion of any such language may cause
the report to not be considered. Violations can be communicated from individuals or groups who claim
to be victims of violations or from any person or group of people that have direct, reliable knowledge
of violations. When non-governmental organizations (NGOs) present communications on violations,
it must be under the condition that “the NGO is acting in good faith in accordance with recognized
principles of human rights, and that it has direct, reliable evidence of the situation it is describing.”14
OHCHR is a separate entity from the Human Rights Council. This distinction originates from the
separate mandates they were given by the General Assembly. Nevertheless, OHCHR provides substantive
support for the meetings of the Human Rights Council, and follow-up to the Council’s deliberations.
Human Rights and Development
UNDP, as the major organization responsible for development, has put human rights into the context
of development, thus recognizing the needs for a more explicit human rights link to the developmental
concept. Key features of the work of UNDP in the area of human rights and human security include:
• Support to the development of national human rights action plans;
• Application of the rights-based approach to programming; and
• Assistance for human rights initiatives involving civic education, awareness-raising campaigns,
strengthening or creation of ombudsman offices and extension of human rights institutions to
the sub-national level.
Human Rights and Peacekeeping Operations
Preventive action to ensure respect for human rights is at the core of United Nations efforts to
avoid future conflict. International human rights law is an integral part of the normative framework
for United Nations peace operations. OHCHR’s support of human rights bodies includes the entirety of
the United Nations system. Involvement in both development and peacekeeping grants the system a
natural linkage to and implementation of human rights. In peacekeeping, the Office provides assistance
in terms of human rights information, advisory service, legislative analysis, and training. Recognizing
the respect for human rights as a fundamental mechanism in promoting peace and security, human
rights are fully integrated into the interdepartmental planning processes, and all human rights activities
in the field are coordinated by a single component.
14) Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. “Complaint procedures under the human rights treaty”. <https://www.ohchr.org/en/hrbodies/
tbpetitions/pages/hrtbpetitions.aspx>.
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The Integrated Mission Planning Processes and the institutional arrangements for human rights
components in peace operations have considerably increased the United Nations’ efforts to protect
and promote human rights in the field. In this respect, OHCHR works in close cooperation with the
Department of Peace Operations (DPO), the Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs (DPPA),
the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and the Office for the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). Their joint efforts facilitate the field conditions for military and civilian
professionals to provide necessary information and knowledge to vulnerable populations and thus
participate in establishing an understanding of and respect for the rights of each individual and society.
Aïchatou Mindaoudou, Special

Representative of the United Nations
Secretary-General for Côte d’Ivoire,
handed over the keys to community
members in front of the newly-
renovated centre. The work was funded
through the Quick Impact Project
programme of the United Nations
Operation in Côte d’Ivoire (UNOCI). 23
February 2015. UN Photo #624322 by
Abdul Fatai Adegboye.
Most multidimensional peace operations have a human rights team including: MONUSCO (DR
Congo), UNAMID (Darfur), UNMISS (South Sudan), UNMIL (Liberia), UNOCI (Côte d’Ivoire), MINUSTAH
(Haiti), and UNAMA (Afghanistan). These teams implement human rights-related mandates given to
missions and they help to mainstream human rights across all mission activities.
The goals of a human rights teams are:
• To contribute to the protection and promotion of human rights through both immediate and
long-term action;
• To empower the population to assert and claim their human rights; and
• To enable State and other national institutions to implement their human rights obligations and
uphold the rule of law.
The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) provides expertise, guidance, and
support to these human rights teams. The head of the human rights team is the adviser to the Head of
Mission and also the representative of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in-country.
Core activities undertaken by the human rights section typically include:
• Human rights monitoring, investigations, and analysis;
• Preventing human rights violations, including through mission-wide early warning mechanisms;
• Responding to violations of human rights, including support for accountability;
102
• Advocacy, intervention, and reporting;
• Human rights advice, support for institutional reform, and capacity building;
• Working closely with host governments, national institutions, and civil society; and
• Advising and assisting other mission teams in integrating human rights in their mandated tasks.
Human rights teams work in close cooperation and coordination with other civilian and uniformed
components of peace operations. In particular, in relation to: the protection of civilians; addressing
conflict-related sexual violence and violations against children and strengthening respect for human
rights and the rule of law through legal and judicial reform, security sector reform, and prison system
reform. For example, the Human Rights Section of MINUSTAH advocated for and coordinated a joint
security assessment carried out by UN police and military, other UN agencies, NGOs and the Haitian
National Police. This resulted in joint policing according to a specifically developed strategic plan and the
deployment of a police presence in some camps to provide a measure of protection for the displaced
population.15 Training was also provided to UN and Haitian security forces on human rights and sexual
and gender-based violence. In 2012, the Secretary-General promulgated a new policy on human rights
screening of UN personnel for violations of international human rights and humanitarian law.
There are currently a number of traditional and non-multidimensional peace operations whose
mandates do not include specific human rights provisions or a human rights component. While these
peace operations are expected to uphold human rights standards, preserve human rights through
their operations, and advance human rights in the implementation of their mandates, they are neither
mandated nor resourced to implement human rights activities.
Protection of Civilians through Peacekeeping Operations
“The plight of civilians is no longer something which can be

neglected or made secondary because it complicates political
negotiations or interests. It is fundamental to the central
mandate of the Organization. The responsibility for the
protection of civilians cannot be transferred to others. The
United Nations is the only international organization with the
reach and authority to end these practices.”
— Report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council on
the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict.
The security of civilians in post-conflict environments is critical to the legitimacy and credibility
of UN peacekeeping missions, the peace agreements they are deployed to help implement, and the
institution of the United Nations itself. Likewise, the role of peacekeeping missions in protection of
civilians requires the political support of the Security Council and the main parties to the conflict. This
lesson is not new, but needs emphasis, especially given the challenges facing modern peacekeeping
missions.
Over the last two decades, the world has witnessed armed conflicts marked by systematic violence
and mass atrocities against civilians and has increasingly looked to the United Nations, and in particular
15) DPKO. Peacekeeping and Human Rights. <https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/promoting-human-rights>.
103
UNAMSIL »
In 2000, the Security Council
revised the mandate for the
UN Mission in Sierra Leone
(UNAMSIL), authorizing any
necessary action to ensure
the security and freedom of
movement of its personnel and,
within its capabilities and areas of
deployment, to afford protection
to civilians under imminent threat
of physical violence, taking into
account the responsibilities of
the Government of Sierra Leone.
To learn more about UNAMSIL’s

mandate, see <https://
Homeless children at the Ferry Port in Lungi where the Nigerian contingent was
peacekeeping.un.org/mission/
departing the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL). 05 October 2005.
UN Photo #129164 by Eric Kanalstein.
past/unamsil/mandate.html>.
to UN peacekeeping operations, to prevent and or halt such crimes. The failures of missions to provide
security in complex crises such as Somalia, and to protect civilians from mass atrocities in Rwanda
and Bosnia, tested the fundamental principles and capabilities of UN peacekeeping operations and
demonstrated that reform was urgently required.
Since then, notable efforts have worked to improve the overall effectiveness of UN peacekeeping
operations, including their capabilities to protect civilians. For a decade, the UN Security Council has also
expressed its resolve to support more effective missions, and to put a greater spotlight on the protection
of civilians. UN peacekeeping mandates have changed, as the Council has shifted peacekeeping well
beyond its traditional role of monitoring the implementation of peace agreements over the last decade.
Increasingly, such mandates also instruct peacekeeping missions to put an emphasis on the physical
protection of civilians.
As part of this evolution, by 2014, ten UN peacekeeping operations have been explicitly mandated
to “protect civilians under imminent threat of physical violence.”16 The first mission provided with this
explicit mandate language, the UN peacekeeping operation in Sierra Leone, UNAMSIL, was authorized
inter alia “to afford protection to civilians under imminent threat of physical violence.” By 2014, the
majority of the nearly 100,000 uniformed UN peacekeepers deployed worldwide operate with such
mandates.
The link between the protection of civilians and peacekeeping mandates is central. First, the safety
and security of civilians is critical to the legitimacy and credibility of peacekeeping missions. Missions
rely upon their legitimacy with the local civilian population and external observers alike to help build
peace and maintain political momentum behind the peace process. Moreover, wherever peacekeepers
16) US Institute of Peace. “Physical Security”. <https://www.usip.org/guiding-principles-stabilization-and-reconstruction-the-web-version/safe-and-
secure-environment/nec-1>.
104
deploy, they raise expectations among the local population and those who view missions from afar that
the reason for their presence is to support people at risk.
As seen in the past, peacekeeping operations that are ill-prepared to address large-scale violence
directed against civilians may falter or even collapse. While missions work to manage high expectations,
they must also address the security of civilians in order to build and maintain the legitimacy and
credibility needed to carry out their other mandated tasks.
The responsibility to protect civilians does not uniquely pertain to UN peacekeepers. International
civilian, military, and police operate where other protection actors are present, including the host state,
mandated UN protection agencies, non-governmental organizations, and the International Committee
of the Red Cross. It is essential that the actions of all protectors are coherent and mutually reinforcing
where possible.
Second, the protection of civilians is a critical component for a sustainable political peace. A
peace agreement that does not bring a halt to armed violence, widespread human rights abuses and
violations of international humanitarian law—or that tolerates continued violence against sectors of the
population—cannot lead to legitimate governance. Where civilians remain at risk, efforts to establish
governance, security, and the rule of law may be unsustainable. Neither a legitimate state nor efforts for
a stable peace can be founded on a political settlement or government that leaves a population at risk
of systematic or extreme violence.
Finally, the protection of civilians by peacekeeping missions is also central to the legitimacy and
credibility of the entire United Nations system.
These operations are among the most high-profile manifestations of UN action, and their conduct
has implications for the organization as a whole. Certainly the inability of peacekeeping missions to
address violence against civilians in the past has damaged the standing of the United Nations and
threatened to discredit the practice of peacekeeping in general. Indeed, the challenge of protecting
civilians cuts to the core of the UN purpose: “to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war.”
In an era of complex conflicts in which civilians continue to be targeted, the organization can neither
avoid its duty to protect civilians, nor afford to be discredited by failing to live up to its own ambitions.
Three tiers of protection of civilians are mutually accommodating and reinforcing, and should be
taken forward simultaneously:
• Protection through political process (A well-managed peace process);
• Protection from physical violence (Security components working jointly to prevent, to deter and
to proscribe); and
• Establishing a protective environment (Via Rule of law, institution building, human rights,
humanitarian action, and national capacity building).
Thus, protection of civilians is a collaborative effort of the UN and other actors, most notably
the Government. It must be a locally owned process. It requires coherence of approach across UN
family and strong leadership to bring an integrated approach to the work of all actors, both local and
international. The added value in multidisciplinary (integrated) missions is technical expertise within
substantive civilian components.
105
Secretary-General Ban Ki-

moon travelled to Greenland to
see first-hand the impacts of
climate change. The Secretary-
General speaks to the media
about his experience on the ice
in Uummannaq and witnessing
the fastest moving glacier on
the planet. 26 March 2014.
UN Photo #584293 by Mark
Garten.
Section 4.7 Human Development and Climate Change

Climate change and its impact on mankind and the global environment has become the human
development challenge of the 21st century — as well as a challenge that concerns all organizations
within the UN system. Presently the scientific consensus on climate change is that human activity is very
likely the cause for the rapid increase in global average temperatures over the past several decades,
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported in 2014, finding that “the more human
activities disrupt the climate, the greater the risks of severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts for
people and ecosystems, and long-lasting changes in all components of the climate system.”17
In 1988, the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations Environmental
Program (UNEP) established the IPCC. It reviews and assesses the most recent scientific, technical, and
socioeconomic information produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of climate change. Since
then, most countries have joined an international treaty — the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Secretariat of the UNFCCC supports all institutions involved in the
climate change monitoring field, particularly the Conferences of the Parties (COP), the subsidiary bodies,
and their Bureau. In addition, a number of nations have approved the Kyoto Protocol, which has more
powerful and legally binding measures.
In September 2014, Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon convened the Climate Summit with the
participation of world leaders from government, finance, business, and civil society to galvanize and
catalyse climate action. The goal of the Summit was to generate concrete commitments and actions
that will reduce emissions, strengthen climate resilience, and mobilize political will for a meaningful
legal global agreement in 2015.
Conflict and the Environment
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) reports that in the last 60 years, at least 40
per cent of all intrastate conflicts had a link to natural resources, and that this link doubles the risk of
relapse into conflict.18 Since 1990, at least 18 violent conflicts have been fuelled by the exploitation
17) IPCC, 2014: Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. <www.ipcc.ch/
report/ar5/syr/>.
18) DPKO. Conflict and Natural Resources. <https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/conflict-and-natural-resources>.
106
The province of KwaZulu Natal, unique for its rich biodiversity,

is one of South Africa’s most important farming areas and
suppliers of water. But its pristine natural beauty will be
threatened if coal mining develops as it has in neighbouring
Mpumalanga, where the mining industry has had detrimental
environmental and social effects, including widespread water
pollution. 04 February 2012. UN Photo #518971 by Gill Fickling.
of natural resources, whether high-value resources like timber, diamonds, gold, minerals, and oil, or
scarce ones like fertile land and water.
UK Rear Admiral Neil Morisetti, the UK’s special representative for climate change, recently called
climate change a “threat-multiplier.” “Increased climate change is only going to increase the risks of
instability and conflict,” Admiral Morisetti said as quoted in The Telegraph in 2014.19 He was speaking
at an Energy and Climate Intelligence Unit event in the UK Parliament, analysing the impacts of climate
change in the wake of the latest UN IPCC report.
The Security Council recognized the possible Greening the Blue Helmets »
security implications of climate change, as it can also One of the key themes of this report is
exacerbate threats caused by persistent poverty or weak “the role that peacekeeping operations
resource management. At the same time, thousands of play in stabilizing countries, where
civilian, police, and military personnel deployed with UN violent conflicts are financed by natural
peacekeeping operations can have an impact on the local resources or driven by grievances over
environment, emit greenhouse gases, and possibly cause ownership, access and control of natural
some soil pollution. In some areas like Darfur or Chad, resources. The report shares some
where water is a scarce resource, the local community case studies that demonstrate how
may see the UN mission as a resource competitor. peacekeeping missions have addressed
However, so far only a few peacekeeping missions have natural resource grievances as part of
been clearly mandated to help the host country better their conflict resolution and reconciliation
manage its natural resources, including UN Mission in activities.”
Liberia (UNMIL) and UN Organization Stabilization Mission
Read Greening the Blue Helmets –
in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO).
Environment, Natural Resources and UN
In 2009, the UN promulgated the Environmental Policy Peacekeeping Operations, a joint report
for UN Field Missions. It covers key areas such as waste, by UNEP, DPO, DOS, and UNDP, among
energy, water, hazardous substances, wild animals and others: <https://www.unenvironment.
plants, and cultural and historical resources management. org/explore-topics/disasters-conflicts/
The aim is to mainstream the environment in all operational what-we-do/preparedness-and-response/
activities during the life-cycle of a peacekeeping operation. greening-blue-helmets>.
19) Emily Gosden, The Telegraph. “Global warming ‘will require more UK troops sent to fight overseas’”. 10 November 2014. <www.telegraph.co.uk/
news/earth/environment/climatechange/11221586/Global-warming-will-require-more-UK-troops-sent-to-fight-overseas.html>.
107
1. Former UN Secretary-General Boutros 7. Which UN entity assesses and

Boutros-Ghali stated that “both Agendas addresses the human rights situation
are inextricably linked.” What were the in all 193 UN Member States to make
topics of these two Agendas? recommendations to the General
Assembly?
A. Peace and Security
B. War and Peace A. International Red Cross and Red Crescent
C. Development and Peace B. UN Development Programme
D. War and Development C. UN Human Rights Council

D. All of the above
2. The eight goals set in the year 2000
by the international community to 8. Which service is NOT provided by the
reduce poverty and stimulate global Office of the High Commissioner for
development are known as the _____. Human Rights (OHCHR)?
A. Benchmarks for Global Progress A. Research and strategy development
B. World Development Goals B. A separate judicial system for prosecuting
C. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) human rights violations
D. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) C. Technical assistance to countries

D. Support to other United Nations human
3. In 2015, new development goals for the rights bodies
international community will be set, this
time with extra emphasis on _____. 9. According to the UN Environment
A. Sustainable Development Programme, in the last 60 years, at least
B. Technological Innovation
40 per cent of all intrastate conflicts had
a link to:
C. Return to Fossil Fuels
A. Multiple forms of currency
D. Increased Global Production
B. Communism
4. _____ activities focus on providing the C. Natural resources
basics for survival, such as food, water, D. The presence of multinational businesses
shelter, medical supplies, and protection.
A. Development 10. The goal of the Secretary-General’s
B. Relief
Climate Summit in 2014 was to _____.
C. Peacebuilding A. Generate concrete commitments and actions
D. Peacekeeping to reduce emissions

B. Strengthen climate resilience
5. International Humanitarian Law (IHL) C. Mobilize political will for a meaningful legal
provides for _____.
global agreement in 2015
A. Protections of persons who are not D. All of the above
participating in the conflict (non-combatants)
B. Limitation of methods and means of warfare
C. The forbidding of excessive suffering or
losses
D. All of the above
6. What is the main distinction between

IHL and human rights law?
108
1. How does relief relate to development in a crisis environment?
2. How has the protection of civilians been incorporated into

multidimensional operations’ mandates?
3. In what ways can the consequences of climate change present a

threat to international security?
Answer Key »
1. C
2. D
3. A
4. B
5. D
6. IHL applies only during times of

armed conflict, while human rights are
universally applicable.
7. C
8. B
9. C
10. D
109
LESSON
The Dynamic Field
5 Environment
Understanding the cultural

and political context of a
mission area is essential to
operating effectively in the
working environment.
UN Photo #523131 by Staton Winter.
Section 5.1 Social and Cultural Environment • Understand the significant impact, benefits,
and challenges of a multicultural working
Section 5.2 Mission Environment
environment.
Section 5.3 Civil-Military Cooperation
• Understand the peacekeeper’s role in the social
(CIMIC)
context of the local area.
Section 5.4 Safety and Security Environment
• Identify other entities and actors also functioning
in the mission space and where professional
cultures may differ among organizations.
• Recognize the dynamics of civil-military

cooperation, especially in the UN context.
• Identify who is responsible for safety and security

in a mission or operating area.
110
LESSON 5 | The Dynamic Field Environment
United Nations Military Liaison Officers (UNMLO) Mark Cole and Rogerio Rozas are in Belulikleten, Covalima district, to check with the
Timor-Leste Border Patrol Border Unit (BPU) on the patrol program and gather information on the local security situation. 20 June
2007. #148109 by Martine Perret.
Knowledge of a culture and its local customs,

as well as awareness of the local security situation,
are absolutely necessary for Field Officers (FOs) to
be successful in their everyday activities, especially
in an emergency. While an FO is normally expected
to handle challenging tasks, they may encounter
additional difficulties if they do not fully understand
the prevailing conditions of their environment.
View a video introduction of this
lesson at <www.peaceopstraining.
The environment in which an FO works is complex.
org/videos/371/dynamic-field-
The local environment’s customs and cultures are environment/>.
met by the mission itself as a multicultural society,
with international personnel from a great number
of countries. The security environment, with its own
obligations and demands, is characterized by yet
another set of practices to which the FO must be
responsive and dedicated.
111
A solid educational background and appropriate professional experience are the basic criteria in
recruitment and selection of personnel. Apart from these requirements, an FO must have the social
competence to cope and deal with human nature. Socializing, forming friendships, understanding and
accepting new habits, and adjusting to others’ cultures are as important as education and working
experience, and they are prerequisites for the work to be successful. In this respect, confidence and
accountability are key. Prospective FOs should make every effort to prepare for the assignment by
making use of official reports, information about the mission, public libraries, and conversations with
others who have experience in the specific area. In addition, a positive attitude, an open mind, and a
sense of humour are valuable assets in daily work.
A member of the UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO)’s

Military Liaison Office chats with a group of local Western Saharans. 17 June 2010.
UN Photo #440059 by Martin Perret.
Section 5.1 Social and Cultural Environment
Adapting to the UN workplace
Assignments within the United Nations system cover a variety of tasks, where duties may be
performed in a small office, a large office building, or in a remote field location. Whatever the situation,
the tasks of an FO are challenging.
Working with a development project is a positive but challenging experience. The FO will frequently
find resources scarce, particularly in developing countries. Manpower itself is seldom an issue, but a lack
of technical skill and technical means or insufficient project funding may slow down a project. Ineffective
bureaucracy, miscommunication, or simply insufficient planning might cause these inadequacies. Weak
relationships between locals and local institutions may also negatively influence the work.
In societies affected by war or similar events, the challenges are far more complex and difficult
than in “normal” development processes. Shortages of personnel resources, destroyed infrastructures
(roads, communications, etc.), insecure environments, and political and military volatility produce a
level of complexity that is not easy to cope with. The loss of trust, dignity, and confidence, combined
with the destruction of relationships or loss of relatives, may create an individual or collective trauma
that can also, under these circumstances, cause potential danger. Sympathy and sensitivity are the keys
to sustaining a healthy frame of mind.
112
Women in Sharga, North Darfur, prepare food at the village’s SAFE Centre during a visit from
a delegation of European Union ambassadors. 18 October 2012. UN Photo #532485 by Albert
González Farran.
Adapting to the local environment
When an individual accustomed to his or her cultural environment suddenly must navigate a different
one, this can often result in feelings of discomfort or disorientation, commonly known as culture shock.
Some people deal with the adjustment more effectively than others, and those who have experienced
previous assignments will likely settle in more quickly than novices. A new environment can pose a
dilemma if it is not seriously considered. A language barrier may create a sense of isolation for the FO
if there are no means of communication except through interpretation. Different foods, climate, and
poor living conditions may also increase the feeling of isolation, which will be further aggravated by the
absence of loved ones. The mission environment and the local culture and habits are other factors that
will affect the FO. These characteristics are extremely important and may become problematic issues if
FOs work alone and without sufficient guidance.
Equally important is a careful assessment of the health environment. The living quarters, type of
accommodation, medical facilities, availability of food, and quality of water have to be included in the
overall assessment of the environment. Inadequate housing may cause health problems, and if little
or no attention is paid to these matters, the FOs can encounter problems that may jeopardize further
work. Even if the living quarters are basic in quality, they can be fully acceptable if well maintained,
cleaned, and always kept neat and tidy. Temporarily employed local cleaners should always be carefully
instructed in order to keep up with the required standards. Food and water should always be protected
from flies and other insects, and the entire building should be disinfected frequently.
Buying food at the local market can be a pleasure, particularly if the FO has a genuine interest in
cooking. However, vegetables, fresh meat, and fish are sometimes handled improperly and may be
exposed to bacteria. Familiarity with the market and the quality of the various products is necessary
before a shopping excursion. Even if a local cook is employed, that does not guarantee the quality of the
food. The ability to digest the various local dishes should not be used as a sporting measure of the FO’s
adjustment to local conditions.
113
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(Original version: <http://www.who.int/foodsafety/areas_work/food-hygiene/5keys-poster/en/>). Video: <www.who.int/foodsafety/areas_work/food-hygiene/5keys/en/>.
114
Water is frequently another problem. While developed countries may consume 200 litres of potable
water per person per day, this is far from what may be acceptable in areas with scarce sources of water.
The FO needs to be observant of his or her host country’s cultural norms. An excessive use of water
in areas with a very limited quantity will be regarded as offensive. Water in tropical areas should be
assumed as polluted or infested in one way or another until the quality is guaranteed. The absence of
purification facilities, even in good hotels, may result in infected swimming pools and tap water and,
thus, this should not be considered as potable water. Even ice cubes should be regarded with suspicion.
The use of bottled water, bottled soft drinks and, in the field, boiled water is recommended.
Along this topic, personal hygiene must be maintained. A hot climate does not normally cause
severe problems, but in combination with a high level of humidity, Field Operators can expect to have a
very unpleasant experience if they do not take care of their personal hygiene. It is important for the FO
to maintain their personal hygiene to a high standard and to also advise other mission personnel who
may be less attentive.
The FO must carefully assess the situation of a health environment. The health environment includes
the availability and quality of medical facilities. In a well-established mission, this is not a major concern,
since the mission has probably established safe and reliable support from a local hospital or through
its own medical unit. However, FOs deployed far from these facilities must ensure that they can access
medical treatment if and when necessary. No matter where you are, pay attention to the supplies being
used. Unsterile syringes, needles, and other medical equipment may cause severe, life-threatening
infections, including HIV.
Gender Concepts
Gender concepts in the political context includes the advancement of women, the recognition of the
differences between men and women, the recognition of women’s specific concerns and self-reliance,
and the promotion of social and economic equality. Women and men must be fully recognized in their
respective roles. In all United Nations programmes and activities, formally recognizing these topics is
an essential part of a fully integrated development strategy, known as “gender mainstreaming”. Gender
mainstreaming is also part of a greater global strategy for promoting gender equality.
Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) requires the integration of gender perspectives into peace
processes. This landmark resolution would give way to a series of new resolutions to form the “Women,
Peace, and Security Agenda.” Part of this, Security Council resolution 2086 (2013) on Peacekeeping,
reiterated the importance of including provisions on the promotion of gender equality and the
empowerment of women in post-conflict situations when establishing and renewing the mandates of
United Nations Missions. This resolution also makes provisions regarding children and armed conflict.
Action points include the appointment of gender advisers, women protection advisers, and experts and
child protection advisers, as appropriate, and welcomed the call of Secretary-General for enhanced
participation, representation, and involvement of women in prevention and resolution of armed conflict
and in peacebuilding as well as for a stronger commitment to address the challenges to such engagement
of women at all levels. The Council also encourages the participation of women in conflict prevention,
conflict resolution, and peacebuilding, and also supports the efforts of the host government to include
women in decision-making roles in post-conflict governance institutions.
115
UN Women »
In 2010, the UN General Assembly
created the United Nations Entity for
Gender Equality and the Empowerment
of Women. In doing so, Member States
took an historic step in accelerating the
Organization’s goals on gender equality
and the empowerment of women. Visit
<www.unwomen.org> to learn more.
UN Photo #68441 by Ky Chung.
Respect and sensitivity are important to demonstrate when interacting with people of all genders.
Social rules influencing normal interactions between men and women can differ from one culture to the
next, so what may be interpreted as innocent behaviour in one cultural context may be taken as an
offence in another. Personnel must never engage in or threaten to commit any act that could result in
the physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering of any person, especially women and children.
Sexual conduct is absolutely not accepted in the mission or the mission area. Neither field personnel
nor the local population are to be trifled with. Therefore, personnel should not be involved in any sexual
behaviour or relationships that may lessen the credibility of or bring reproach to the United Nations.
Section 5.2 Mission Environment
General Conditions
UN peacekeeping operations are multicultural operations, operating in diverse cultural contexts.
The emergencies themselves, the initial lack of coordination among mission workers, the intensive
media-watch, and potential donors’ requests for immediate access and information create enormous
demands on the FOs. They must thoroughly understand the situation to be able to make the necessary
decisions regarding management and protocol. This requires not only knowledge of the UN system, but
also a good understanding of military systems (if employed), as well as knowledge of the capacities and
mandates of various collaborating international, governmental, and non-governmental aid organizations.
The size of a mission is dependent on its mandate and may range from thousands of personnel
deployed to just a few. Multiple national, ethnic, and educational backgrounds create a diverse
atmosphere, which can present unique challenges. Cross-cultural interactions in a mission take place at
different levels — between national military and police contingents; military, police, and civilian officers;
international and local staff; mission staff and humanitarian workers; etc. Cultural and educational
distinctions between personnel may involve not only national habits and customs but also differences
in values. A mandate may be interpreted differently by personnel, and even assessments of the current
situation may vary. The initial priority should be to formulate some coherent consensus about the
mandate or objectives and to establish commonalties in a code of conduct.
116
A language barrier may also cause some concerns, not only in terms of understanding, but also in
terms of the value and interpretation of certain words or phrases. Specialized vocabulary, such as those
used by the military and certain organizations, may present confusion until clarification is requested.
Civil and Military Interaction
Adapting as a civilian to the culture of a military mission can be difficult, especially amidst strict
regulations and strong existing camaraderie. Likewise, military personnel may find the more fluid
and casual structures of some civilian organizations to be frustrating and confusing. Civil and military
organizations are aware of institutional cultural differences and have established various methods of
civil-military cooperation in order to improve the working relationship in the field.
The military force is organized into headquarters, operational units, and supporting elements.
Headquarters of various sections and units are structured in similar ways all over the world. Although
headquarters are well structured and easily recognized, the civilian FO may experience difficulties in
finding his/her way around this labyrinth of strange abbreviations such as G2, G3, Ops., Log., etc.
How are they organized? Who is who? Who is the key person? All of these questions are fundamental
to understanding and later using the system. Although it will take some time to become acquainted
with the military staff organization, military personnel will appreciate it if the FO becomes familiar with
the various functions of the headquarters that will, indeed, ease the FO’s forthcoming collaboration
with the military. This knowledge becomes particularly vital when the military force operates under an
enforcement mandate.
The mission headquarters and its composition reflect the mandate. Headquarters are generally
located in an urban area and frequently in the capital, enabling smooth coordination and liaison with
national officials. Both civilian and military components responsible for a variety of tasks serve under
the authority of the Head of Mission (HOM). Large missions with an impact on the region also have
liaison offices established in neighbouring countries. Sub-headquarters, offices, and sub-offices are
found at other locations in the country or mission region. The headquarters will have a blend of civilian
and military personnel, particularly when the mandate is geared to a complex emergency situation. As
in all bureaucratic organizations, the FO may have difficulty finding appropriate offices and persons with
whom to discuss and ventilate problems, and consequently, the FO may encounter problems that have
come to be called “mission culture”.
In complex, multidimensional operations, the military force will have its own separate headquarters.
Military headquarters are typically well structured entities based on a hierarchical system with strict
rules and regulations. Personnel are disciplined and trained under similar conditions, and all ranks
are dressed in uniform. Officers and soldiers behave in a certain way; they normally have a precise
appearance, and their performance is both decisive and demanding. Personnel within all ranks have a
loyalty to their unit, task, and country.
The military force is commanded by a Force Commander (FC) and comprises force personnel (mostly
military personnel) from different countries providing a kaleidoscope of ideas and approaches that may
sometimes be difficult to grasp. In a headquarters of considerable size, often consisting of hundreds
of soldiers, this fact is more obvious and further highlighted by the distinct military behaviours and
appearances. At the mission level, observer or verification missions are separate entities, sometimes
117
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon (left) greets staff members at the new UN office facility in
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 28 October 2014. UN Photo #609294 by Evan Schneider.
combined with and/or under the command of a force-level mission. Missions have headquarters, a small
staff, operational units consisting of small teams of two or three unarmed observers, and a supporting
element. These types of missions employ both uniformed military professionals and “civilian” reserve
officers, who have been assigned tasks such as supervising a ceasefire and/or an armistice agreement,
verifying the withdrawal of troops, demobilization (monitoring border areas), and many others. These
observer or police missions have a headquarters that reflects the mandate. Headquarters, sub-offices,
and other elements contain a friendly atmosphere but are small and do not have the same supporting
capacity as the military force’s headquarters.
United Nations programmes and funds, such as UNICEF and UNDP, have their own headquarters.
Such headquarters are either on national (country office) or regional levels. Generally, they are staffed
by UN professionals, expatriate experts, and local experts. UNDP country offices normally act as the
national leading agency of the UN system, and its Resident Representative also serves as the Resident
Coordinator of the UN system’s operational activities for development (as UNHCR). Field offices are
frequently sited far away, and personnel may sometimes be forced to rely on their own administrative
competence and innovations.
Ongoing projects are either supervised by a UN agency — such as UNDP or some other UN-related
organization — or work as autonomous entities under the chapeau of an international, national, or
non-governmental organization. Often, mixtures of organizations are deployed at the same site while
working on different projects, as in a development programme. In order to coordinate and inform about
the diverse activities in progress, regular meetings are crucial and beneficial to all parties.
The UN Agencies operate using a cluster system, with one agency taking the lead in each important
area such as child care, water, or food. This creates a good working atmosphere and may ease feelings
of isolation. It is important to involve local actors in these programmes as well, not only as professionals,
but as individuals. As for the mission headquarters, it is an advantage to understand and know the
different actors, their competence, and respective tasks.
118
Section 5.3 Civil-Military Cooperation
Concept
There are different interpretations of the terms disaster relief operation, humanitarian actions,
and humanitarian assistance operations. In general, disaster relief operations aim at easing the
living conditions for populations severely affected by a natural disaster, while humanitarian actions or
humanitarian assistance operations are mandated in response to man-made disasters caused by conflict.
Such conflicts are often characterized by political instability, civil unrest, a non-secure environment,
and violence. Consequently, these humanitarian actions or assistance operations must alleviate human
suffering and help satisfy basic needs, while at the same time civilians (and aid workers themselves)
need protection from discrimination, violence, and other serious violations of human rights. Under these
conditions, the United Nations may mandate a peace operation.
These kinds of peace operations require both civilian and military elements. Civilian components
provide the necessary expertise to assist refugees, handle food distribution, and facilitate medical care,
while the military generally assumes responsibility for transport, protection, and security. In the past,
these circumstances have produced contrasting expectations between military and civilian personnel,
resulting in rivalry or differing views of their mandates.
Functions and Structure
Because of these different views, it became necessary to find mechanisms that would improve
interaction between civilians and the military. The military have institutionalized this as Civil-Military
Cooperation (CIMIC). Today, CIMIC is a wide-ranging undertaking that relates to a system of interaction,
involving exchange of information, negotiation, de-confliction, mutual support, and planning at all levels
between military elements and humanitarian organizations, development organizations, and the local
civil population in order to achieve UN objectives.
Through joint training courses, seminars, and workshops, civil and military participants become
familiar with the nature of multidimensional operations, the different obligations and demands of the
various actors, and the differences and similarities in mandates and terms of references. A number of
governmental and non-governmental organizations and institutions run training courses where civil-
military cooperation is the key issue. The establishment of a common code of conduct in civil-military
relations will further enhance future cooperation.
The focal point for UN civil-military coordination in the United Nations system is the Civil-Military
Coordination Section (CMCS) of OCHA. Based in Geneva, Switzerland, the Section provides the
international community with a range of services, including common training, support for exercises,
internationally agreed guidelines, and operational capabilities. The Civil-Military Coordination Officer
Field Handbook (March 2008) provides all of the necessary information.
UN CIMIC Policy was first released in 2010 and in 2012. United Nations Civil-Military Coordination
Specialized Training Materials (UN-CIMIC STM) were released to complement the policy and prepare
personnel for field deployment.1 The Policy defines “UN-CIMIC” as a military staff function that
1) UN Repository. United Nations Civil-Military Coordination Specialized Training Materials (UN-CIMIC STM), 2012. <http://repository.un.org/bitstream/
handle/11176/89582/STM%20UNCIMIC.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y>.
119
contributes to facilitating the interface between the military and civilian components of an integrated
mission, as well as with the humanitarian and development actors in the mission area, in order to
support UN mission objectives.
The generic establishment of a Civil Military coordination office in a field mission has also become
a reality. The office can serve as the primary interface between the military and the humanitarian
components and facilitates coordination and cooperation among all humanitarian actors in the field. The
office can ensure that civil-military operations activities are coordinated and linked to the operation’s
overall objectives. It brings together military and civilian efforts, avoids duplications, and serves as a
clearing-house for all of the intricate problems that can arise when dealing with humanitarian problems
in a multidimensional operation. It serves as a venue for sharing information concerning military issues
and ongoing humanitarian programmes.
The management of civil military coordination activities in a field mission is often challenged by
cultural differences between military and civilian components as well as between the military themselves,
in their understanding of CIMIC and outreach role and functions, as well as by multiple chains of
command and reporting.
Section 5.4 Safety and Security Environment

Most operations take place in areas affected by natural or man-made catastrophes. Damage from
these disasters such as broken infrastructure, chaos, and scarce resources not only make living conditions
uncomfortable but are likely to create unstable, unsafe, and unsecure situations as well. In emergencies
caused by civil unrest or war, the inability of local and national authorities to ensure security creates
additional danger that may threaten the lives of the local people as well as UN personnel.
These conditions and exposure to threats such as gunfire, explosives, and ambushes may be
further aggravated when personnel must work somewhat vulnerably in isolated areas, far from normal
infrastructure with extremely limited resources or support. Basic medical facilities and means of
transport are not always accessible, and knowledge about current security conditions is often difficult to
attain. Fatal situations have occurred with an alarming frequency in recent years.
The effective provision of security depends on a wide range of factors:
»» What is the level of threat?
»» What kind of security is required?
»» What resources are available?
»» How can the security environment be enhanced?
The United Nations, in combination with its agencies and NGOs, provides mission security through
a variety of means, including through peacekeeping forces with protective mandates, military and
police of various types, local arrangements with warring parties, use of the local police force, and
various combinations of the aforementioned. However, the complexity and comprehensiveness of most
operations require that all humanitarian pursuits, when undertaken by the parties concerned, are also
part of confidence-building activities, which should also be considered as a means of enhancing the
security environment.
120
The most common organizational security structures are presented in the following sections. It
should be noted that most major organizations within the UN system have their own security organization
with the ability to advise employed personnel on matters concerning security and safety.
Displaced children stand at the gate of

the African Union-United Nations Hybrid
Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) base
in Saraf Omra, North Darfur. In the
aftermath of a tribal conflict that erupted
on 7 March, an estimated 55,000 people
from Saraf Omra and neighbouring
villages were displaced. Many sought
refuge in the UNAMID vicinity of the in
town, while others moved to villages in
Central and West Darfur. The feuding
communities signed a cessation-of-
hostilities agreement on 12 March. 18
March 2014. UN Photo #583295 by
Albert González Farran.
UN Security Structure
The United Nations has made substantial efforts to enhance security for its field personnel. Within
the UN system, the Under-Secretary-General for the Department of Safety and Security (DSS) has
the overall responsibility for security of all civilian personnel. In addition, the executive heads of UN
agencies support UN security management by appointment of a Senior Security Manager (SSM) and/or
a Senior Security Focal Point (SSFP) with the responsibility for the organization’s security functions. In
countries where the United Nations has a presence, the Secretary-General will appoint a senior official
as the Designated Official (DO) with the responsibility for security and protection of staff members, their
dependents, and UN property. Normally, this person is the United Nations Resident Coordinator (RC).
» To read more about DSS, visit <www.un.org/undss/>.
If the SRSG/HOM of a multidimensional mission is appointed as the DO, he/she is accountable

to the Secretary-General through the Under-Secretary-General of DSS. The uniformed personnel of
the military and police components do not fall under the UN security management system. Rather,
they are under the exclusive jurisdiction of the HOM. Staff members of civilian components and their
spouses and dependents are, however, included in UN security arrangements. On security matters, the
military components will work closely with the DO and the Security Management Team (SMT) in order to
establish the best security environment for all personnel working within a mission.
121
Security Provided by Military Organizations
In addition to other peacekeeping activities, the deployed peacekeeping military force is normally
tasked to provide protection to UN field personnel. Such protection may include physical protection and
also cooperation with the SMT/CSA to coordinate other security activities such as advice, assessment,
and evacuation of field personnel out of the mission area if needed. A military force is normally deployed
throughout the mission area. Through checkpoints, observation posts, patrols, and an area-watch,
the military will acquire very useful information about the prevailing situation. Through an excellent
communication network, units and individuals are able to communicate and provide reports about
changes or events of importance. As their transport capacity allows a high degree of mobility, personnel
can be transported from one place to another very rapidly in an emergency.
Apart from military observers, all military units are armed and, in general, able to protect or rescue
mission personnel when necessary. In highly volatile areas, transports can be escorted, and in case
of hostilities, civilian field personnel may find themselves safer if accommodated in military camps.
Supporting units include medical elements of various sizes and with medical facilities of high standards.
A coordinated search for weapons and

restricted items was conducted at the
Protection of Civilians (POC) site of the
UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS),
located in the Tomping area of Juba.
Yields of the search conducted by military
and police components of UNMISS, as well
as Community Watch Group members,
included four machetes, two knives, one
hammer, two police batons, one pick-axe
and sixty iron bars. 03 December 2014.
UN Photo #614702 by JC McIlwaine.
Through organization and professional experience in the assessment of security conditions, the
military is able to provide briefings about security and assist with movements or other activities in
the mission area. In case of high levels of hostilities, the Head of Mission may decide to evacuate all
personnel or initially all civilian personnel. If this occurs, the force is normally authorized to assume the
full responsibility for the evacuation.
Military Observer or Police Missions do not have the same capacity in terms of protection, transport,
or medical support. In terms of manpower, they are much more limited in size to a full force. On the
other hand, they have superior knowledge about the general situation, and through local populations
they learn about the local security status. Since they are unarmed, they are not able to provide physical
protection, but through their professional education and training, they are useful in the assessment of
current situations and in advising on questions concerning safety and security. Their unarmed presence
is generally not considered a threat to the conflicting parties, thus allowing observers and police to
promote consent and positive cooperation. As a result, the security conditions frequently improve.
122
Ahmed Himmiche (right),

head of the group of
unarmed UN Military
Observers (UNMO) recently
dispatched to Syria, speaks
with children on the streets
of Homs as he and his team
patrol the city. 21 April
2012. UN Photo #511093
by Neeraj Singh.
Provisions by Other Entities
Because the main purpose of security is to guarantee safe conditions for relief workers and others
in carrying out their duties, other mechanisms for security have been utilized as well. Although not
frequently used, these mechanisms may be in place when the United Nations is not present or if the
organizations’ security arrangements have not yet been established. In previous cases like this, non-
governmental organizations have established liaisons and entered into security arrangements with the
local warring factions. Their main duties were to serve as bodyguards, to escort convoys and personnel,
and to guard warehouses. However, in volatile situations, such personnel may actually become a threat
because of long-standing loyalties to their own factions. In some cases, these disadvantages have often
prevailed over the advantages of utilizing local guards. Depending on the political situation, a better
solution is the use of local police entities belonging to a national police force, particularly since the host
government always has the main responsibility for security.
However, if the United Nations is present, whatever security arrangements are considered require an
assessment and approval by the present DO or his/her SMT/CSA. Even when special security attention
does not appear necessary, for example, during generally peaceful conditions or when an established
national police force is present, remember that the situation may change, and the previous assessment
may turn out to be incorrect. Therefore, it is of utmost importance that security assessments always
be made by professionals with security knowledge and experience and always by the UN security
management team.
The use of private security organizations is a problematic issue in the international setting. As hired
professionals with limited stake in the mandate, their neutrality to the UN and potential cooperation with
local authorities will always be a weakness. However, the United Nations may in some circumstances
protect their offices, premises, and personnel by employing private security agencies, particularly if the
host government is unable to provide the required security. The choice should be made with caution.
123
1. When an individual accustomed to his 6. Both civilian and military components

or her cultural environment suddenly responsible for a variety of tasks serve
must navigate a different one, this can under the authority of whom?
often result in feelings of discomfort or
disorientation, commonly known as: 7. The military force is commanded by
A. Shell shock whom?
B. Culture shock
8. The focal point for UN civil-military
C. Critical Stress Syndrome
coordination in the United Nations
D. Agoraphobia system is the _____.
2. When drinking, cooking, and washing, it A. Civil-Military Coordination Section (CMCS)

is critical to use _____ wisely, since local of the Office for the Coordination of
supply may be polluted, contaminated, Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)
or scarce: B. Department of Peace Operations (DPO)
A. Meat C. General Assembly
B. Alcohol D. Senior Security Focal Point (SSFP)
C. Fuel
D. Water 9. Within the UN system, the _____ has the
overall responsibility for security of all
3. _____ syringes, needles, and other civilian personnel.
medical equipment may cause severe, A. Security Council
life-threatening infections, including B. Under-Secretary-General for the Department
HIV:
of Safety and Security (DSS)
A. Sealed C. Security Coordinator
B. Unopened D. Director of UN Police
C. Sterile
D. Unsterile 10. In countries where the United Nations
has a presence, the Secretary-General
4. Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) will appoint a senior official as the _____
requires: with the responsibility for security
and protection of staff members, their
A. The integration of gender perspectives into
dependents, and UN property:
peace processes
A. Military Observer
B. The separation of gender perspectives during
B. Under-Secretary-General for the Department
peace processes
of Safety and Security (DSS)
C. The removal of men from the peace process
C. Designated Official (DO)
D. The removal of women from the peace
D. Force Commander
process
5. Civil-military cooperation seeks to

improve _____.
A. The recruitment of civilians into the military
B. The decommissioning process for soldiers
C. The working relationship in the field
between civil and military organizations with
institutional cultural differences
D. The separation of civil and military Answer Key provided on the next page.
operations
124
1. What kinds of factors contribute to the multicultural working

environment of a mission?
2. How does mainstreaming gender perspectives and promoting

the inclusion of women improve the peace process and the
security environment?
3. How do civilian and military actors interact in the field and why
is their cooperation beneficial?
4. What structures are in place to manage security of UN personnel

in the field?
Answer Key »
1. B
2. D
3. D
4. A
5. C
6. Head of Mission (HOM).
7. Force Commander (FC).
8. A
9. B
10. C
125
LESSON
Principles and Responsibilities
6 of UN Field Personnel
UN personnel are
expected to serve to
the best of their ability
while adhering to basic
professional principles.
UN Photo #606321 by Harandane Dicko.
Section 6.1 Service for Humanity • Recognize the inspiration for humanitarian
service of the world.
Section 6.2 Obligations and Duties
• Understand the obligations and duties of an
Section 6.3 Cultural and Social Demands
agent of the United Nations.
Section 6.4 Personal Demands
• Understand the cultural and social dynamics of a
Section 6.5 Privileges and Immunities mission and how to handle them.
Annex A: Ten Rules — Code of Personal • Know the scope and limitations of privileges and
Conduct for Blue Helmets immunities for UN personnel.
• Identify the ten rules of personal conduct for

peacekeepers.
126
LESSON 6 | Principles and Responsibilities of UN Field Personnel
Team members unload munitions from a trailer. The joint team, consisting of members of the Ugandan and Burundian contingents of
the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM), destroyed over 75 kilos of munitions captured from al-Shabaab militants, at a safe
location outside Mogadishu. UN Photo #550441 by Tobin Jones.
UN field missions are highly multifaceted, where

military and police operations, civilian officers,
political assistance, humanitarian intervention, and
development blend with various chains of command
and reporting mechanisms.
The resulting blend of service members, in

combination with their multicultural background, is
both a strength and a challenge for a mission. This View a video introduction of this
lesson at <www.peaceopstraining.
diversity is a political strength because it reflects the
org/videos/372/principles-and-
international community’s determination to manage responsibilities-of-un-field-personnel/>.
and solve a problem and enhances mission’s credibility

and legitimacy. However, it can also present an
operational challenge because of sometimes different
levels of experience and preparation that initially
hamper an efficient implementation of a programme or
an operation. It is essential that this transition period
be as short as possible.
127
A good knowledge of the Field Officer’s forthcoming general duties and responsibilities is, therefore,
a prerequisite to a future field assignment. Note that this lesson cannot provide a full description of
what is expected of the professionals, experts, or volunteers working in specific operations. Detailed
information about an actual mission should be provided through in-country briefing by the appropriate
organization.
Section 6.1 Service for Humanity

The history of humanity shows that individuals, societies, and nations have always assisted and
helped each other in times of need. This tendency increases during wars, catastrophes, and similar
events. The unbearable living conditions in the Franco-Austrian war of 1859 promoted the creation of
the International Red Cross. Warfare of the 20th century spawned other similar organizations with a
similar purpose − to bring relief to suffering populations.
The end of the colonial system revealed a number of problems caused by the colonial legacy, and
the creation of new nation states accelerated. Many of these new nations found themselves dependent
on international assistance. This dependence, together with some severe droughts and subsequent
famines, fostered the dramatic evolution of non-governmental organizations. This development also
affected the United Nations as the Organization became more involved in the development of these
new nations and assumed greater responsibility for populations suffering from natural or man-made
disasters. The end of the Cold War era also increased the participation of the international community.
The establishment of peacekeeping missions created another dimension to the work carried out by
civilians. The expansion of peacekeeping tools resulted in compounding operational demands that could
not be met by the military alone. Subsequently, civilian personnel were extensively recruited.
Today, tens of thousands of civilian and military professionals, experts, volunteers, and others work
all over the globe in the name of the United Nations. They come from different cultures and with
different educational backgrounds, yet are united by the same aim and purpose — “to meet the priority
needs of all people that can be sustained over future generations.” The obligations and duties of these
personnel express the values and standards for this work.
Section 6.2 Obligations and Duties
General Obligations
While serving on a mission, a Field Officer will be responsible to the HOM; thus, he/she should
not seek or accept orders or instructions from any other authority. In order to maintain objectivity
and efficiency in their performances, the Field Operator should keep in mind the best interests of the
United Nations, the government, or the NGO they are serving. The Field Operator should have the
ability to make the distinction between “idealistic” and “realistic” attitudes and approaches to problems
and be able to determine the best actual achievable course of action, as opposed to one that is simply
desirable. Field Operators are almost always part of a team and thus must coordinate their actions to
cooperate fully in carrying out all operational activities. They have to demonstrate their commitment,
dedication, and high motivation, as well as possess a high degree of professionalism and experience.
It is assumed that Field Operators have the ability to analyse a problem and inform the superiors or
128
Members of the Jordanian battalion of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH)
carry children through flood waters after a rescue from an orphanage destroyed by hurricane “Ike”.
07 September 2008. #192797 by Marco Dormino.
counterparts about the findings in a clear and Traits of a UN Field Officer »

factual manner. FOs must also be prepared to
• Good judgment and accountability,
accept organizational and representative tasks in
supported by a common-sense approach;
the performance of their duties.
• An objective approach to problem-solving;
Duties will be carried out in an environment
• The ability to discuss difficult situations
foreign to most Field Officers, usually
without causing offence;
encumbered by difficult living conditions, high-
stress situations, and language barriers. As • A polite demeanour, combined with a firm
representatives of the United Nations, Field but flexible and honest approach;
Operators must ensure that they are capable • Considerable self-discipline and patience;
of accomplishing the tasks required and that
• A friendly, open approach and a ready
their performances will favourably reflect upon
sense of humour;
the United Nations and/or their employing
• An ability to influence others, credibility as
organization. This requires a Field Officer who
a leader;
is physically fit, of sound character, mature
in attitude and outlook, and in possession of • Comfort in both working and social
the appropriate professional and technical environments;
qualifications for the mission/work. In addition, it • Capability to understand the organization

is expected that the FOs have a genuine interest and functional arrangements of the mission;
and commitment to supporting the efforts of
• Interest in the people or community he/she
others.
has to assist;
In a UN field mission, the Field Officer must • Respect for national laws; and
bear in mind that his/her job is one made up of
• Respect and regard for human rights of all.
numerous parts, even if those parts sometimes
129
seem totally unrelated. It is very useful for the newly arrived FO to be aware that non-governmental
organizations, other UN civilians, and/or military components and humanitarian agencies may have
been working in the mission area long before he/she arrived and, accordingly, have established long-
standing contacts and liaisons. Additionally, FOs are expected to demonstrate their professionalism and
experience in helping and assisting new incoming personnel.
General Duties and Demands
Depending on the level of seniority and professional experiences, FOs may work at centralized
locations or in the field while addressing all area of emergencies or development. Particularly in
central locations, FOs must be prepared to carry out investigations and analyses, as well as to make
recommendations from a more political/strategic level. They must be able to communicate using not
only technical jargon but also clear, concise, and convincing language. While adapting themselves to
the organizational environment and accepting rules and procedures, they must always keep in mind
the prevailing interests of the United Nations. As the head of an entity, the FO will need to manage
the employed personnel and available resources as effectively as possible, as well as present himself
or herself as a positive representative of the mission. In the field, the FO will encounter the same
demands, but tasks will become more challenging due to other living conditions and scarce administrative
resources.
In the areas of his/her professional capacities, the FOs should be prepared to:
• Support, collaborate, encourage, and motivate;
• Maintain impartiality and objectivity;
• Establish and support partnerships and links between and among entities/communities;
• Work in a team, i.e., share and interact with others and build on the ideas of others when
appropriate;
• Network and collaborate with other partners and counterparts;
• Adapt to different social, cultural, and political circumstances;
• Promote gender equality; and
• Understand and value diversity in the context of ethnicity, nationality, religion, experience, etc.).
All FOs are recruited and selected on the basis of their experience and professionalism relevant
to the assigned work. In spite of their different professional backgrounds, cultures, social, and
educational experiences, they must all possess psychological stability and flexibility to be able to
withstand unexpected challenges. An innate level of mental stability, strengthened through training
and preparation, must be part of the FOs’ credentials. However, mental stability relies on factors that
training alone cannot provide, no matter how extensive it may be. The existence of a family or loved
ones, a healthy social life, and an absence of personal problems are conditions that contribute to a
good Field Operator. They are all factors that provide a psychological resiliency and firmness, which are
indispensable when difficult conditions prevail.
130
Section 6.3 Cultural and Social Demands
Behavioural Principles
Appearance and performance should reflect

what is expected of UN personnel. FOs must display
tolerance towards other cultures, some of which
may differ greatly from their own. Appreciation of
local customs, group or individual beliefs, and values
and behaviour is essential. Personal disapproval,
disagreement, disappointment, or irritation should
be minimized so that such feelings do not prevent
FOs from maintaining friendly and cooperative Chadian peacekeepers with the UN Multidimensional
Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali on patrol. 03
relationships with the people with whom they are
November 2013. UN Photo #569541 by Marco Dormino.
working. The FO must understand the universal
importance of the personal perception of respect.
As addressed in Lesson 5, many societies have strict rules concerning relationships between men
and women, but there are also rules on how to pay attention to spiritual leaders, religious artefacts, and
places of worship. FOs must be aware that although their personal behaviour may be considered normal
in their own community, some of their habits may cause offence in other communities. For example,
collecting souvenirs of religious artefacts is considered both sacrilegious and a criminal offence, and a
seemingly simple gesture, such as patting a small child on the head, is considered highly offensive in
some cultures. Most local elders will be happy to discuss their faith, customs, and habits with interested
foreigners as long as the approach is made in a respectful manner and does not compromise the elder’s
position in his society. Understanding body language can help prevent many misunderstandings.
While in Western countries, it is normal for women and men to shake hands, it is not the same for
some predominantly Muslim countries or some Eastern cultures. While in some Western countries, it is
considered rude to stare, in some cultures it is not. Peacekeeping troops might be asked to report about
children protection issues. Being aware that some Muslim cultures follow Sharia law in place of civil
law in their marriages might help prevent some misunderstandings. While in some countries it is not
common for cousins to marry, in some cultures it is normal. Sex before marriage could be considered a
crime in some countries.
Therefore, prospective FOs should make every effort to prepare for the assignment by making use
of public documentation, written reports, and conversations with others who previously served in the
area in order to understand the history of the host-country, background of the conflict and expectations
from the UN peacekeepers. This will ensure that no one will accidentally cause offence.
Thousands of people are deployed in various missions around the world. In each mission, small or
large, credibility depends not only on the ability to carry out the UN mandate but also on the quality
of behaviour demonstrated by each individual. Both the population of the hosting organization/country
and the international community closely observe the conduct of UN personnel, particularly in highly
visible and problematic missions. Consequently, it is important that each person serving under the
United Nations demonstrates extraordinary discretion, restraint, and sensitivity towards other cultures
so that their behaviour does not reflect poorly upon the image of the Organization as a whole.
131
Understanding the requirements and expected outcomes are crucial if the FO is to be successful in
his/her duties. Not surprisingly, it is required that an FO has good manners, with flexibility, sensitivity,
and patience. Additionally, the FOs must comprehend the overall guiding principles of a UN organization,
such as impartiality, loyalty, integrity, and independence. These key principles may be interpreted
differently, but generally the following applies:
»» Impartiality is the foundation for the United Nations. Therefore,

an FO should not favour any party over the other. Instead, an
FO should act as a bridge when disputes occur. Feelings and
private opinions must be unbiased in order to achieve peace.
»» Loyalty means that the FO must be loyal not only to the United
Nations and its goals and principles, but also to the work and
his/her supervisors. Trust and confidence are critical issues in
tense or difficult situations.
»» Integrity is the foundation for credibility and authority. The

FO must always avoid activities that may reflect poorly on the
FO’s position or the United Nations, and therefore, he/she must
expect and accept special public and private constraints.
»» Independence means, among other things, that the FO must

refrain from all political activities and not seek or accept
instruction from anyone outside the United Nations.
FOs need to accept these overall principles when working in the UN system, but they should always
apply their own ideas in accordance with the local people and share their ideas and plans with their
counterparts.
Code of Conduct
Experience over time has obliged most organizations to issue some sort of code of conduct.
The standard of a behavioural code is a sensitive topic, which is often emotionally charged since it
tries to impose certain behaviours on individuals with different educational and ethnic backgrounds.
However, some standards of conduct are necessary with a view to conforming individuals to the specific
requirements of the mission. Every peacekeeping operation has a code of conduct, which is adjusted
sometimes to local demands or other special circumstances. These rules express in an explicit language
what is expected by the military peacekeepers, and, to a certain extent, they serve as a guide to those
civilians who would like to know what is and what is not acceptable. The FOs’ failure to comply with
these guidelines will result in consequences that may jeopardize the work of the mission and may also
erode confidence and trust in the FO and/or in the United Nations itself. These rules can be found at the
end of this lesson.
132
A Thai UN Police
officer (front, left) and
an officer with the
Vulnerable Persons Unit
of the Polícia Nacional
de Timor-Leste (PNTL),
at right, respond to a
domestic abuse case
in Gleno, Timor-Leste.
16 December 2009.
UN Photo #424431 by
Martine Perret.
Section 6.4 Personal Demands

This lesson and the information provided by the organizations in the field are assumed to describe
the duties and responsibilities in the field. However, some information is neither to be found in Lesson 6
nor provided in the in-country briefings. Regardless, the FO has the responsibility to obtain all additional
information available, not only regarding the working requirements, but also about what is expected by
the FO as an individual and as a part of a team. Depending on the prevailing conditions, some issues
may be more important than others.
Expectations
The overall guiding principle of a mission is its mandate. In a large mission, the mandate may be
a part of the UN resolution, but it can also be a part of a policy document issued by a government or
non-governmental agency. Sometimes, particularly in small missions (a project with limited objectives),
the mandate might be a project document. Even if it is just a project document, the mandate falls under
some overriding principles or policy decisions.
The FO should acquaint himself or herself with the mandate and the expressed policies/principles by
studying them, thus fully understanding and appreciating the overall goals of his/ her forthcoming work.
Even if all necessary information has been provided in terms of duties, expectations, and job descriptions,
there will always be questions of personal or professional character. The FO should never hesitate to
ask any questions, regardless of how irrelevant the questions may seem. Questions and answers are
essential parts of human interaction and the means for the sharing of ideas and opportunities. In asking
his/her superiors or counterpart appropriate questions, both parties will obtain a clearer understanding
of each other, thus avoiding potential misinterpretations in the future.
The question of authority is another area of concern. What kind of decision can be taken, and
on whose behalf? To overstep one’s authority causes confusion, embarrassment, and, if improperly
handled, may jeopardize the work itself. Therefore, the matter of authority is an issue to be discussed
in connection with the job description and the areas of responsibilities.
133
In the beginning of an assignment, it is a good idea to keep a low profile when discussing specific
issues. Although the FO may have a profound knowledge of his/her professional area, it is better to listen,
reflect, and apply the knowledge as appropriate, rather than rushing to give opinions and unsolicited
suggestions. This does not mean that the FOs should just accept what is being said and not respond.
However, a briefing should be considered more than an exercise, and FOs should recognize that they,
for the time being, have limited local experience that does not allow for a comprehensive assessment
that considers all perspectives. It is better to bide one’s time, reflect on what has been discussed, and
respond later. “Listen, learn, and wait,” is a common rule to all newly assigned personnel.
Teamwork is crucial, regardless of where an FO is placed. FOs will work with partners from other
countries (or counterparts from the local community) with likely different values and expectations.
Knowing his/her partners is the foundation for future cooperation. Being able to sit together and share
information and ideas is an essential part of mutual trust and confidence. Likewise, it is beneficial to
discuss how the work is to be carried out, what should be achieved, and how to find joint solutions.
The proposals and suggested solutions of local counterparts should be encouraged and supported as
much as possible (if their ideas are achievable). Although this sounds rather simple in theory, it is more
difficult in practice. A positive chemistry between working partners promotes ideas and opportunities, but
when the chemistry does not exist, the situation becomes more problematic. Respect, understanding,
appreciation, subordination, and listening combined with a good share of humour are useful tools in all
working relationships. Teamwork is always a matter of “give and take,” and information-sharing and
discussions are proven tools.
Sergeant Dora Doroye,

one of the 41 female
members serving with
the UN Mission in Liberia
(UNMIL)’s Ghanaian
battalion, leads morning
exercises at a Mission
base in Buchanan,
Liberia. Sergeant
Doroye is her battalion’s
first female physical
instructor. 17 April 2009.
UN Photo #389618 by
Christopher Herwig.
Fitness
As of July 2014, more than 18,000 FOs (international staff, local civilian staff, and UN Volunteers) out
of 123,000 peacekeepers worked in emergency or similar operations where the working conditions were
demanding and stressful. Consequently, physical fitness is an important requirement for performing
duties in a foreign environment, particularly where FOs may sometimes be encumbered by difficult living
conditions, stressful situations, or traumatic experiences. Considering the extraordinary circumstances
134
of an emergency operation, it is understandable that good physical and mental fitness are a necessity in
order to withstand the constraints and pressure that are a part of daily life.
The FO is expected to be in top physical condition, with no sicknesses, allergies, or other psychological
or physical problems that may jeopardize his/her work, since any health problem may be difficult to
cope with in areas with limited medical facilities. Of equal importance is the ability to confront intense
or traumatic situations. Although it is beyond the scope of this course, proper stress management
should emphasize that advanced knowledge about the mission, such as living conditions, duration of
the assignment, and nature of the mission, can reduce the factors that may contribute to emotional
instability. A strong character, a well-rounded personality, and stable mental health are essential assets
to a gratifying experience in the field.
Section 6.5 Privileges and Immunities

Depending on the given contract, FOs may enjoy the legal and international privileges and immunities
defined in the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, specifically under
Article VI (Experts on Missions for the United Nations), which are adhered to by the governments in a
mission area. Notwithstanding international acceptance of the philosophy of Article VI, FOs must comply
with the host country’s actual laws and regulations.1 The Secretary-General has the right and authority
to waive the immunities and international privileges accorded to an FO in any case where, in his or her
opinion, such immunities and privileges would impede the course of justice.
In general, all personnel working under the United Nations’ umbrella are protected. However,
different types of contracts provide different levels of protection. While some personnel are entitled
to an official passport, others are not. In some cases, the employing organization issues an identity
card, and in other cases, it will be issued by the United Nations Headquarters. In addition to the proper
identification, all temporary employed personnel will be provided with some sort of terms of service
normally contained in a Conditions-of-Service Agreement.
1) Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations. <http://www.un.org/en/ethics/pdf/convention.pdf>.
135
Annex A: Ten Rules – Code of Personal Conduct for Blue Helmets
These ten rules are a handy and standard reference for peacekeeping personnel. Conduct and
discipline issues are an essential component of pre-deployment and in-mission induction training,
which is mandatory for all civilian, military, and police peacekeeping personnel. For more information,
visit the UN Conduct and Discipline Unit online at <https://cdu.unlb.org/>.
TEN RULES
CODE OF PERSONAL CONDUCT
FOR BLUE HELMETS
1 Dress, think, talk, act and behave in a

manner befitting the dignity of a disci-
plined, caring, considerate, mature,
respected and trusted soldier, displaying
the highest integrity and impartiality. Have
pride in your position as a peace-keeper
and do not abuse or misuse your authority.
2 Respect the law of the land of the host

country, their local culture, traditions,
customs and practices.
3 Treat the inhabitants of the host country

with respect, courtesy and consideration.
You are there as a guest to help them and
in so doing will be welcomed with admira-
tion. Neither solicit or accept any material
reward, honor or gift.
4 Do not indulge in immoral acts of sexual,

physical or psychological abuse or exploita-
tion of the local population or United Nations
staff, especially women and children.
136
5 Respect and regard the human rights of

all. Support and aid the infirm, sick and
weak. Do not act in revenge or with
malice, in particular when dealing with
prisoners, detainees or people in your
custody.
6 Properly care for and account for all United

Nations money, vehicles, equipment and
property assigned to you and do not trade or
barter with them to seek personal benefits.
7 Show military courtesy and pay appropri-

ate compliments to all members of the
mission, including other United Nations
contingents regardless of their creed,
gender, rank or origin.
8 Show respect for and promote the envi-
ronment, including the flora and fauna, of
the host country.
9 Do not engage in excessive consumption

of alcohol or traffic in drugs.
10 Exercise the utmost discretion in handling
confidential information and matters of official
business which can put lives into danger or
soil the image of the United Nations.
137
1. Which factor contributed to the growth 6. Should an FO participate in political

of the international relief community and activities?
the prolific creation of non-governmental
A. Yes, it is beneficial to show a political
organizations?
affiliation
A. The terrible conditions of war
B. No, the FO must refrain from political
B. The dismantling of the colonial system activities to maintain independence and
C. The end of the Cold War impartiality
D. All of the above
7. What states the overall guiding principle
2. Who is the UN Field Officer’s authority of a mission?
while on mission?
A. The Head of Mission (HOM) 8. Notwithstanding international
B. The Host Government
acceptance of the philosophy of Article
VI, FOs _____ the host country’s actual
C. The Ambassador of his/her native country
laws and regulations.
D. A Field Officer is not responsible to any
A. Must not comply with
authority
B. Department of Peace Operations (DPO)
3. To demonstrate impartiality, an FO C. Are suggested to follow

should _____. D. Must comply with
A. Favour one party over the other
9. TRUE or FALSE? No one has the right or
B. Act as a bridge when disputes occur
authority to waive the immunities and
C. Make decisions based on feelings and private international privileges accorded to an
opinions FO.
D. Use personal bias to determine who is right A. True, the immunities and international
in a conflict privileges under Article VI are absolute
according to international law.
4. An FO must be loyal to _____.
B. False, the Secretary-General has the right
A. His or her national government’s objectives
and authority to waive immunities and
B. The host government international privileges in any case where
C. The United Nations and its goals and such immunities and privileges would impede
principles the course of justice.
D. The local party offering the best bribe
10. Considering the extraordinary
5. The foundation for credibility and circumstances of an emergency
authority is _____. operation, it is understandable that
_____ physical and mental fitness are
A. Integrity
a necessity in order to withstand the
B. Bias constraints and pressure that are a part
C. Indifference of daily life.
D. Rigidity A. Good
B. Average
C. Basic
D. Little
138
1. What motivates people to serve away from home in extreme or

potentially dangerous environments? What qualities make this
work effective and worthwhile?
2. When UN personnel violate the Code of Conduct, what are the

potential consequences ranging from the personal level to the
mission level as well as the Organization level?
3. What personal characteristics are beneficial or ideal for an FO

serving in the field environment?
Answer Key »
1. D
2. A
3. B
4. C
5. A
6. B
7. Its mandate.
8. D
9. B
10. A
139
LESSON
Safety and Security for
7 UN Field Personnel
Constant awareness and

properly administrated
precautions are vital in
order to protect personal
safety and security.
UN Photo #612809 by Marco Dormino.
Section 7.1 Responding to Threats Facing • Identify the most common dangerous activities
the UN System in the field.
Section 7.2 Main Principles and Structure of • Identify general safety and security precautions
the UN Security Management in various settings.
System (UNSMS)
• Recognize different points of vulnerability.
Section 7.3 Responsibilities of UN Personnel
• Know when special security precautions may be
Section 7.4 Personal Safety and Precautions needed.
Section 7.5 Travel Precautions • Know how to respond to minor medical

emergencies.
Section 7.6 Sexual Harassment and Sexual
Assault
Section 7.7 Special Security Precautions
Section 7.8 First Aid
Section 7.9 Coping with Stress
140
LESSON 7 | Safety and Security for UN Field Personnel
The UN Mine Action Service (UNMAS) holds a demonstration of the work of sniffer dogs in the Protection of Civilians (POC) camp at
the Tomping site of the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS), in Juba. The dogs can detect weapons and explosives, and are used to
screen internally displaced people (IDPs) arriving at the entrance gate, as well as to conduct random searches throughout the camp.
26 June 2014. UN Photo #593358 by JC McIlwaine.
Safety and security for United Nations personnel

working in the field is of major concern. Thousands of
field workers (both uniformed personnel and civilians)
have lost their lives due to either hostile actions or
incidents related to car accidents. Although the UN
Under-Secretary-General for the Department of Safety
and Security (DSS) has the overriding responsibility for
policy and procedural matters, as well as the issuance View a video introduction of this
of proper recommendations to ensure the safety and
videos/373/safety-and-security-for-un-
security in the field, the practical responsibility lies field-personnel/>.
upon each FO. Consequently, acquaintance with UN
security plans should have the top priority as soon as
an FO arrives to the mission. Failure to comply with
security instructions and demands is not only a danger
to the FO, but may also pose a threat to the third party.
141
The official United Nations Security Policy Manual (SPM),1 which recently replaced the UN Field Security
Handbook, deals with the system-wide arrangements for protection of UN personnel and properties in
the field. Where this lesson concerns policy, directives, and organizational structure responsibilities, it
is based on relevant sections in both the UN Security Policy Manual and the UN Security Management
System (UNSMS) policies, as well as on the UNHCR’s publication Security Awareness – An Aide-Mémoire.2
This lesson complies with the policies, directives, and guidelines of these documents. However, when
assigned as a member of a mission, every student must act in accordance with the instruction provided
directly by United Nations. Lesson 7 is not a replacement for these official instructions; rather, it serves
as a primer for understanding standard guidance on safety and security as early as possible.
Section 7.1 Responding to Threats Facing the UN System

The suicide truck bomb attack on the UN Headquarters at the Canal Hotel in Baghdad on 19 August
2003, which killed 22 UN staff and visitors and injured more than 150 people, changed some of the
basic assumptions concerning the security and safety of UN staff and property. It was clear that the
threats against the UN had fundamentally escalated. The report of the Independent Panel on the Safety
and Security of UN Personnel, led by Martti Ahtisaari, former Finnish President, made the following
assessment in its investigation of the attack:
“The United Nations could, in theory, be the target of attacks

anywhere at any time, from Baghdad to Kabul, Nairobi,
Jakarta, Geneva, or New York. There are no indications that
the perpetrators of the attacks in Baghdad would refrain from
attacking other UN targets worldwide.”3
Complex political situations frequently cause civil unrest, dangerous conditions characterized by
violence and the use of arms. Under such circumstances, the nation’s infrastructure may deteriorate,
consequently affecting various means of transport, communication, and the availability of (or access to)
medical facilities, food, water, etc. Remote field stations become even more isolated. All of these effects
can put the Field Officer in an increasingly vulnerable position. While malicious acts have a certain
element of predictability, accidents are theoretically avoidable with the right preparation. Although
the figures on accidents are still frightening, improvements have occurred. A better knowledge and
awareness among UN field personnel and the establishment of DSS has indeed improved the situation.
A number of resolutions seek to comprehensively address safety and security issues. Between
1991 and 2004, the General Assembly passed four resolutions on the subject,4 not counting additional
resolutions passed by the Security Council. In 2004, a proposal for strengthening and unifying the
UN security management system was presented to the General Assembly in Report A/59/365. This
resulted in the adoption of General Assembly Resolution that created DSS, which merged the security
management component of the Office of the United Nations Security Coordinator (UNSECOORD), the
Security and Safety Services (SSS) at Headquarters and at Offices Away from Headquarters, and
the security component of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) into a single security
1) UN Security Management System. Security Policy Manual November 2012. <http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Mercenaries/WG/StudyPMSC/

UNSecurityPolicyManual.pdf>.
2) View pdf: <http://saint-claire.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Security-Awareness-Aide-Memoire.pdf>.
3) DSS. History. <https://www.un.org/undss/content/our-history>.
4) 1991 (GA 46/182), 1999 (GA 54/192), 2004 (GA 59/211), and 2006 (GA 60/123).
142
A South African
peacekeeper with the
African Union-UN Hybrid
Operation in Darfur
(UNAMID) is shown on
night patrol at Kassab
Camp for internally
displaced persons
(IDPs) in Kutum, North
Darfur. 26 March 2012.
#509090 by Albert
González Farran.
management framework. The GA also decided to establish a unified capacity for policy, standards,
coordination, communications, compliance, and threat and risk assessment.
The General Assembly passed Resolution 60/123 in 2006, requesting that the Secretary-General
“take necessary measures to ensure full respect for human rights, privileges, and immunities of United
Nations and other personnel carrying activities in fulfilment of the mandate of a United Nations operation
and also requests the Secretary-General to seek inclusion, in negotiation, of headquarters and other
mission agreements concerning United Nations and associated personnel, of the applicable conditions
contained in the convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, the Convention on
Privileges and Immunities of the Special Agencies and the Convention on the Safety of United Nations
and Associated Personnel.”5 The number of resolutions and the explicit language in these resolutions
reflects the United Nations’ concern over the prevailing conditions.
Section 7.2 Main Principles and Structure of the UN Security

Management System
In 2005, DSS was created, and the UN Security Management System was shaped for worldwide
consistency and gradually implemented. In support of establishing and maintaining operations in
insecure and unstable environments, UNSMS adopted the philosophy of “how to stay” rather than “when
to leave” as a tenet of its security management approach. Through DSS, the goal of the UNSMS is to
enable the conduct of UN activities while ensuring the safety, security, and well-being of personnel and
the security of UN premises and assets.
The UN Security Phase System was abolished in 2011 and replaced with the UN Security Level
System (SLS).6 The SLS is an integral part of the Security Risk Management process and is designed to
describe the security environment that exists in an area or location (“Security Level Area”) in which the
United Nations operates. With the SLS, United Nations security professionals can objectively identify and
5) GA 60/123.
6) World Food Programme. Security Level System FAQs. <http://ictemergency.wfp.org/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=c025cb98-2297-4208-bcc6-
76ba02719c02&groupId=10844>.
143
measure the level of threat that exists in a geographic location, characterize a Security Level (1–6) for
that location, and provide an overall impression to staff and managers of how the security environment
in one area or location compares with another.
The SLS is based on threat and not risk. Because security metrics must be designed to solve specific
security problems, the SLS is not used to make specific security decisions. It creates a description of the
threat environment to inform the Security Risk Assessment, from which the environment is evaluated
and security decisions are made.
»» A Security Level is determined using the Structured Threat

Assessment. The Structured Threat Assessment evaluates five
categories: Armed Conflict, Terrorism, Crime, Civil Unrest, and
Hazards.
Each category is evaluated using a point system, and the combination of these separate evaluations
automatically determines the Security Level. The Security Level indicates the level of danger that exists
in the defined area or location on a scale from 1 (least dangerous environment) to 6 (most dangerous
environment). The Designated Official approves Security Levels 1 to 5. The Secretary-General, through
the Under-Secretary-General for Safety and Security, approves Level 6. Upon approval, the Security
Level is recorded in DSS database and automatically included in the DSS Travel Advisory.
Policies, procedures, standards and other arrangements of the UNSMS are applicable to the following
categories of individuals:
»» United Nations personnel, including:
• All UN system staff members, including temporary staff, in posts subject to international or local
recruitment;
• United Nations Volunteers (UNVs);
• Individually deployed military and police personnel in DPO- or DPPA-led missions, including, but
not limited to:  UN police officers, military observers, military liaison officers, military advisers,
staff officers, and military members of national contingents or members of formed police units
when not deployed with their contingent or unit. (It is not applicable to the military members
of national contingents or members of formed police units when deployed with their contingent
or unit nor does it apply to any spouses or other family members of the military and police
personnel listed in this paragraph.)
• Consultants, individual contractors, and experts on mission;
• Officials other than United Nations Secretariat staff members and similar non-staff officials of
other organizations of the United Nations system with a direct contractual agreement with a
United Nations System organization.
»» Other Individuals Covered: 
• Eligible family members;
• Eligible family members of UNVs;
• UN fellows;  
144
• Personnel and their eligible family members of Intergovernmental Organizations that have
signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with an organization of the UN system to
cooperate on security matters.
The governance of security management for the UNSMS as a whole is constituted as follows:
»» At the Headquarters Level
Inter-Agency Security Management Network (IASMN) brings together representatives of all partners
in the UN security management network including UN agencies, funds, and programmes to coordinate
security practices and policies across the UN system.
The executive heads have formalized the governance of security management for the United Nations
system as a whole, as follows:
• A comprehensive review of policies and resource-related issues pertaining to the entire UN

security management system should be a standing item on the agenda of the High-Level
Committee on Management;
• The High-Level Committee on Management will be supported by the IASMN, consisting of the
senior managers who have oversight of the security functions within their agency;
• The IASMN, which will be chaired by the Under-Secretary-General for Safety and Security, will
meet at least once a year to review all existing and proposed policies, procedures, and practices
of the UN security management system and report and make recommendations on these to the
High-Level Committee on Management;
• Between annual meetings, the Under-Secretary-General for Safety and Security may convene
working group meetings among interested organizations to discuss specific security issues. The
reports of the working groups will be provided to the IASMN for review and endorsement;
• The IASMN will monitor the implementation of UN security management policies, practices and
procedures by all actors of the United Nations system, including the budget, and report and
make recommendations thereon to the High-Level Committee on Management;
• The High-Level Committee on Management will review the recommendations made by the
IASMN and either decide on them or recommend to the United Nations System Chief Executives
Board for Coordination how they should be implemented.
The Under-Secretary-General for Safety and Security is responsible for overseeing the UN security
management system. In his/her capacity, he/she must “ensure a coherent response by the United
Nations system to any emergency situation, with responsibility for all policy/procedural matters related
to security issues.” As such, he/she heads DSS.
DSS provides leadership, operational support, and oversight of the security management system
“to enable the safest and most efficient conduct of the programmes and activities of the United Nations
System.”
The executive heads of each of the UN organizations will appoint an SSM and/or an SSFP with
the responsibility of overseeing the organization’s security function. The SSM/SSFP from the various
organizations will ensure coordination and liaison throughout the UN security management system.
145
»» In the Field
The primary responsibility for security and protection of UN personnel, their eligible family members,
and the premises and property of UN rests with the host government. The government is considered
to have a special responsibility under the charter of the UN or the government’s agreements with the
individual organizations.
Irrespective of this, the Secretary-General designates one senior official — the Designated Official
(DO) — in each country where the United Nations is present. He/she is responsible for the security and
protection of all present UN organizations, their staff members, and eligible dependents and property.
In addition, the representative of each present UN organization is, through his/her executive heads,
accountable to the Under-Secretary-General for DSS for all security matters that relate to staff members.
Peter Thomas Drennan

(second from left),
Under-Secretary-General
for Safety and Security,
meets with the Governor
of Gao, in northern Mali.
16 November 2014.
UN Photo #612818 by
Marco Dormino.
Each organization must work closely with the DO. For that purpose, an SMT will be established to
ensure full collaboration on all security matters. The SMT oversees the security conditions in the area
and coordinates all security issues on an inter-agency basis. The SMT must include: the DO; the heads
of Agencies, Programmes, and Funds; the Chief Security Advisor (CSA); and representatives from IGOs/
NGOs and other missions dispatched by DSS. Together with the SMT, the DO will develop and implement
the Minimum Operations Security Standards (MOSS) for all UN operations throughout the country.
At each duty station, the CSA serves as a principle advisor to the DO and the SMT and is responsible
for all aspects of security management. Field Security Coordination Officers (FSCO) or/and the Country
Security Focal Point (CSFP) assist the CSA in his/her work.
Single-agency security officers ensure, apart from his/her agency-specific responsibility, that their
staff members are trained and briefed on security matters within existing policy and procedures. In
addition, a number of wardens, usually in large cities, may ensure proper implementation the UN Security
Plan. Although the system seems a bit complicated, the FO will always find a designated security official
whose instructions the FO should adhere to and from whom the FO can always seek advice.
The SRSG/HOM of a multidimensional mission is usually appointed as the DO and is, in such
cases, accountable through the Under-Secretary-General of DSS to the Secretary-General. On security
matters, the military components will work closely with the DO and the SMT in order to establish the
best security environment for all personnel working within the mission area.
146
UN Volunteers in Juba, Sudan, receive security training in preparation for their deployment to Referendum Support Bases.
The volunteers are working under the UN Integrated Referendum and Electoral Division (UNIRED), established to assist with
Sudan’s two crucial referenda, scheduled for 9 January 2011. 28 October 2010. UN Photo #454561 by Paul Banks.
Section 7.3 Responsibilities of UN Personnel
Promotion of the Security Environment
Every FO should comply with the provided safety and security rules issued in the mission. However,
some basic principles further promote these rules, such as:
• Confidence-building: A secure environment is dependent on the confidence of the various

actors in the mission area. Confidence-building measures are part of the physical protection of
the Field Operator.
• Security consent: In an emergency area, consent includes acceptance of various aspects of

UN activities, such as freedom of movement, use of communication means, employment of local
staff, etc. If possible and when convenient, the necessary security consent should be obtained
from the national and local authorities.
• Adherence to security measures in the mission area: The UN SMT, in combination with
UN agencies and NGOs, has made a number of recommendations including: improved training
and information on safety and security; assessment of security conditions; local arrangements
with warring parties; protection provided by peacekeeping forces; procedures for emergency
evacuation; etc. The FO should adhere to established procedures and exercise common sense
in case of an emergency.
All United Nations personnel must successfully complete “Basic Security in the Field” (BSITF) training.
United Nations personnel being assigned to or visiting on official travel any field location, regardless of
Security Level, must successfully complete “Advanced Security in the Field” (ASITF) training. BSITF and
ASITF certificates are valid for three years, at which point staff members must recertify.
147
A member of the UN Security Team

meets with people on the road between
Yambio and Maridi, Western Equatoria.
A team of UN Security officials travelled
through parts of Central Equatoria,
Western Equatoria, and Western Bahr El
Ghazal, to assess the state of the road
and other conditions, including local
conditions that might impact travel. 25
July 2014. UN Photo #596851 by JC
McIlwaine.
Security clearance is required for all official travel to any location regardless of the Security Level.
The Designated Official has the delegated authority to grant security clearances for official travel to
areas designated Security Level 1 to 5. Security clearance authority for areas in which Security Level
6 is in effect is not delegated and will be granted only by the Under-Secretary General for Safety and
Security on behalf of the Secretary-General. Travel Request Information Process (TRIP) allows for both
“automatic” and “manual” processes for granting security clearances. If the security plan for a certain
location requires security clearance only to track traveller numbers and movement, then Designated
Officials have the option of setting “automatic” clearances in TRIP.
Although these rules are commonly recognized and accepted, they are not always acknowledged
or followed, particularly in an emergency area. For various reasons, some organizations do not accept
the authority and guidelines of the UN umbrella and consequently may cause dangerous situations in
times of emergency. Such situations may be further aggravated when entities have not announced their
presence to the DO or any of his/her security officers, specifically the Mission Security Officer (MSO).
Although these organizations operate with the best of intentions, their unknown presence will cause
considerable problems and may jeopardize any ordered emergency evacuations.
UN Policies and Procedures
All staff members employed by organizations of the United Nations system are responsible for their
own safety and security, irrespective of their location of assignment, and are responsible for complying
with all security policies and procedures of the organizations. Staff members employed by organizations
of the United Nations system are accountable to their country head of agency and Executive Head
agency.
The protection provided by the host government in no way alters the responsibilities of staff
members to the organizations they serve and, in particular, the requirement that they shall not seek nor
receive instructions from any government or authority external to the organization, which they serve. If
they are given instructions by authorities of the host country relative to security or protection that differ
from those of the Designated Official, he/she should be informed immediately.
148
Personnel employed by organizations of the United Nations shall be responsible for the following:
• Familiarizing themselves with information provided to them regarding the UN security

management system at their location;
• Receiving a security clearance prior to travelling;
• Informing the DO in the country of destination;
• Attending security briefings and signing a document certifying that they have been briefed;
• Knowing who their warden and/or agency security focal point is;
• Being appropriately equipped for service at the duty station;
• Applying and complying with all security regulations and procedures at the duty station, whether
on or off duty;
• Conducting themselves in a manner that will not endanger their safety and security or that of
others; and
• Completing all mandatory training.
Section 7.4 Personal Safety and Precautions

FOs should be aware of their responsibilities in respect to personal security. The nature of their
duties indicates a necessity for greater security awareness than would normally be the case in most
FOs’ countries of origin. There are many reasons why an individual FO could be the target of a violent
action, crime, or even a simple robbery: his/her nationality, appearance, gender (especially if a woman),
colour, race, or apparent wealth; the nature of his/her duties; or simply happening to be the most
suitable target at that particular moment. Therefore, the FO should always be aware and suspicious,
calm, and always know what they are doing and where they are going. FOs should be confident but
should feel free to leave a location, should they begin to feel uncomfortable. The following suggestions
may serve as guidance for various precautions before departure in the mission area and actions that
may be necessary when something unexpected occurs. The following text provides some information on
how to act and how to be prepared when serving in a UN mission, but the most reliable account of this
information may be found in Security Awareness – An Aide-Mémoire.
Before Departure to the Mission
Preparation before departure must never be overlooked. Timely and relevant information will enable
FOs to better cope with actual issues involving their new assignment, particularly during the very first
weeks. Meticulous preparation may prove to be life-saving. Preparations should also include the FO’s
family and loved ones. By informing family members of what can be expected (duties, living conditions,
length of absence, and channels open for communication), emotional stress will be reduced before the
FO’s departure, as well as during the first weeks in the mission.
As an FO, your preparations may include the following:
»» General Preparations
• Make sure you are in good physical and mental condition.
• Try not to leave your home or loved ones with personal or financial problems unsolved.
149
• Prepare yourself by studying the country and particularly the cultural aspects of the country/
area where you are going to work.
• Study and familiarize yourself with the mission in which you will operate (i.e., the mandate
and operational tasks).
• Make sure you understand what is expected of you as a professional.
• Be prepared for your living conditions in poor areas.
• Make sure that you have proper insurance if an accident occurs and that you know your
blood type.
• Make sure you have appropriate clothing and other necessities, such as a battery-powered
flashlight or torch, pocket knife, pocket dictionary, and a small supply of medical or
prescription drugs for emergencies (headache, upset stomach, antiseptics for scratches,
etc.).
• Make sure you have the most updated UN security travel advisory and/or other necessary
UN documents.
»» Preparation Immediately Before Departure
• Let someone know your travel itinerary and where you can be reached.
• Ensure that addresses and phone numbers of the mission (organization) are correct and
can be easily attained, e.g., the security officer, the DO, or other representatives easily
accessible upon your arrival.
• Ensure that you will be met on arrival, and verify the contact number of the person meeting
you.
• Make sure that you have a small amount of local currency, but never carry large amounts of
money, credit cards, driver’s license, etc.
• Check visas (if required) and other travel documents.
»» While Travelling
• Travel light;
• Spread valuable things amongst your luggage and person.
• Keep travel documents, money, and other valuables in inside pockets;
• Do not display your forthcoming addresses and telephone numbers;
• Ensure that you have charge of your personal belongings, e.g., hand luggage;
• Do not sit near people if they make you uncomfortable.
»» Upon Arrival
• Stay alert and keep your travel documents and money traveller’s cheques safe.
• Make sure that the person designated to meet you has proper identification.
150
• If no one is there to pick you up, call the UN numbers you obtained before your departure,
or seek assistance at the airport for providing safe transport to your final address.
• You may be forced to take a taxi. Ask the information desk at the airport about reasonable
taxi fare to your final destination. Check the fare with the driver before entering the cab,
and make sure the cab is an authorized taxi. If arriving late in the evening, women may
want to use a hotel shuttle instead of a taxi and, upon arrival at the hotel make further
arrangements for transportation.
»» Accommodations
• If you have to make your own arrangements concerning hotels, it is always recommended
to use a hotel with a well-known, positive reputation. In general, these hotels have proper
security and will save you from problems with food, drinking water, ice, etc. Remember that
you may always seek advice from a UN Security Officer.
• If you are going to stay in an apartment, guest house, or other accommodation, you should
make sure that it is in an area that has been declared safe by UN Security Officers. Many
areas may be safe in broad daylight but very dangerous late in the evenings and when
alone. Make sure that you are in compliance with UN Minimum Operations Residential
Security Standards (MORSS).
• Upon arrival to your accommodation, explore the room and check that windows and doors
can be properly locked with a key or by other means (such as a chair or other furniture).
• If possible, never be accommodated on the ground floor, which provides easy entrance from
outside.
• Make sure you are familiar with the escape route in case of fire or other incidents.
• Ensure the telephone is working, and communicate immediately to persons concerned.
• If someone knocks at your door, do not open it before identifying the person.
• Keep your room number private, and never display your room key.
»» The Environment
• A necessary and important safety measure is to become acquainted with the surrounding
neighbourhood.
• Find the nearest shops, police station, and hospitals.
• Check to see where the embassy of your nation is located. If you are staying in a remote
area far from the capital, get the appropriate addresses and phone numbers for consular
services.
• Check and be acquainted with the nearest route to friends or others you trust or to a
recognized safe area (e.g., a UN compound, site, or headquarters).
151
A Haitian National Police

(HNP) officer patrols an
alleyway during a joint
security operation with
UN Peacekeepers and UN
Police of the United Nations
Stabilization Mission in
Haiti (MINUSTAH). 09 April
2011. UN Photo #472749
by Victoria Hazou.
As a Resident
»» At Home
Ensure that you feel comfortable in your residence and its close surroundings. If you are supposed
to stay for a longer period, you must ensure that [visiting] members of your family are well aware of
the various security precautions. Also, any domestic workers, house staff, or building staff, whether
permanent or temporary, must be instructed on some of these issues. You must always be on your
guard and make sure that all precautions are part of your daily routine:
• Doors, windows, and locks must be solid;
• Doors and windows on the ground floor should have outside bars;
• Safety chains, a peephole, an intercom to the main entrance, and outside lighting are also
important considerations;
• Make sure there is restricted access to keys and that your doors Helpful tips »
are always locked, even when you are at home. If you lose a
See Google’s official
key, make sure that all locks are replaced;
safety recommendations
• Use blinds or curtains at night;
for internet use: <www.
• Install telephones, or have access to mobile phones; google.com/safetycenter/
• Dedicate and prepare one room as a possible safe haven in the everyone/start/>.
event of an attack;
Note that additional
• Always keep a short list of emergency telephone numbers close stricter practices may need
to your telephone (which should be known to the house staff, observed in the mission.
as well);
• All house staff and domestic workers must be vetted;
• Pay extra caution when using elevators. Be sure they are in service and reliable; and
• When exercising outdoors, never exercise alone or in unknown areas.
152
Perpetrators may first call you by phone or try to enter through the door. Therefore, you should be
very strict about giving out your number and pay extra attention to knocks at your door. Never tell a
stranger that you are alone and never open the door without identifying the visitor. Always be cautious
if giving out business cards with your resident address and phone numbers.
Also be aware of using social media or posting online on apps and sites that may automatically share
your geographic location, especially while at home or work. Make online posts very carefully and check
your privacy settings to make sure these location features are off or disabled. Be very careful about
what personal information you share over the internet, even if you think it is private or trustworthy. This
information is vulnerable to hacking or falling into the wrong hands in multiple ways.
»» Walking and Using Public Transportation
When walking or using public transportation, you should not run the risk of becoming a target by
wearing expensive clothing or jewellery. Remember that when walking to and from official business
meetings, smart suits and nice briefcases will catch the immediate attention of unwanted elements,
particularly in areas with poor policing and/or known as unsafe. Avoid any robbery by using authorized
taxis or private cars. In general, always stay a step ahead by considering what might happen and how
should you react.
• Always be aware of pickpockets. They exist all over the world and appear particularly in crowds.
Keep your wallet or money/credit cards, etc., under clothing and never in your briefcase.
• Avoid walking alone at night, and never enter isolated areas by yourself.
• Always be alert and watch your surroundings, especially when you get off a bus or leave a
subway station. If followed across the street or when entering a shop and accosted, make noise
or draw attention to yourself.
• If dropped off at home, ask the driver to wait until you have opened your front door.
• Cash machines are rather common, and their locations are considered to be high-risk areas. Be
extremely cautious when using your bank or credit card. If possible, use bank cashiers or cash
machines inside a bank.
• Never accept a ride from a stranger.
• Use registered taxis or taxis known by the UN community, and avoid picking taxis on the street.
• When in a taxi, keep the doors locked and windows rolled up all the way. Do not drive alone, and
always pay before departing the taxi.
• Be extra cautious if the taxi is stopped. Never open the door or roll down the windows; wait until
you know for sure the purpose of the interruption.
»» At Work
• You must always adhere to the safety and security instructions (e.g., MOSS) given by the
designated security officials, and you must always ensure you have the latest information.
• Familiarize yourself with the daily routines of your duty station (office, location).
• Check doors, windows, and escape routes.
153
• Take note of standard security procedures, and participate in basic fire drills and security
and first aid training.
• Documents used in your daily work and of a sensitive nature must be locked away when not
in use.
• Check the availability and location of fire-fighting equipment and medical or first aid kits.
• Always be aware of the risks associated with sabotage and bomb threats, and always ask
the designated focal point for information and advice.
• Be aware that radios, telephones, text messages, personal email, and social media are not
secure means of communication, and, thus, exercise extra precaution. As a general rule,
sensitive information should be coded for transmission.
• Take notes of evacuation plans.
When moving outside the location of your duty station, there are some rules you should follow. In
general, these rules always apply.
• Always inform whom-it-may-concern when and where you are going.
• Always remain on guard against extremists, and always exercise caution when in unfamiliar
surroundings.
• Never pretend to be any kind of expert who could be useful for extreme political factions.
• Each FO will receive a specific Identification Card (ID) to Safety and Health at
ensure verifiable and accurate identification as a member of Work »
the relevant UN organization. The ID must always be carried
The International Labour
and be presented whenever demanded. Photography is a
Organization (ILO) provides
point of concern, so taking pictures of military installations,
this information to “join in
equipment, personnel, or any other sensitive area or object
building a culture of prevention
is not recommended.
in occupational safety and
• Avoid any political behaviour and speech that would draw health”: <www.un.org/en/
unfavourable attention to the mission or to the UN as a events/safeworkday/>.
whole.
Section 7.5 Travel Precautions

Field Officers may do some travelling, but they should be aware that vulnerability to attack is higher
while in transit. Therefore, the FO should avoid any unnecessary travel and always make sure that
travel is permitted and along routes that have been declared safe. Although the following rules are for
travel taking place over longer distances, the FO should also adopt the rules indicated below for shorter
travel when appropriate.
General Rules
• Possess appropriate security clearance.
• Inform security offices of your itinerary.
• Check and obtain the latest security conditions of the route before travelling.
154
• Report your arrival to the concerned security official, and request a briefing on the prevailing
security conditions.
• Make sure you have adequate means of communication. If you have access to a radio or mobile
telephone, stay in regular contact. If radio or mobile telephones are not available, establish
some sort of communication plan, such as points of communication or just simply a plan to
report when you have arrived.
• If travelling by car, check that the car is adequately equipped with a jack, spare tire, extra
container of gasoline, water, and a first aid kit.
• Carry maps and a compass if the area is unfamiliar.
• Avoid travelling alone and in the dark.
• Never resist if the car is stopped.
• Always park the vehicle in a secure area and in a way that you can easily escape.
• Never carry unauthorized passengers.
• Keep a proper speed.
• When driving daily between your residence and office, vary your route to avoid being predictable.
Driving
Whether as part of official duties or for other reasons, driving a vehicle is hazardous. Therefore, bear
in mind that a large number of casualties in field operations are caused by traffic accidents or driving
in off-road conditions. The traffic pattern, the roads, and the terrain are often very different conditions
than FOs are accustomed to. This calls for extra caution, particularly since most accidents are due to
high speeds and unskilled drivers. Be extra cautious when driving through populated areas. Children
might be out playing and are unpredictable in their movements. Slow down and give them enough room
to move out of the way. On the road, speed is a crucial factor in difficult weather conditions and should
always be significantly reduced from driving speeds under normal conditions. In winter conditions,
always keep a safe distance behind other vehicles and keep a closer watch than usual on other cars,
motorcyclists, and bicyclists. Bear in mind the particular characteristics of different weather conditions.
On icy roads, it is essential to do everything more carefully than normal. Slow down as soon as you are
aware of ice, steer gently to avoid harsh turns, maintain the highest gear you can, and, if you have to
brake, use short, sustained pressure.
Rain, at any time during the year, makes roads perilous. In wintry conditions, the effects are even
worse. Visibility is diminished and light is scattered when there is heavy precipitation and spray from
other vehicles. Thus, switch on dimmed headlights, not high beams, to see and be seen. Slow down
and watch for large pools of water in heavy storms. Hitting these at high speed can cause even the
most experienced drivers to lose control of the vehicle, either by swerving or by hydroplaning as one
or multiple wheels skim the water and lose contact with the road surface. Stopping distances are much
greater on wet roads, so allow plenty of room between you and the vehicle in front of you. In addition
to all of these daytime precautions, caution must increase additionally at night when darkness reduces
visibility even further.
155
A member of the Cambodian UN Military Police contingent watches as a South Sudanese police officer tries
out a speed gun. The South Sudan National Police Service (SSNPS) together with the United Nations Mission
in South Sudan (UNMISS) launches a weeklong Road Safety Awareness campaign 4 November. The campaign
will be coordinated by the South Sudan Traffic Police, UNMISS Transport Unit and the UN Police (UNPOL). It
will take place across the country with check-points staged twice a day and manned by the South Sudan
Traffic Police, the UN Military Police and UNPOL. 04 November 2013. UN Photo #569365 by Martine Perret.
Driving in the desert requires a competent driver who is able to read the terrain and find the most
appropriate ways of getting from one destination to another, while avoiding loose sand and invisible
sand dunes. Intimate knowledge of the area is an absolute necessity and the use of a guide is strongly
recommended. Getting lost in the desert is highly dangerous. Vehicles should be equipped with extra
water bottles, fuel cans, and shovels. Long-bodied vehicles are preferable to short-bodied ones, as the
latter have a tendency to get stuck in the sand. If you do get stuck in the sand, try to get out using the
same tracks.
In general, the following may apply:
• Adjust your speed according to the prevailing conditions.
• Drive near the centre of the road, especially to avoid hazards that can be placed along a road’s
edge, such as landmines or explosives.
• Wear seat belts.
• Make sure you can operate all of the features of the car (switching from two- to four-wheel
drive, using anti-spin control, etc.).
• Be familiar with the routes to and from your destination, and vary the route if your safety is in
danger.
• Memorize safe locations in case of emergencies.
• Report your departure and arrival to the appropriate contacts.
• If your vehicle breaks down, report it to offices concerned, and evaluate the security situation.
In non-secure areas with checkpoints and similar stops, drive very slowly on approach, stop if
requested, show your ID card, and do not resist vehicle search but protest.
156
Members of the Military Liaison Office

of the UN Mission for the Referendum
in Western Sahara (MINURSO),
including team leader Igor Buryan, and
colleagues Nestor Henriquez, Amara
Kaba, and Antonio Achille, attempt to
push their car out of the sand in Oum
Dreyga, Western Sahara. The officers
were on a ceasefire monitoring patrol.
15 June 2010. UN Photo #439690 by
Martine Perret.
• If you encounter a hold-up or hijacking situation, stop the vehicle and remain calm. Always
cooperate and be compliant to the demands.
• If you are followed, drive to a busy street, police station, or other recognized safe place.
Section 7.6 Sexual Harassment and Sexual Assault

Experiencing crimes or misconduct of a sexual nature can be extremely traumatic. Unfortunately,
UN staff members are sometimes subject to these situations. It is important to understand and identify
the characteristics of sexual harassment and sexual assault in order to limit your vulnerability and take
appropriate, informed action if you must. The information and recommendations in this section come
from the document, “Be Safe, Be Secure”, issued by DSS in order to empower personnel.7
Sexual harassment is defined as “any unwelcome sexual advance, request for sexual favour, verbal
or physical conduct or gesture of a sexual nature, or any other behaviour of a sexual nature that might
reasonably be expected or be perceived to cause offense or humiliation to another”. Sexual harassment
can occur in a variety of settings. Many women have already faced commonplace harassment from
strangers in public, in the form of obscenities or gestures. However, whether harassment occurs in a
public, personal, or professional setting, it is always wrong.
If you have been subject to harassment, you must make a judgement based on your safety and
comfort on how to react. Individuals can document and report the behaviour to a trustworthy authority.
This is especially important if the harassment is taking place within a UN environment, as this misconduct
is against the values of the Organization’s mission and directly undermines the important work being
carried out in gender mainstreaming, social development, and security.
Harassment is not the only concern. If or when force becomes involved, the offense escalates,
and the behaviour is considered assault. Sexual assault is defined as “any non-consensual sexual act
which is forced”. Many such crimes are carried out when the assailant finds the victim isolated and/or
7) DSS, Be Safe, Be Secure: Security Guidelines for Women, 2006, accessed <http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@dgreports/@gender/
documents/instructionalmaterial/wcms_083929.pdf>.
157
Zainab Hawa Bangura, Special

Representative of the Secretary-
General on Sexual Violence in
Conflict, meets with representatives
of civil society organizations, including
women’s and faith groups, during her
visit to South Sudan. Ms. Bangura is in
the country to discuss what measures
can be taken to prevent and respond
to widespread violations taking place.
Since fighting broke out in South
Sudan last December, incidents
of rape, forced abortion, sexual
harassment and murder by all sides
have been reported. 08 October 2014.
UN Photo #606571 by Isaac Gideon.
vulnerable. It is also estimated that in the majority of these crimes, the attacked is a person known
to the victim. This does not change the severity of the assault. Sexual assaults, including rape, are
extremely serious crimes which should be punished accordingly. Unfortunately, they are often the most
underreported crimes due to shame, fear, or lack of support or resources on the victim’s behalf. There
is a global movement to change this mindset. Sexual assault and rape are never the victim’s fault, and
perpetrators should always be held accountable.
Some missions are more volatile than others, especially where law and order is severely deteriorated.
The risk of being subject to harassment or assault in any form will increase. Under these circumstances,
female staff members and uniformed female personnel are even more vulnerable than their male
colleagues, and extra special precautions must be taken. However, remember that both men and women
are at risk of suffering from these crimes and resources and support should be available to all.
With all of this information in mind, remember that as a representative of the United Nations,
you have a pronounced set of responsibilities and privileges, especially in comparison with the local
population. Never use this power in a way that compromises the ethics of your position, which means
never conduct, permit, or tolerate sexually exploitative or abusive behaviour in any form.
Section 7.7 Special Security Precautions
Carjacking of a UN Vehicle
The hijacking of a vehicle can take place anywhere in the world, but it is most common in areas
where law enforcement is ineffective. Events have demonstrated that UN personnel are especially likely
to be potential targets of vehicle hijacking. The guidelines shown below have been developed over
the years as the most effective ways to deal with vehicle hijacking, focusing on saving the life of the
hijacked individual by not seeking a confrontation.
158
• If involved in a hijacking situation, stay calm, do not provoke or antagonize the abductors, try
to negotiate, and do whatever you are forced to do. Watch your body language, move slowly,
and try to diffuse the situation. Appear to be innocent; do not try to save anything but your life.
Never try to hide possessions, throw away vehicle keys, or obliterate any property.
• Cooperate with hijackers, and make no attempt to flee. Hijackers should be told that they have
taken an FO who is in their country in the service of the United Nations and who has no malice
towards them.
• If the hijackers insist on stealing the vehicle, you may request to remove all personal belongings
from the vehicle. If two vehicles are involved, the rear vehicle should not attempt to render
assistance but should, if possible, retire to a safe distance, inform the office (HQ) of the situation,
and be prepared to render assistance when the hijackers have left.
It is imperative that the FO be familiar with the security

Be Safe, Be Secure »
arrangements of the working place (duty station) or the mission
area. Such arrangements include standard procedures in case of Read the UN Department of
hijacking, as mentioned above. In such an extreme situation, it Safety and Security document:
is necessary that the UN mission be informed of the incident by <www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/
a timely and accurate message from the potential victim if the public/@dgreports/@gender/
situation allows or by a witness to the incident. This will be given documents/instructionalmaterial/
absolute priority by any mission office or headquarters. wcms_083929.pdf>.
Detention
If the FO is detained, the organization will make every effort to secure a safe release, even if the in-
country government has the main responsibility. A number of activities will be carried out, each one too
comprehensive to be described in this document. Nevertheless, the FO should keep in mind that there is
no reason to conceal anything from the abductors; make it clear that you are a member of the UN — a
peaceful organization — and explain the mandate of the mission. Do not fear any later disapproval or
punishment because of saying something you were forced to. Under these circumstances, your first task
is to survive and come out of the situation with as little difficulty as possible.
• Keep calm, obey orders, and never argue.
• Try to rest and keep yourself physically and mentally active.
• Be aware that everything will be done to save your life. Trust in the efforts of the UN and all
other nations involved to achieve your release.
• Never do anything that could undermine the fact that you are a UN member.
• Avoid any resistance that could be misinterpreted by those detaining you.
Landmine and Explosive Hazard Awareness
In areas of conflict, it is important to be knowledgeable about the safety and security regulations
in place to mitigate the present risks of explosive threats or other hazards. These threats include the
presence of landmines, explosive remnants of war (ERW), and improvised explosive devices (IEDs).
159
»» Landmines
Landmines are a combination of explosives and other material, normally encased and hidden,
designed to detonate on contact or remotely. They can destroy or damage vehicles, boats, or aircrafts,
and wound, kill, or otherwise incapacitate personnel. Mines are used to cause casualties to the enemy,
to hinder movement, and to provide protection to important positions. They are also used in civil
conflicts to disrupt infrastructures by denying the civilian population access to agricultural land, water,
roads, schools, healthcare facilities, and other socioeconomic targets.
There are two major types of mines: anti-personnel mines and anti-vehicle mines. Anti-personnel
mines usually consist of an explosive charge around 35 grams that can be set off with as little as 2
kilograms of pressure. An anti-tank mine can contain 5 to 10 kilograms of explosives and may need 80
to 150 kilograms of pressure to be detonated.
»» Explosive Remnants of War
The two most common categories of ERW include unexploded ordnance (UXO) and abandoned
explosive ordnance (AXO). In areas of conflict both present and past, the risk of ERW remains an
important risk factor. Both present an equally dangerous hazard to personnel and local civilians.
UXOs are explosive munitions including grenades, rockets, mortars, artillery shells, bombs, cluster
munitions, and fuses that have not yet been set off. UXOs may already have been fired, dropped, or
launched, but failed to detonate as intended. Though it may not have exploded as designed, this does
not mean that a UXO is safe or stable in any way. They can function almost exactly as landmines,
exploding when stepped on, moved, or touched. Some UXO also contain motion-sensitive fusing or
magnetic sensors; others may have a timed self-destruct feature. Because UXO are very unstable and
can be detonated easily, they are very dangerous.
An AXO is explosive material that also include grenades, rockets, mortars, artillery shells, bombs,
cluster munitions, and fuses, which has been left behind or not stored properly. They are often remnants
of a conflict that have been forgotten, lost, stolen, or hidden for future use. Its inappropriate exposure
to the elements and unaccounted state make it vulnerable to both instability and improper handling, or
even the possibility of falling into the wrong hands. Like UXO, they are likely unsecured and stored in
unstable conditions, making them extremely hazardous to whomever may accidentally encounter them.
If UXOs or AXOs are discovered in or near the area of operations, their location must be recorded
and reported as soon as possible to the proper authorities and hazardous materials specialist teams
or explosive ordnance removal teams. Notify others to stay away from the materials until they are
removed and the area is secure.
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UN Mine Action Service »

UNMAS works to ensure an effective,
proactive, and coordinated response to
the problems of landmines and explosive
remnants of war, including cluster munitions.
Read more: <www.mineaction.org/>.
UN Mine Action Service (UNMAS) vehicle, tasked with
verifying and clearing priority routes for UNMISS. 22
January 2015. UN Photo #621396 by JC McIlwaine.
STOP – MINED!
If caught in a minefield or if your vehicle has hit a landmine or is stuck in a very suspicious area,
follow this procedure:
»» M — Movement stops immediately. Do not even try to reverse

out of the area. Be calm — stay in vehicle if possible.
»» I — Inform and warn people around you. Contact base for help
and assistance.
»» N — Note the area. What else can be observed?
»» E — Evaluate the situation. Be prepared to take control.
»» D — Do not move from current position. Wait for qualified help

and support.
When possible, stay in the area until support arrives and point out the place where the mine or
UXO was found. If you have to leave, try to mark the area so you prevent others from entering the
dangerous area, and as soon as possibly report the danger to superiors and other units according to
Standard Operating Procedures.
If you realize you have entered a mined area while on foot, behave according to the STOP – MINED!
procedure described previously. If a detonation occurs, continue to follow the procedure mentioned
above. Wait for the combat engineers, professional de-miners or medical personnel. Do not risk further
injuries.
If you are in a vehicle, observe the following:
• Behave according to the STOP – MINED! procedure described above;
• Put on all protective gear if you are not wearing it already;
• If there is a roadside bomb or explosive, be careful about using the radio and mobile phones,
since their signals might set off the device;
• Do not move the steering wheel;
161
• Only leave the vehicle in extreme situations by the rear door following the tracks made by the
vehicle, or prod a way out;
• If there are passengers, they should move one by one with 30 meters apart. The passengers
must put on all their protective gear before leaving the vehicle.
• If you have to move the vehicle, reverse the car carefully following its tracks. However, keep in
mind that this can be dangerous in a minefield and it is recommended to move individuals to
safety fist. Abandoned vehicles can be recovered later when it is safe;
• If moving the vehicle, only the driver stays in the vehicle. In some situations, it might be
advisable to have a spotter at the rear of the vehicle; and
• During darkness, stay in the vehicle until daylight. Avoid manoeuvring vehicles in the dark and
schedule your routes appropriately to prevent night-driving.
Improvised Explosive Devices
In today’s scenarios in UN peacekeeping operations and other multinational military operations,

threats do not only come from traditional weapons, tactics, landmines, and ERW. With the rise of
asymmetric warfare, there has also been a significant increase in threats from IED, such as Vehicle-
Borne IEDs (VBIED) and Body-Borne IEDs (BBIEDs). These are also sometimes referred to as suicide
bombers. Suicide bombing is often linked to guerrillas and other irregular fighting forces or factions.
Many of the irregular forces may have extremist views with supposed religious beliefs about martyrdom.
IEDs are informal explosive weapons created from materials and chemicals that are often commonly
available, yet they are hazardous, lethal, and destructive. IEDs exist in many variations and the
imagination is the only limitation. These devices are very lethal, and cause great damages to personnel,
material and infrastructure. The ability to deploy these weapons disguised with everyday objects in
everyday settings makes the threat even more intimidating. IEDs are being used more and more in
asymmetric warfare, both passive (i.e. abandoned vehicle) and active (i.e. ambush).
Snipers
In battle zones or other areas with a high level of violence, snipers are a genuine threat. If possible,
avoid these areas. If not, pay attention to all unexpected movements, and use common sense.
As a general rule, personnel should not stand by open windows and never leave the curtains,
shades, or blinds open at night when lights are on in occupied rooms. If an FO is subjected to sniper
fire, they should take cover immediately. If near a window, move to a position with a substantial wall to
block the direction from which the gunfire was heard.
Personnel should not remain stationary in vehicles for longer than necessary when travelling.
Should personnel be subjected to sniper fire while stationary, they should exit the area immediately.
If the sniper fire prevents the personnel from escape using the vehicle, they should exit the vehicle
and take cover. If possible, they should call by phone or radio for assistance. Should personnel receive
sniper fire while moving in a vehicle, they should speed up to the safest possible speed and exit the area
immediately.
162
Section 7.8 First Aid

It is essential that all personnel, both uniformed and civilian, be prepared to provide basic life
support in cases where they may be the first responders. Incidents could happen in places where there
is no immediate medical support available. Statistics indicate that the first one to two hours following
serious injury are critical for survival and recovery. It is in this moment that a few simple actions taken
decisively by the first responders may decide the fate of the injured persons.
FOs should seek additional first aid training in preparation for their work at a mission. Therefore,
this section of Lesson 7 will only briefly address this subject.
Emergency Response Principles
• Assess and think. Remember security;
• Take the lead. You are the leader on the spot;
• Secure the spot. Give necessary orders and coordinate with others. Determine if it possible to
move the patient to a more secure location;
• Give first aid to yourself, your teammates, or others;
• Report. Communicate with the command network to ask for medical support and casualty
evacuation (CASEVAC); and
• Continue. Keep-up the work at the spot until all are safe or evacuated.
Initial Injury Assessment and First Aid (ABCDE)
Use the acronym ABCDE to help you remember the critical signs of trauma to a casualty and to help
assess the severity or urgency of their needed medical attention:
»» Airways: Are their airways open and functional? There should

be an exchange of air (inhale and exhale). Do they have normal
or accelerated breath? Secure open airways.
»» Bleeding: Apply pressure at points of major bleeding. A clean

bandage is better than a dirty bandage; a dirty bandage is
better than no bandage.
»» Circulation: Is there pumping action from the heart? Are

there signs of loss of circulation (cold limbs, discoloration,
numbness)? Check for adequate circulation, and position of the
patient to facilitate optimal circulation.
»» Disability: Observe the grade of consciousness for any

changes.
»» Exposure: Examine the entire body of patient from head to

toe. Keep patient warm, and watch for changes.
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Additionally, be aware of bleeding or blood loss and signs of head injury. Protect the spinal cord by
avoiding movement of the neck and spine. Immobilize fractures and suspected fractures.
Mechanism of Injury
Always try to understand the mechanism of injury before you begin first aid.
»» Spinal Injury — As a practical precaution, always treat a

patient as if he/she has a spinal injury that may get worse until
you feel reasonably sure that this is not the case; and
»» Head Injury — While preparing for applying first aid, try to get
an impression of the mental status of the patient.
After assessing the ABCDEs, consider these responses:
• If there is no spontaneous respiration, prepare for mouth-to-mouth respiration. Consult your

mission or national training centre for hands-on training in this method. Not all people are
experienced in this, but a good try may save a life; and
• If there is no pump action from the heart to create circulation, start cardiac compressions.
Consult your mission or national training centre for hands-on training in this method. Not all
people are experienced in this either, but a good try may save a life.
If and when the patient has spontaneous respiration and circulation, continue to the following:
• Report your findings and treatment in a short, exact message to medical personnel to facilitate
the correct priority being given for CASEVAC;
• Apply pressure and bandages on minor bleeding;
• Immobilize fractures; and
• Evacuate. With due concern for the injuries, the patient should be evacuated to a medical

facility according to the priority given by medical personnel.
Mental Status
»» If the patient is awake/alert: The patient probably does not

have major trauma to the head. Offer the patient a partnership
in support of him;
»» If they are confused or semi-conscious: The patient may have a

head injury or be affected by reduced circulation, and therefore
is a higher priority patient. Observe closely and support the
patient; or
»» If they are unconscious or comatose: The patient probably has

a head injury and is a high priority patient. Observe closely and
start ABC if required.
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Motor Status
It is vital that motor status is observed and all precaution is taken to avoid spinal injury.
»» Injury to the spinal cord
The ability to move arms and legs, and feel heat, cold, vibration, and pain in the arms and legs,
depends on contact between the brain and the periphery through the spinal cord. If the spinal cord is
cut, all areas of the body supported by areas below the cut will no longer move or sense.
»» Protection of the spinal cord
The spinal cord is protected by the spinal column and may suffer injury if the spinal column is
stretched, compressed, twisted, or broken.
»» Avoiding further damage to the spinal cord
If you suspect or find it difficult to exclude spinal injury, the patient should be treated as if he/she
has an injury that may get worse if not handled carefully.
»» Moving a patient that may have spinal injury
Try to keep the spinal column straight in all dimensions when moving the patient. Preferably, use
a vacuum mattress or a backboard when moving the patient. If that is not available, roll the patient
carefully onto a stretcher. Maintain a slight pull on the head to keep the neck straight when moving the
patient, and apply a stiff neck collar.
»» Testing spinal function
Ask the patient to carefully move his/her hands and feet, and ask if the patient feels gentle touch of
the skin on the hands and feet. Remember that function does not exclude injury that may get worse if
the patient is not properly handled.
Weather Conditions
If you encounter heat exhaustion, you may recognize symptoms including exhaustion, headache,
pains in the back or limbs, mental confusion, and fainting. Cramps, abdominal pains, vomiting, collapse,
and deep unconsciousness are indicators of severe exhaustion. Treat the patient for shock. Relieve
hotness and sweating by any means. Drink a large, cold beverage with one teaspoon of salt or sugar
per litre.
• Cold, wind, and wet clothing may lead to a lowering of body temperature, resulting in the
dangerous state of hypothermia. In this case, the patient may move into lethargy, stumble, fall,
and later experience uncontrollable shivering and failure of vision.
• Prevent further loss of body heat, and move to shelter.
• Provide hot drinks and sugar.
165
A Malian woman receives a free consultation at a medical clinic in Gao, Mali, run by the Niger contingent of the UN
Multidimensional Integrated Mission in Mali (MINUSMA). 16 May 2014. UN Photo #588836 by Marco Dormino.
Burns
For minor burns, wash the area, and apply a clean, sterile bandage. For severe burns, cover the
burned area, and never pull away sticking clothing, cover burned faces, or use ointments. If possible,
cool the burned area and treat the patient for shock.
Section 7.9 Coping with Stress

Stress is a normal reaction to an abnormal situation. Stress is the physical and psychological process
of reacting to and coping with events or situations that place pressure on a human being. It serves the
function of self-preservation or protection in a threatening situation, enabling one to:
»» Concentrate full attention on a particular threat;
»» Mobilize maximum physical energy; and
»» Prepare for action in order to respond to the threat.
Stress has always served a vital purpose. For our prehistoric ancestors, and for us, stress possesses
great informative value. It is part of what has allowed humans to survive up to the present day.
166
Types of Stress
The type of stress experienced depends on its characteristics of frequency, duration, and intensity.
UN personnel are exposed regularly to both minor and major incidents, which can result in the build-up
of stress. Three types of stress are described in order of increasing intensity:
1. Basic Stress
Everyone experiences basic stress (also called basal or minor stress) on a daily basis. This can
generate tension, frustration, irritation, or anger. A person’s reaction is mostly determined by his or her
physical and psychological strength. Peacekeepers should be aware that they will often be confronted
with stressful situations, and even more so if the mission is in a conflict zone. Typical causes of basic
stress in the field include:
• Lack of influence on own situation;
• Lack of food variety;
• Repetitive or boring duties;
• Limited possibility for contemplation, privacy, or separation from other members of the unit;
• Minimal recreational possibilities; and
• Limited contact with loved ones at home.
Basic stress is unavoidable but may vary according to the normal circumstances of individuals. For
example, for individuals in a steady relationship at home, the stress of being away from a significant
other while deployed may constitute a major stress not experienced by other individuals not in such
relationships.
2. Cumulative Stress
Cumulative stress is the result of more minor, basic strains that occur too often, last too long,
and have become too severe. This type of stress is subtle, but pervasive. It happens when people
suffer prolonged and unrelieved exposure to a variety of stressors. Cumulative stress is frequently due
to a combination of personal, work, and incidental events, which generate frustration. When it goes
unnoticed, or when it is not well managed, cumulative stress can result in burnout.
Typical situations are:
• Repetitive situations with lack of respect from superiors;
• Periods with overwhelming responsibilities;
• Periods with insufficient rest; and
• Periods with non-defined operational danger.
Both basic and cumulative stresses may derive from simple daily activities or a lack of them. In a
peacekeeping mission, it is very important to have something valuable to do. Living in an unfamiliar
environment with little or no privacy requires challenging activities and a strong sense of fulfilment to
avoid demoralization and stress.
167
3. Critical Incident Stress (Traumatic Stress)
A traumatic or critical incident is usually defined as an event out of the range of normal experience,
or a sudden and unexpected event that causes one to lose control. It involves the perception of a threat
to life and can include elements of physical or emotional loss. This type of stress, Critical Incident Stress
(CIS) is less familiar than basic stress or cumulative stress and is more difficult to deal with. It provokes
unusually strong physical and emotional reactions experienced in the face of such a critical incident.
The possibility that Field Officers or peacekeepers will encounter or observe one or more of these
traumatic situations in a conflict zone is very high. The trauma is exacerbated because very often the
peacekeeper is unable to assist or change the plight of helpless victims. Typical examples of critical
incidents that can occur are:
• Friends or self being affected by road traffic accidents;
• Local atrocities;
• Being under direct fire;
• Negative news from family or friends at home; and
• Direct physical threat or hostage situations.
Signs of Stress Disease
Reactions to stress may also show in the performance of the individual. Such reactions may vary
from one individual to another. The time it takes for these reactions to appear, as well as their severity,
depends on the person’s character and vulnerability at the time. Behavioural changes can often lead to
withdrawal from the company of others. Always beware of those who suddenly become “invisible” and
pay attention to anyone (including yourself) exhibiting any of the following symptoms:
• Forgetfulness, indecisiveness, or lack of concentration;
• Changes in eating habits or spells of dizziness and nausea;
• High pulse, racing heartbeat, or episodes of sweating or hot flashes;
• Unprovoked anger;
• Sadness or depression without any known reason; and
• A feeling of not being able to perform to expectation.
Stress Management
Stress management refers to the process of identifying and analysing any problems related to
stress, as well as the application of a variety of tools to alter either the source of stress or the experience
of stress. The main objective of stress management is to simply enable an individual to function at his
or her optimal level in a healthy and positive manner.
It is important that UN personnel of all components are able to live healthy lives, perform their
duties safely, and feel good about their work rather than overwhelmed or under-supported. The United
Nations has stated that avoiding negative side effects in individuals during or following their participation
168
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon (left)

practices yoga during a special event
celebrating the first International Day of
Yoga at UN Headquarters. The International
Day of Yoga is being celebrated around the
world following recognition by the United
Nations General Assembly of the holistic
benefits of the ancient Indian practice and
its inherent compatibility with the principles
and values of the UN. 21 June 2015. UN
Photo #635470 by Mark Garten.
in a peacekeeping operation is a primary goal. Psychologically stable and content personnel increase
operational readiness and efficiency.8
Stress management is like mental first aid and should be approached in the same manner:
• Observe that someone (maybe yourself) is in need of help;
• Identify the agent or cause that has initiated the process, leading to a need for help;
• Change the situation of the person so that this process can no longer affect him;
• By caring and applying your knowledge, you start reversing the process; and
• Continue caring until the process is fully reversed.
If you cannot reverse the process fully, seek professional help. If you cannot manage your own
stress, ask someone for support. If you see somebody in need of support, do not shy away. Instead,
apply what you have learned. Listen, comfort, and support others. If you identify physical, behavioural,
or emotional changes, or changes in performance, look for stress factors. If you believe that stress
may be the cause of the changes, seek to identify which stresses are present and how they might be
addressed. If possible, remove the individual from any influence that may add to the stress.
Most situations can be solved at the unit level. It is no shame to the units or to the individuals
involved if this level of support is not sufficient. In these cases, refer to professional stress management.
8) DPKO. Civil Affairs Handbook. Chapter 6. Available at: <https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/civil_affairs_handbook.pdf>.
169
1. In 2005, the Office of the United Nations 6. The _____ brings together
Security Coordinator (UNSECOORD), representatives of all partners in the UN
the Security and Safety Services (SSS) security management network including
at Headquarters and at Offices Away UN agencies, funds, and programmes
from Headquarters, and the security to coordinate security practices and
component of the Department of policies across the UN system.
Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO)
A. Office of the United Nations Security
merged into a single security
Coordinator (UNSECOORD)
management framework now operating
as _____. B. Inter-Agency Security Management Network
(IASMN)
A. The Department of Peace Operations (DPO)
C. The Department of Safety and Security
B. The Department of Safety and Security
(DSS)
(DSS)
D. The Security Council
C. The Office of the United Nations Security
Coordinator (UNSECOORD)
7. Who must successfully complete “Basic
D. The Security Council Security in the Field” (BSITF) training?
2. What is the philosophy of the UN 8. Who must successfully complete

Security Management System (UNSMS)? “Advanced Security in the Field” (ASITF)
training?
3. The _____ is an integral part of the
Security Risk Management process and 9. Sexual assault is _____.
is designed to describe the security
A. Any non-consensual sexual act which is
environment that exists in an area or
location (“Security Level Area”) in which forced
the United Nations operates. B. Prohibited, prosecutable behaviour
A. Security Levels System (SLS) C. Never the victim’s fault
B. National crime rate D. All of the above
C. Security Risk Assessment

10. TRUE or FALSE? Improvised Explosive
D. Structured Threat Assessment Devices (IEDs) are informal explosive
weapons created from materials and
4. The Security Levels System is based on chemicals that are often commonly
the _____. available.
A. Reports from local law enforcement A. True.
B. National crime rate B. False.
C. Security Risk Assessment
D. Structured Threat Assessment
5. The primary responsibility for security

and protection of UN personnel, their
eligible family members, and the
premises and property of UN rests with
whom?
170
1. What principles should be followed in public places to help

protect your personal safety and security? What if you are at
home or in the workplace?
2. What principles should be kept in mind if you were suddenly a

first responder to a disaster?
3. What are some positive strategies for coping with the stress
and uncertainty caused by working in an environment that is
potentially unsecure and unpredictable, such as a field mission?
Answer Key »
1. B
2. “How to stay” rather than “when to

leave”; maintain operations safely and
securely rather than abandoning or
evacuating an operation.
3. A
4. D
5. The host government.
6. B
7. All UN Mission Personnel.
8. United Nations personnel being assigned

to, or visiting on official travel, any field
location, regardless of Security Level.
9. D
10. A
171
LESSON
Strategies and Techniques for
8 Effective Fieldwork
The same social skills that are

beneficial in the professional
world at home will also create
a favourable atmosphere
when applied in the field.
UN Photo #478538 by Tim McKulka.
Section 8.1 Participatory Methods • Understand the characteristics and objectives of

participatory methods of development.
Section 8.2 Projects and Project Control
• Understand the value and purpose of the liaison
Section 8.3 Monitoring and Verification
system.
Section 8.4 Transparent Communication
• Identify the major differences between
Section 8.5 Negotiation negotiation and mediation.
Section 8.6 Mediation • Identify standard policies and procedures for

written communication and interaction with the
Section 8.7 Written Communications and
media.
Reports
• Understand the ways that media coverage in
Section 8.8 Communication with the Media
a mission can have both positive and negative
effects on operations.
172
LESSON 8 | Strategies and Techniques for Effective Fieldwork
Tanzanian police officer Grace Ngassa (left), serving with the African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID),
interacts with a resident of Zam Zam camp for internally displaced persons (IDPs), near El Fasher, capital of North Darfur. Jazira Ahmad
Mohamad (centre), a community-policing volunteer at the camp, is also pictured. 26 June 2014. #593347 by Albert González Farran.
Most UN missions have a humanitarian or political

dimension where human interaction and networking
are the principal instruments of success. Positive
outcomes will be hard to achieve without effective
and practical use of communication. If a mission can
put communication skills into action effectively, it will
greatly facilitate the FO’s work, regardless of whether
the objective is reaching a ceasefire agreement or View a video introduction of this
implementing a project. lesson at <www.peaceopstraining.org/

videos/374/strategies-and-techniques-
The basic elements of interpersonal communications for-effective-fieldwork/>.
are making contacts, talking to people, and showing

concern. The techniques for achieving a positive
atmosphere also depend on the task and the available
resources. This lesson discusses some of the most
promising tools that have proven to be essential for
professional fulfilment of a task. Nevertheless, it should
be emphasized that the most effective way for a Field
Officer to develop his or her method successfully is
through personal and practical experience.
173
Section 8.1 Participatory Methods

It is absolutely vital to the sustainability and success of a Toolkits »
development programme to incorporate the knowledge and
Time to Listen: A Discussion
opinions of a local population in the planning, management,
Guide (2015): <www.
and delivery of such projects. When correctly implemented and
participatorymethods.org/
managed, participatory development methods are powerful and
resource/time-listen-discussion-
useful tools. They aim to improve efficiency and effectiveness, and
guide>.
they encourage and empower the local population in assuming
responsibility for various projects. Knowledge from the Margins:
Supporting projects and activities that build local independence An Anthology from a Global
and resilience is ultimately a best practice. The basic principle of Network on Participatory Practice
participatory development is the empowerment and involvement and Policy Influence (2014):
of local people to such an extent that they can take ownership and <www.participatorymethods.org/
responsibility of the project. Over time, experience indicates that resource/knowledge-margins-
local involvement in development, compared with the “top-down” anthology-global-network-
strategy, is most effective, because it allows local societies to build participatory-practice-and-policy-
their own confidence and capacity in improving their standard of influence>.
living. This commitment can be expressed as follows:
• The primacy of people: Whatever the purpose or ultimate goal of the project or programme,
the local people’s interests, needs, and wishes must underpin the key decisions and actions
relating to the project.
• People’s contribution: People’s knowledge and skills must be seen as a potentially positive
contribution to the project. A project which does not seek to make use of local knowledge and
skills will be less effective and will squander valuable resources.
• People’s participation must empower women: Participatory development should seek

to improve gender inequalities through providing a means by which women can take part in
decision-making.
• Autonomy as opposed to control: As far as it is realistic to do so, seek to invest as much

responsibility as possible for the project with the local people and, thus, avoid having absolute
control in the hands of project staff.
• Local actions as opposed to local responses: Encouraging local people to make decisions
and to take action within the broad parameters of the project, as opposed to merely responding
passively to initiatives proposed by others.
• Allow for some flexibility in project direction: Promoting people’s participation will mean
that, as far as it is reasonably possible, the project should be allowed to develop in accordance
with the abilities of local people to play an increasing role and to begin to assume some
responsibility.1
UNDP and other organizations have implemented a range of participatory methods and programmes
including Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), Participatory Learning and Action (PLA), and Participatory
1) Abid Ullah Jan, Developing Meso-Level Institutions, Chapter 6, Integrated Regional Support Programme: Pakistan, 2001.
174
A procession of Kapuri Primary School pupils, community residents and members of the UNMISS Rwandan
contingent arriving for the handover ceremony of newly constructed buildings for Kapuri Primary School in Central
Equatoria State to the South Sudanese government. The contingent built eight classrooms, two staff offices, and
washrooms for the school after Rwandan soldiers, during a routine patrol in May 2014, observed pupils studying
under trees and in make-shift classrooms with no sanitation facilities. In partnership with UNICEF, members of
the Rwandan community in South Sudan, and local Kapuri communities, the project was completed under the
theme “Umuganda” or “Shared Work”. 09 February 2015. UN Photo #622423 by JC McIlwaine.
Action Research (PAR). They all deal with various participatory approaches and methods that emphasize
local knowledge and enable local people to make their own appraisal, analysis, and plans. Depending
on the circumstances, the actual project, and its contextual involvement in the principal development
programme, these methods may be useful tools in the practical implementation of projects.
Section 8.2 Projects and Project Control

Several thousands of field workers worldwide are involved in the technical implementation of projects
frequently associated with a national development programme. The international and/or national FOs
who work under such conditions will probably face a wide range of tasks, everything from planning to
evaluation. Depending on the FO’s level of expertise and experience, he/she may be responsible for
certain parts of the project or even have to assume full responsibility for project management.
A project is usually divided in different phases, sometimes overlapping but each with its own
distinctive objectives. The following is not comprehensive but provides an overview of the various steps
that may be used in the field.
Project Development
The development of a project may be done in different ways, and consequently, there are a number
of models and processes used. Usually a project encompasses six phases: project identification, project
justification, project description, implementation of the project, follow-up, and evaluation. Justification
175
is probably the most important of the six phases since it provides the background and motivation for
further actions. It should refer to a feasibility study, a part of the project identification.
Including the project justification, the six phases are as follows:
• Project identification: This is the very first phase of a project. It might be an incident, a point
made in a discussion, or any other events that gives birth to the first embryo of a future project.
The idea is only valid when it has been put into a context and identified either as a need or as a
solution to a problem. Thereafter, the idea must be refined and clearly described.
• Project justification: This is the next step and must answer the most fundamental questions
about the aim and purpose of the project: (i) Who is affected? (ii) What is the problem? (iii) How
can it be solved? (iv) What are reasonable resources to be used? The questions must be carefully
analysed and should result in a project description, which should be brief, well structured,
and succinct. Completed analysis should be summarized and technical information attached as
appendixes. The project justification is the first formal step and, if approved, will authorize the
development of the detailed description of the project.
• Project description: The description should give the necessary (i) background to why the
project is needed, previous experiences in this field, and a clear account of its objectives and
affected target group(s). It should also address the questions, (ii) Is the project technically
feasible and what kind of resources are available or must be procured? (iii) Organization of
the project and its future integration in the community or in the country must be defined and
projected. (iv) Estimated costs covering both up-front investments and ongoing operational
costs must be identified and financial resources explained — from where and how. Financial
requirements must match expected effectiveness and eventual profitability. (v) A timetable and
a plan for implementation must be included. Sustainability, environmentally friendly techniques,
and future maintenance should be considered. An approved project description is a necessity for
requested financial resources.
• Implementation: A formal agreement must precede the implementation phase. The

implementation plan should include a course of action, periodic budgets, budget allocation,
time for reports on the status of the project, and a statement of accounts, obligations (of
the parties), and an evaluation plan. References should be made on specific collaboration and
coordination with others.
• Follow-up: The follow-up process should include not only the control of the economic
activities — such as disbursements and the use of available assets — but also control of the
physical activities. Physical activity follow-up is preferably fulfilled through visits to the actual
site(s), comparisons between the implementation plan and the actual status of the project,
comparison between orders, and deliveries, as well as through frequent follow-up meetings.
• Evaluation: The project evaluation assesses whether the achievements match the objectives as
stated in the project description and justifies the resources used. The analysis should be based
on either an appraisal of the quantitative or qualitative accomplishments or as a combination of
both.
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Management
It is recommended that a flow chart be developed to follow a project and ensure effective
management. The chart will provide the project manager with an overview of the project and will
facilitate control of the various phases of the project, the use of resources, etc. Such a chart should be
developed at the very beginning of the project and modified as necessary. Almost all organizations have
their own guidelines for projects and project management. FOs likely to be involved in project activities
must be sure to acquire relevant information where they are.
The identification and acquisition of funding can often be as difficult as the planning and management
of a project. A project may be financed though domestic financial resources or international resources,
such as trade, foreign direct investment, or other private flows. Support can also be provided by
international financial cooperation for development, including official development assistance. Wherever
the funding comes from, it is of utmost importance to ensure that a written commitment exists and that
the money flows to the project in accordance with standard and accepted procedures.
Section 8.3 Monitoring and Verification

Verification means to verify, inspect, or test that
an agreement meets the legal and/or regulatory
requirements agreed upon the parties involved.
However, monitoring implies an active collection,
verification, and an immediate use of information.
Thus, verification can be part of a monitoring
process. The words verification and monitoring are
used frequently in the UN system but are not always
properly defined.
There are a number of tasks with implications

An advance team of the Organization for the Prohibition
in verification and monitoring. Sensitivity and an
of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) and the United Nations
awareness of the political situation are particularly arrives in Damascus, Syria after the OPCW Executive
vital. This sensitivity requires a careful but not Council and the UN Security Council unanimously
endorsed a plan to begin the process of overseeing
abusive supervision, observation, and gathering
the destruction of the country’s chemical weapons
of information. Combined with accurate reporting, programme. The team of 19 OPCW inspectors and 14 UN
these activities can be the most essential tools staff members went into Syria over land from Beirut. 01
October 2013. UN Photo #565748 by Hend Abdel Ghany.
towards achieving mission success. For the purpose
of this section, the various verification/ monitoring
missions are all titled monitoring.
Depending on her/his previous experiences, an FO will work in different areas and, accordingly,
must ensure that he/she knows and understands the mandate of the mission and the nature of the
assigned tasks. The FO should aim to preserve and demonstrate objectiveness wherever possible and
not display any signs of favouritism. Monitoring duties may encompass a wide range of tasks, including
those as follows.
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Humanitarian Assistance
FOs may need to cooperate with the humanitarian organizations already working in the area. This
work can vary greatly, such as any and all tasks including monitoring the delivery of commodities, food
distribution, health programmes, educational tasks, administrative work, or assessment of a certain
situation. The FO may also monitor the evacuation of refugees and the wounded from the disaster
zones. By working in the humanitarian field, the FO may ensure that the humanitarian imperatives are
fully considered.
Election
Election monitoring engages both long-term and

short-term observers. Long-term observers begin their
work weeks before the actual election day. They monitor
the candidate registration process, the legal framework,
the media cover, the work of the various national election
committees, and the campaigns of the political parties.
The election itself is monitored by short-term observers
who are present at the opening of polling stations, while
votes are cast, and during the counting process. After the
election day, some observers may remain in the country
Voters and electoral officers at a polling station
to monitor how potential election-related complaints are
in Kabul. Millions of Afghan women and men cast
handled. The observers’ findings are made public as soon their ballots in Presidential and Provincial Council
as possible after the election. elections in an important step forward in their
country’s first democratic transition of power. 05
If the FO has election-related experience, he or she April 2014. UN Photo #585242 by Fardin Waezi.
may be involved as a long-term or short-term monitor.
As election monitors, FOs do not directly prevent electoral fraud, but rather, they record and report such
instances. They must be familiar with the specific duties of the position and follow the guidelines for
the rules of conduct of an electoral monitor, never interfering if they are assigned to monitor the voting
process. Election monitors should maintain a low profile to preserve impartiality.
Human Rights Monitoring
As observed in the foreword to the OHCHR’s Training Manual on Human Rights Monitoring:
“A growing number of United Nations field operations

established in recent years, under either the coordination of the
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) or
other United Nations auspices, have included a human rights
mandate, in Angola, Burundi, Cambodia, Colombia, El Salvador,
Former Yugoslavia, Guatemala, Haiti, Rwanda, Sierra Leone and
elsewhere. This intensification of fieldwork is one of the most
significant developments in the area of human rights protection
and promotion in the last decade of the twentieth century.
While the mandate of these field operations has varied, a major
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task they have been required to perform has been monitoring

the human rights situation in the country of operation.”2
All monitoring tasks assigned to FOs are determined by previous experiences. The FO may operate
independently, assist others in the field, or act as an administrative entity. Regardless of level and
responsibility, all investigations, gathering of information about incidents, event observations, visitations
of detention or refugee sites, and verifications of alleged violence against human rights must be carried
out meticulously and with great sensitivity.
Confidence-Building
It is a demanding task to monitor and report the situation of an economy, social life, and infrastructure
while developing ideas for reconstruction, but project development and management are integral to
confidence-building activities. Accordingly, FOs must creatively help parties develop the capacity to deal
with each other productively, understand each other’s interests, foster cooperation, and build working
relationships. All of these components are essential to breaking the cycle of conflict in an area.
Section 8.4 Transparent Communication
Liaison
To liaise means to establish a working relationship

by facilitating cooperation and communication between
various actors. Liaison officers serve by coordinating
between various actors to improve and promote
cooperation and mutual trust between local and national
authorities, parties to a conflict, and other organizations
concerned. FOs should consider liaising as building
a structural link between their own organization and
others to create productive working relationships that
effectively and jointly seek solutions to actual problems.
As part of the Western Area Surge Operation in
The liaison system in a multidimensional operation
Sierra Leone to curb the Ebola outbreak in the
is crucial since it provides timely passage of information country, social mobilization teams are deployed
between all factions concerned, including the civil to promote health and to facilitate community
acceptance of new surveillance, clinical care, and
population, humanitarian actors, concerned authorities,
burial procedures in Freetown. 22 December 2014.
and armed forces. The need for liaison will increase in UN Photo #617529 by Martine Perret.
proportion to the complexity of the political environment.
Information passed through the liaison system is essential since it produces and disseminates updated
assessments of the progress of the mission and other notable events. In a non-secure environment,
the information and liaison system can also serve as a means to provide timely information about the
prevailing security condition in the mission area. The liaison system promotes transparency since it
systematically channels information that helps the FO daily.
2) Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Training Manual on Human Rights Monitoring, 2001. <www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/
training7Introen.pdf>.
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Information and Intelligence
In the past, information-gathering had been mostly avoided in the UN system. There was a simple
reason for this reluctance: information was thought of as a type of surveillance linked to the military
system, where intelligence activities have another interpretation and purpose. Regardless of whether
the activities are called information-gathering or intelligence, this particular preconception has changed.
Today, intelligence is an essential tool for implementation and execution of every mission, whether a
multidimensional peacekeeping operation or a purely civilian mission. Since 2006, the Joint Operations/
Joint Mission Analysis Centres carry out the intelligence/information-gathering on the basis of directives
issued by DPO.
An intelligence support operation may be performed as an aerial surveillance activity with the
aim of producing maps, identifying “rebel” headquarter or refugee hiding places, or as an information-
gathering exercise where a local population provides UN personnel with useful local knowledge.
Information-gathering (human intelligence) under the conditions of a civilian FO is not different. A
civilian situation would still include a Field Operator in an emergency area, affected for example, by a
severe drought, ensuring that the planned delivery of correctly composed food commodities reach the
most affected people at an appropriate place and time. In order to ensure these requirements, the FO
must gather information for making correct assessments of the local conditions, resources, etc., prior
to decisions about the project and delivery of the commodities. However, such information may be
interpreted as a non-desirable intelligence, touching upon sensitive topics such as local infrastructures,
political elements, composition of the local societies, and more. Knowledge of the UN, the mandate of
the specific mission, and the FO’s judgment and political awareness should guide the FO to make the
correct assessments and necessary decisions.
The following are example questions for the purpose of intelligence gathering, as applied to a
refugee situation. Although sourced from a military authority, they provide an excellent example of the
most important questions the FO may consider when involved in circumstances such as those previously
described. Doing this within an established liaison system is of great advantage, particularly as a means
to get an overall picture of the prevailing situation:
• Where are the refugees originally from? What is the size of the original population? What is the
size of the area and population that the village services in the surrounding countryside?
• What is the size of the refugee population? Why did they come here? What is the relationship of
their service? Do they have an outreach program the village with the surrounding villages? Are
they related? Do they support each other? Are they hostile towards each other? Is any portion
of the village population discriminated against?
• What is the food and water status of the village? Where do they get their food? What other
means of subsistence is available? Are the villagers farmers or herders? What is the status of
their crops or herds? What is the quality of the water source?
• What is the medical status of the village? What services are available in the village? What is
the location of the nearest medical facility? Is there evidence of illness and/or starvation? What
portion of the population is affected? What is the death rate? What diseases are reported in the
village?
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• What civilian organizations exist in the village? Who are their leaders?
• What civil-military organizations exist in the village? Who are their leaders?
• What organization/leadership element does the general population seem to support or trust the
most?
• Which organization seems to have the most control in the village?
• What UN relief agencies operate in the village? Who are their representatives? What services
do they provide? What portion of the population do they service Do they have an outreach
programme for the surrounding countryside?
• What is the security situation in the village? What element(s) is the source of the problems? What
types and quantities of weapons are in the village? What are the locations of the minefields?
• What commercial or business activities are present in the village? What services or products do
they produce?
• What are the groups in the village that are in the most need? What are their numbers? Where
did they come from? How long have they been there? What are their specific needs?
• What civic employment projects would the village leaders like to see started?
• Determine the number of families in the village. What are their names (family)? How many in
each family?
• What food items are available in the local market? What is the cost of these items? Are relief
supplies being sold in the market? If so, what items, what is their source, and what is the price?
• What skilled labour or services are available in the village (non-HRA)?
• What is the size of any transient population in the village? Where did they come from and how
long have they been there?3
Information Technology
New information technology has brought another dimension to the management of UN field
missions. At the headquarters level, the Department of Peace Operations (DPO) is supported by an
excellent communications system (voice, video, and data transmission) that can rapidly be deployed
anywhere on the globe. This new technology also offers opportunities for better interoperability as it
provides an effective sharing of information among the various elements in a field mission. This concept
is specifically known as transparency.
The possibilities of monitoring operationally sensitive areas are explored and well-known. In the
aftermath of the 1972 war between Egypt and Israel, the Sinai Field Mission was charged with monitoring
the militarily sensitive Mitla Pass in the Sinai desert. By using highly sensitive sensors, a small civilian
contingent was engaged in an early warning system that worked satisfactorily for six years. Aerial
surveillance and other classic intelligence activities were also used during the UN Operation in the
Congo (ONUC) in the 1960s and over the Golan Heights in the 1970s.
UN peacekeeping operations continued to take advantages of modern technology with the support
of the Security Council and General Assembly. The technology of today includes high-tech scanning
3) US Army Center for Lessons Learned - Sample Peacekeeping Operations - Intelligence Checklist for refugee situations.
181
equipment, such as video cameras, various sensor systems, ground-penetrating and area-surveillance
radar systems, aerial surveillance with thermal imaging and image intensifiers, and drones for aerial
information gathering. The use of new technologies in peacekeeping operations was discussed in the
Security Council during its June 2013 annual briefing by UN Force Commanders, in a meeting of its
Working Group on Peacekeeping Operations in July 2013 attended by several TCCs and PCCs as well as
in a meeting of the Council on Peacekeeping in June 2014.
The UN Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) is
introducing the use of Unarmed Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) to enhance protection capabilities. At the airport
in Goma, technicians prepare a UAV for an official launch ceremony with Under-Secretary-General for
Peacekeeping Operations, Hervé Ladsous. 03 December 2013. UN Photo #572911 by Sylvain Liechti.
One new peacekeeping tool that was featured in the discussions was the use of unarmed unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs). The UAVs, which started deploying in the DRC on 1 December 2013, are used
to identify armed movements, monitor camps for internally displaced persons, and provide timely
reconnaissance over vast and sensitive areas. Although they are unarmed, they may deter hostile
actions by providing accurate information to trigger the use of rapid reaction forces if needed.
Some Council members are receptive to the use of UAVs, believing that they are an effective, cost-
efficient way of monitoring armed groups, tracking displaced persons, and providing reconnaissance.
However, it also appears that there are Council members who have some concerns about the use
of UAVs. For the time being, the UAVs are used in MONUSCO on a trial basis to enhance situational
awareness. It is on a case-by-case basis and would not prejudice the ongoing consideration by relevant
UN bodies of legal, financial, and technical implications of the use of UAVs. Other issues raised regarding
the deployment of UAVs have had to do with access to the information gathered by these systems
(operated by commercial contractors) and concerns about sovereignty whenever they fly over border
zones. In June 2014, the Secretariat appointed a five-member Expert Panel to advise on how best to
use new technologies and innovations in UN peacekeeping.
182
There is also a debate of other types of technology used to enhance the effectiveness and cost-
efficiency of UN peacekeeping missions. For example, benefits from infrared systems on aircraft and
helicopters and GPS technology in vehicles. Adding night-sight capacity for weapons and man-portable
surveillance radar would also be useful enhancements for the mission. These improvements come as
the UN develops a “capability-driven approach” to peacekeeping, outlined in the July 2009 New Horizon
document, which underlined the need to move from a quantitative focus on numbers to a qualitative
approach emphasizing the generation of capabilities.
Section 8.5 Negotiation
Purpose
Negotiation is the most common procedure used before and during a mission to settle a dispute or
reach an agreement. Negotiation refers to a direct dialogue with one or more counterparts or parties,
and it can be used for anything from increasing the number of workers on a project to securing the safe
passage of a relief convoy. Mediation is similar to negotiation, but it requires a go-between responsible
for facilitating communications between the parties. The ultimate aim of negotiation and mediation is to
reach an agreement to which all concerned parties have freely concurred. Particularly in negotiations,
the role of the negotiator can be very decisive. While he/she has no authority to “enforce” a solution,
he/ she can and should use persuasion in assisting the disputing parties to arrive at a negotiated
settlement. Careful planning and preparation will help the FO to accomplish this task.
It is beyond the scope of this lesson to deal with all aspects of negotiation. However, in negotiation
processes, whether conducted at a working or policy level, a successful outcome is on some level
dependent on the chemistry between the negotiators. Their expected professional and positive
performance should aim at the establishment of mutual trust and confidence.
The following general advice is useful in the art of negotiation.
• Always arrange the following prior to the meeting: location, time, attendees, content/subject
matter to be discussed, the nature of documentation (i.e., agenda and “minutes” to record,
what is discussed and hopefully agreed upon).
• Your own party should consist of at least two people and should never outnumber the opposing
group.
• Maintain dignity and politeness during dealings with other people.
• Remain respectful towards all with whom you deal.
• Remember to pay social compliments to hosts and representatives involved in the negotiations.
Take time.
Preparation
Since the basic purpose of negotiation is to achieve something or to resolve a dispute, the negotiators
must be well-prepared. The definition and identification of the problem is only part of the preparation.
• What is the issue that the negotiation seeks to resolve? Has it been discussed before? Why
should it be discussed at this time? What is the background? What is the current situation?
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• Obtain all possible information about the issue,

and outline potential options for a settlement.
Read previous reports on the matter.
• What were the previous conclusions and how do

they relate to previous or future arrangements?
Who were the persons involved: name, rank,
personality, authority, and attitudes?
• What are your options, limitations, frame,

objectives, and mandate?
• When and where will the negotiation take place? UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay
(right), and Adama Dieng, Special Adviser to the
When the problem has been properly identified, the Secretary-General on the Prevention of Genocide,
practicalities have to be discussed. If there will be a during their meeting with Taban Deng Gai, South
Sudanese rebel chief negotiator. They conducted a
delegation, who will be the head? Who will do the talking?
three-day visit to South Sudan in the wake of mass
Who will take notes? Decide on the role of the interpreter. killings earlier in the month in Bentiu and Bor. 29
How many from each side will attend the meeting, thus April 2014. UN Photo #587104 by Isaac Billy.
avoiding any overrepresentation? When all preparations

and practical arrangements are complete, set the agenda
and ensure that your party arrives in due time.
Conduct
Be aware that the parties concerned have a stake and share in the settlement of the dispute and
that a positive or negative outcome may not by itself represent the end. The opening talks should
include an introduction of the team and the presentation of the agenda. Some introductory small-talk
may be useful and polite and gives all an opportunity to assess the atmosphere and the mood of the
attendants.
• If possible, let the counterpart start. Listen, and do not interrupt; be patient and start to agree
on the agenda subjects.
• If incorrect information is given, settle the facts and support them with evidence, but do not
argue. It is essential to state facts only. If differences occur, note the opinion of your counterpart,
highlighting the most essential points.
• In some cases, the tasks of negotiation may include conveying complaints. Ensure that the
complaint is clear in all its details, preferably confirmed in writing. If necessary, declare that the
issue will be reconsidered after due investigation.
• Make no promises or admissions, unless the situation or your mandate clearly permits you to
do so. Do not reveal anything about one party that could be exploited by the other party. To be
impartial and correct is always an advantage.
• Be restrained if one of the parties makes negative comments about the organization you
represent. Try to make everybody accept the mandate and the solution it promotes by making
careful reminders about agreements, actual arrangements, and past practices.
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Lawrence Wohlers (right), Deputy Special Representative (Political) of the Secretary-General, and Renner
Onana (second from right), Chief of Human Rights and Justice for the UN Multidimensional Integrated
Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA), meet with local leaders in the largely
Muslim enclave of PK5 in the capital city of Bangui. 12 July 2014. UN Photo #595070 by Catianne Tijerina.
• Conclude the negotiation by repeating what has been agreed upon and have it confirmed in
writing. Agree upon a time and place for further negotiations, and end discussion with some
final and polite phrases.
The report of the meeting and the follow-up are important. Prepare a short verbal briefing for your
superiors and write a detailed report containing facts, stances, conclusions, recommendations, and
further arrangements.
Section 8.6 Mediation

Mediation is a more complex and comprehensive activity than negotiation. As a neutral third party,
a mediator has the responsibility of facilitating communication and seeking agreement between the
parties. This requires meticulous preparation, particularly concerning the agenda and pre-accepted
subjects for the meeting. Although mediation includes the same pattern and formalities as negotiation,
the following points should be considered:
Preparation and Conduct
• Meet the parties separately before the meeting and identify the problem areas.
• Coordinate with the parties and make an approved agenda to distribute before the meeting.
• Discuss the “hard” subjects with those concerned to consider solutions to the main issue.
• Propose and decide a meeting place.
• Discuss and establish the conditions for the meeting, for example, number of participants, use
of interpreters, communications, seating, separate rooms for informal settings, etc.
185
A UN nuclear inspection team protesting

the lack of access to the Fallujah Military
Transport Command in Iraq. Acting
Chief Inspector David Kay is at far left.
Next to him is United Nations interpreter
Bachir al-Okla with Iraqi military
commanders on the right. 28 June
1991. UN Photo #296814 by Pernaca
Sudhakaran.
When the UN is involved in mediation, the parties may sometimes require the UN to chair the
meeting. A chairperson may conduct the meeting as follows:
• Start the meeting by reading the agreed-upon agenda.
• If there has been a previous meeting, give the status of what has been implemented.
• Present possible options that have previously been separately discussed with the parties, and
make every effort to find a common ground for solutions.
• Maintain neutrality and objectivity. Try to balance the outcome (“one for you and one for you”).
• The conclusion must be agreed upon and clearly documented. If nothing has been agreed upon,
ensure that the parties can meet again — never close the door.
Use of Interpreters
In mediations and negotiations, interpreters are frequently needed. They are often recruited from
the local population and paid a salary in accordance with a UN contract. A good interpreter is an asset
in all negotiations and mediations — not only in translating the local language, but also in knowing
the customs and habits of the country. However, one has to be careful not to discuss sensitive matters
directly with interpreters that may have an impact on the situation, considering the interpreters’ loyalty
may not always rest exclusively with the employing organization.
An interpreter should interpret with the greatest of accuracy. They should not add anything, try
to explain a subject, or participate in the discussions. He/she must have a non-visible attitude and
be as impartial as possible. In an interpreted discussion, the principals should speak directly to their
counterparts and not to the interpreter.
Eight fundamentals of effective mediation:
1. Preparedness;
2. Consent;
186
3. Impartiality;
4. Inclusivity;
5. National Ownership;
6. International Law and Normative Frameworks;
7. Coherence, Coordination, and Complementarity of the

Mediation Effort; and
8. Quality Peace Agreement.
Seven deadly sins of mediation:
1. Ignorance;
2. Arrogance;
3. Partiality;
4. Impotence;
5. Haste;
6. Inflexibility; and
7. False Promises.
Further Reading
For more comprehensive information on these topics consult the following documents:
»» UN Handbook on the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes

between States: <http://legal.un.org/cod/books/
HandbookOnPSD.pdf>.
»» High-Level Security Council Meeting on Mediation:

<http://peacemaker.un.org/peacemaking-mandate/security-
council>.
»» Resolution of the General Assembly “Strengthening

the role of mediation in the peaceful settlement of
disputes, conflict prevention, and resolution”: <http://
peacemaker.un.org/sites/peacemaker.un.org/files/SGReport_
StrenghteningtheRoleofMediation_A66811.pdf>.
187
»» UN Guidance for Effective Mediation: <https://peacemaker.

un.org/guidance-effective-mediation>.
»» UN Guidance for Mediators addressing Conflict-related

Sexual Violence in Ceasefire and Peace Agreements:
<https://peacemaker.un.org/node/1447>.
Section 8.7 Written Communications and Reports

FOs working in larger operations or missions will sooner or
later face the demands of written communication, particularly if Submission Standards »
the FO is involved in any kind of administrative work. Types of View the standards in accordance
written communication include official communications, such as with the instructions in the
formal or informal letters, memoranda, and facsimile (fax), email, United Nations Editorial Manual
and non-official communications. Non-official communications Online: <http://dd.dgacm.org/
usually take the form of a note or a transmittal form. Memos, editorialmanual>;
draft reports, or official letters must be understandable, and in the editorial directive,
accessible, and readable; simplicity in language and structure “Standards for the preparation
is a necessity. However, UN rules for documentation are very and submission of United Nations
comprehensive. Written communication requires formalities, documents”: <http://conf.unog.
such as addressee, sender, date, file reference, and, if required, ch/dms/?q=node/42>.
a security classification. The distribution list should be carefully
considered.
Any official report is required to be well-structured. The subject must be clearly defined and the
purpose of the message easy to identify. If an answer is required, it should be indicated clearly in
the beginning and/or the end of the message. Protocol highly recommends an executive summary
at the beginning of any official communications, to include a background and a summary of the
recommendations. Such a summary provides the reader with the first insights into the subject. The
terms of reference and the purpose of the study or visit must be mentioned. The document should end
with a conclusion, which may partly be used in the executive summary.
Section 8.8 Communication with the Media

UN Peacekeeping strategy has evolved over the years with the fundamental aim of achieving the
coordinated use of available communications. The UN has adopted a proactive approach towards direct
communications with the media and the public through video, radio, photo, print, web and social media
platforms.
The media landscape and information environment present a unique challenge to mission
communications. The information environment is characterized by the strongly contrasting stances of
the media on different side of the conflict, so any development perceived positively by one is likely to
have negative connotations for the other. Unfortunately there may be very little accountability on the
part of the local media, who may cite unreliable sources or make serious allegations with no basis.
Parties to the conflict use media outlets quite extensively as a political tool, carrying out sophisticated
188
A peacekeeper of the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC)
tries out a video camera used by the Mission’s public information officers. 11 April 2008. UN Photo
#185629 by Marie Frechon.
propaganda campaigns that combine the use of TV-radio-print media as well as a highly effective social
network of communication by word of mouth and social media platforms. In addition, there may also
be international journalists reporting about mission from the perspective of their national contingent.
The media is a constant presence to keep in mind in a mission, although it is not always visible.
When spectacular or dramatic events occur, the media coverage will be intense, and improper handling
may cause embarrassment and even jeopardize the work of the mission. In general, the media should
be considered as an asset, but FOs should also recognize the sensitivity of dealing with media and
should be well acquainted with the mission’s media policy.
The Public Information Office
Successful interaction with the media is based on providing accurate, factual information without
any political statements. Missions also frequently utilize the media as a means to inform the public about
the mission’s work. In several operations, the UN has used the media to inform the local population
about the purpose of the mission, its operational activities, and reasonable expectations for the future.
Generally, the authority for generating these communications fall within the purview of the Public
Information Office (PIO). Each mission’s PIO does the following:
• Develops and manages the communications strategy, assists the media, and ensures the local
population is informed about the mandate and the peace process;
• May operate its own radio station or broadcast on local stations, produce video material for
television, and publish informational brochures, posters, and pamphlets, all in a number of local
languages;
• Employs local journalists who have good knowledge and understanding of local customs and
traditions;
189
As part of a feature photo news story, the United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA)
accompanied Georgette Gagnon, an international human rights lawyer and Director of Human Rights at
UNAMA, on a recent field trip she took to eastern Afghanistan. Ms. Gagnon takes questions from local
journalists about her visit. 01 October 2013. UN Photo #574874 by Fardin Waezi.
• Accredits journalists to have access to the UN and will issue ID cards to reporters that can be
checked by contingents in the field;
• Works closely with the military public information structures - the military spokesman and the
military public information officers attached to contingents, implementing the communications
strategy; and
• Provides all mission personnel with useful information about the mandate, the peace process,
and the mission. The PIO can help contingents manage their media relations and promote a
positive image of contingents that engage in assistance with the local community.
Journalists may assume that any FO is a UN representative who is qualified to speak with the media,
regardless of their position. Therefore, as an FO, you should:
• Always refer reporters to UN information personnel if they ask you any questions that you are
not authorized to answer. It is always better to refer to an authorized person than to give a
wrong answer;
• Always be polite with the media, even if they appear rude or unfriendly. They may be under
pressure to get the news; you should keep your professionalism and maintain an educated and
polite attitude;
• Stick to facts, as they cannot be refuted; and
• Be brief and precise. Time is the main limitation of the modern media, as only so much news
and images can be conveyed each minute. If you speak too much or are unclear, the positive
image you want to present will be lost.
190
Do NOT:
• Offer your personal opinion about the peace process or about UN activities. Any answer you
provide may be regarded as an official opinion or, if negative, may reflect badly on the mission
and the organization;
• Answer questions that are speculative, such as “What will happen if…?”. Speculations are just
that. You might provide wrong information that may affect the mission;
• Give any information about UN security plans or procedures. The UN is an open organization
and has no secrets. However, security may be affected;
• Discuss the state or activities of local or other combatant forces; and
• Do not appear to support or favour one side over the other. Remember at all times that you are
impartial.
191
1. The basic principle of participatory 6. Aerial surveillance with the aim of

development is _____. producing maps, identifying “rebel”
headquarter or refugee hiding places,
A. The empowerment and involvement of local
or information-gathering exercises are
people
example of what kind of activity?
B. Giving foreigners and locals equal influence
A. Military espionage
C. Replacing dependence on the colonial system
B. Rural assessment
with dependence on international aid
C. Intelligence support operations
D. All of the above
D. All of the above
2. Successful development projects should

_____. 7. Unarmed unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs) have been used to _____.
A. Meet the local people’s interests, needs, and
A. Identify armed movements
wishes
B. Monitor camps for internally displaced
B. Exclude women
persons
C. Meet the needs of the donor
C. Provide timely reconnaissance over vast and
D. Give UN personnel total control
sensitive areas
3. Successful development projects should D. All of the above

NOT _____.
8. TRUE or FALSE? The ultimate aim of
A. Make use of local knowledge and skills
negotiation and mediation is to reach
B. Squander valuable resources an agreement to which all concerned
C. Improve gender inequalities parties have freely concurred.
D. Encourage local people to make decisions A. True
B. False
4. In what kind of monitoring activities
might an FO be involved? 9. During a negotiation, it is appropriate to
A. Electoral _____.
B. Humanitarian Assistance A. Argue
C. Human Rights B. Correct factual errors
D. All of the above C. Make informal promises
D. Passionately defend the party with whom
5. To _____ means to establish a working
you agree
relationship by facilitating cooperation
and communication between various
10. What should you do if a journalist asks
actors:
you a question and you do not know
A. Confide what to say?
B. Liaise A. Defer any questions that you are
C. Negotiate uncomfortable or unqualified to answer to
D. Mediate the Public Information Office
B. Be rude so they stop asking questions
C. Change topics and give your personal
opinions about the mission
D. Read long paragraphs of information that are
unclear and bury the facts
192
1. How do participatory methods of development create more

sustainable results?
2. Why are negotiation and mediation some of the most critical

tools of conflict resolution and peacebuilding?
3. How can media coverage be leveraged to the benefit of a

mission and its mandate? How can the Public Information Office
support this?
Answer Key »
1. A
2. A
3. B
4. D
5. B
6. C
7. D
8. A
9. B
10. A
193
LESSON
Global Partners for
9 Development and Peace
A large network of
organizations representing
the international community
serves in operations alongside
the United Nations.
UN Photo #611179 by Ari Gaitanis.
Section 9.1 Establishing Organizational • Identify the roles non-governmental organizations

Relationships in the Field play in the international community and the UN
system.
Section 9.2 UN Programmes and Funds
• Identify the roles and relationships between
Section 9.3 UN Specialized Agencies
various UN programmes and funds in the UN
Section 9.4 International Organizations with system.
Member States
• Recognize the specialized roles of certain UN
Section 9.5 Non-Governmental International agencies.
Organizations
• Understand the differences between international
Section 9.6 International Governmental governmental organizations and NGOs.
Organizations
• Note the existence of specific classification and
Section 9.7 Non-Governmental accreditation systems for organizations.
Organizations
194
LESSON 9 | Global Partners for Development and Peace
Nadia Hadi, United Nations Humanitarian Affairs Officer, liaises with the manager of an Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) camp, to
facilitate and coordinate the provision of humanitarian assistance in Timor-Leste. 02 April 2009. UN Photo #366065 by Martine Perret.
These organizations may work as governmental or

non-governmental organizations, or as formally part of
the UN system. Some of them may be small in size and
with limited mandates, while others are large and hold
substantial influence and ability to impact an operation.
For practical reasons, it is not possible to list all
organizations that may participate in United Nations field
activities; therefore, the compilation presented in this View a video from OCHA Sudan that explains how
the UN collaborates with partners in the field to
lesson only represents a small portion of those present
confront the challenges of humanitarian development
in the field and frequently involved in UN field activities. in Sudan <https://youtu.be/12GMA3KDvtU>. Its
message illustrates the objectives of this lesson.
The number of organizations involved in UN operations
has dramatically increased in the last two decades.
At the time of the foundation of the United Nations in
1945, there were 2,865 international nongovernmental
organizations; by 1990 that number had increased to
13,591. In 1992, some 1,420 NGOs were credited to
have attended the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro.1
1) Stephenson, Carolyn. “Role of NGOs.” Beyond Intractability, 2005. <www.

beyondintractability.org/essay/role-ngo>.
195
Of course, these organizations differ widely in terms of resources, capacity, and expertise. Some
may operate exclusively in the field responding to crises, while others stick to administrative work and
financing social initiatives. Some liaise with government officials and large corporations, while others
organize at the community and grass roots level. A very large organization might be capable of all of
these roles, and more. It can be difficult sometimes to categorize and label these entities, although
there are some prevalent definitions.
The term “International Organizations” may be interpreted as organizations and procedures that
require a framework of cooperation between states. Non-governmental organizations are organizations
founded and governed by citizens without any formal governmental representation. Although these
two definitions seem to be rather straightforward, there are some objections to such definitions as to
limits concerning governmental vis-à-vis non-governmental organizations. The picture may be further
confused with the use of the terms “international governmental organizations” and “non-governmental
international organizations”. The United Nations has an official classification listing organizations as
either part of the UN system or as outside of the system and where distinctions are made between
different types of organizations. It is beyond the scope and purpose of this lesson to strictly define and
follow the official classification system. There are too many contradictions, and the definitions are not
always clear why it is not possible to strictly adhere to the system’s nomenclature. Instead, and at the
author’s own discretion, the lesson will provide a compilation of some organizations that are useful to
be aware of.
Section 9.1 Establishing Organizational Relationships in the Field
Identifying and Vetting Partners
To work with internal and external partners at all levels requires not only a basic knowledge of
involved organizations, but also an awareness of their respective tasks and mandates in their work in
a specific mission. An FO must obtain information about the organizations arriving to and operating
in the mission area and must also determine if cooperation or coordination will be required for the
successful realization of field work. It is helpful to know the organization’s mandate, their capacity, level
of professional standard, existing coordination methods and techniques for their activities with other
organizations, and how the FO can assist so that the mission’s overall objectives are achieved with
minimal friction and maximum collaboration.
The role of the host government in the mission context must also be clearly understood, since future
coordination depends on their expressed policy and assumed leadership. Besides the governments,
there are other major actors, which may have overriding responsibilities in certain fields. In large-
scale operations, it is essential to identify those that have the overall responsibilities or would like to
assume such a leading role. For instance, the UNDP Representative frequently assumes the overall
coordinating development responsibility, while UNHCR takes the lead concerning refugees and the World
Health Organization heads immunization programmes. As for other major agencies and organizations,
it is necessary to know their mandates. In general, their activities encompass programmes in
democratisation, food support, health, rebuilding the infrastructure, and education. Some major NGOs
may also have a leading role in humanitarian assistance programmes.
196
Coordinating Field Work
Informal and formal coordination is a key mechanism in order to follow up on the security situation,
measure expected achievements, or to adjust plans in accordance with new directives and conditions.
Although informal contacts provide useful information, without a formal coordination mechanism, very
little will be achieved.
Formal coordination is set up in different levels. At the central level, the government or the UN
normally establishes one single coordination authority, which may be mandated as a commission,
committee, or as an operation centre, where all major actors of a mission are represented. This
central authority should also be represented at the site level where similar coordination mechanism
should be organized. The CIMIC concept, as previously described, is an example on a site-level placed
coordination mechanism. In addition, other informal or formal coordination entities on a lower level
may also be established. As a rule, coordination takes place at regular formal meetings where progress
of the operation is reviewed, providing an opportunity to identify incoming organizations as well as to
facilitate their integration and adoption of the mission’s objectives and standards.
Section 9.2 UN Programmes and Funds

The Secretariat, as part of the United Nations Headquarters, has several departments and offices
directly involved in field activities, including the entities concerned with humanitarian operations and
development:2
The Department of Peace Operations
DPO is part of the Secretariat. In coordination with other substantial departments, it is responsible
for planning, preparation, and direction of the United Nations field operations. As such, it provides
the overall guidance in terms of coordination and policy. It also assists in the provision of substantive
services to the Security Council and the General Assembly.
Office of the Coordinator of Humanitarian Assistance
Office of the Coordinator of Humanitarian Assistance (OCHA) is also part of the Secretariat. The
Office’s functions are focused on three core areas:
• Policy development and coordination functions in support of the Secretary-General, ensuring

that all humanitarian issues, including those which fall between gaps in existing mandates of
agencies, such as protection and assistance for internally displaced persons, are addressed;
• Advocacy of humanitarian issues with political organs, notably the Security Council; and
• Coordination of humanitarian emergency response, by ensuring that an appropriate response

mechanism is established, through Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) consultations on
the ground.
OCHA discharges its coordination function primarily through the IASC, which is chaired by the
Emergency Relief Coordinator (ERC), with the participation of all humanitarian partners, including the
Red Cross Movement and NGOs. OCHA Headquarters is located in New York and Geneva. To learn more,
visit <www.unocha.org>.
2) Extracts from United Nations Handbook, 2002.
197
United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC)
The United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team is part of the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs (OCHA) and the international emergency response system for sudden-onset emergencies. UNDAC was created in 1993. It is
designed to help the United Nations and governments of disaster-affected countries during the first phase of a sudden-onset emer-
gency. UNDAC, as a tool of OCHA, also assists in the coordination of incoming international relief at national level and/or at the site of
the emergency.
242 5 largest deployments

Number of UNDAC missions
by disaster type by number of staff deployed
73 45
1,200
Pakistan: Earthquake 2005

48 45
Indian Ocean: Earthquake
Haiti: Earthquake 2010**
Pakistan: Floods 2010

Typhoon Haiyan 2013
23 23 23
and Tsunami 2004*

26 16
22
Philippines:
14 10
4
Complex Cyclones, typhoons Earthquakes, Environmental & Floods and Response Volcanic Forest fire,
emergencies and hurricanes Tsunamis man-made emergencies land/mudslides prepardness eruption drought
UNDAC deployments by gender and year
Total Afghanistan Bolivia Haiti Tropical

earhquake
earthquake 132 floods earthquake storm
by gender: Bopha
Hurricane Hurricane Pakistan
Mitch Female team Anna floods Guatemala
228 (18%)
(36%) members deployed 22% earthquake
1,062 (82%)
(64%)
97
Male team 90 89
87 87
members deployed 22% 83
74
20% 18% 15%
4% 20%
36%
61 59 61
56
13% 12% 20%
40 25%
42 42
2% 38 38
12% 12% 36
29 11%
29% 29%
22 22
9% 5%
5
100% 91% 95% 100% 98% 96% 87% 88% 75% 88% 88% 78% 80% 80% 80% 78% 82% 85% 71% 71% 89% 64%
Emergencies responded to and deployment days by year

Indian Ocean 3,266 Total number of
Total earthquake deployment days
emergencies: and tsunami
242 17 20
16
15
1,785
14
1,746 1,720
12 1,580 11 1,526
10 14
12 12 1,268
1,326
11 11 11 8
1,044 958
9 1,013
6
8 838 823
7 11
635 633 622 632
591
511
2 335 5
229
62
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
*includes Indonesia, Maldives, Seychelles, Sri Lanka and Thailand deployments. **includes Dominican Republic deployment.
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
Creation date: 9 Dec 2014 Sources: OCHA, UNCS Feedback: ochavisual@un.org www.unocha.org www.reliefweb.int
Reproduced from the United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) site, 2015.
198
The United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination
The United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team is a standby team of
disaster management professionals who are nominated and funded by member governments, OCHA,
UNDP, and operational humanitarian United Nations Agencies such as WFP, UNICEF, and the WHO.
Members of UNDAC are permanently on standby to deploy to relief missions following disasters and
humanitarian emergencies anywhere in the world. Upon the request of a disaster-stricken country, the
UNDAC team can be deployed within hours to carry out rapid assessment of priority needs. UNDAC also
supports national authorities and the United Nations Resident Coordinator on-site in the coordination of
international relief. UNDAC is responsible for providing first-hand information on disaster situations and
priority needs of the victims to the international community through OCHA.
United Nations Office for Project Service
United Nations Office for Project Service (UNOPS) provides services for the management of
multidisciplinary programmes that otherwise do not fall within the purview of any specialized UN
agency. UNOPS offers the international community a broad range of services, from overall project
management to the provision of single inputs. In responding flexibly to its clients’ demands, UNOPS
tailors its services to their particular needs, applies methods for attaining cost-effective results, and
mobilizes diverse implementing partners. Headquarters are located in New York, as well as other offices
located in Abidjan, Kuala Lumpur, San Salvador, Copenhagen, Geneva, Nairobi, Rome, and Tokyo. Learn
more at <www.unops.org/>.
A new campaign dubbed ‘Back

to Learning’ was launched in
Juba, South Sudan, by the United
Nations Children Fund (UNICEF)
and South Sudan President
Salva Kiir. The campaign aims
to bring education opportunities
to 400,000 children in all 10
states, whose schooling has been
interrupted by the conflict in
the country. 19 February 2015.
#623195 by JC McIlwaine.
United Nations Children’s Fund
Established to provide emergency assistance to children in war-ravaged countries, United Nations

Children’s Fund (UNICEF) is also in charge of aiding the developing countries and the development of
permanent child health and welfare services. The organization is also mandated to advocate for the
protection of children’s right to help meet their basic needs and to expand their opportunities to reach
their full potential. UNICEF reports to the General Assembly through the ECOSOC. The resources come
from voluntary contribution and were $968 million as of 1999. Headquarters is located in New York. Visit
<www.unicef.org/> to learn more.
199
Rural women in Senegal attend a literacy class after the

introduction of the Multifunctional Platform Project (MFP)
by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),
because they no longer need to spend several hours a
day gathering firewood or collecting water. MFP is a diesel
engine with a variety of end use equipment attached,
including grinding mills, battery chargers, vegetable or
nut oil presses, welding machines and carpentry tools. 15
June 2006. UN Photo #138752 by Evan Schneider.
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) administers and coordinates most of the technical
assistance provided through the UN system. Their mission is to help countries achieve sustainable
human development by assisting, designing, and delivering development programmes in poverty
eradication, employment creation, empowerment of women, and the protection of the environment.
Their first priority is poverty eradication. Special attention is paid to the needs of the least developed
countries. Their resources are primarily voluntary contributions. The Headquarters is in New York. To
learn more, visit <www.undp.org/>.
United Nations Environment Programme
The mission of United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is to provide leadership and
encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and
people to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations. The UNEP shall
also be the leading global environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda, promotes
the coherent implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within the
UN system, and serves as an authoritative advocate for the global environment. The governing Council
reports to the General assembly through ECOSOC. The Headquarters is in Nairobi. To learn more, visit
<www.unep.org>.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) is a global leader in the fight against illicit
drugs and international crime. Established in 1997 through a merger between the United Nations Drug
Control Programme and the Centre for International Crime Prevention, UNODC operates in all regions of
the world through an extensive network of field offices. Their Headquarters is in Vienna. To learn more,
visit <www.onodc.org>.
United Nations Population Fund
The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) provides assistance in the field of populations of
developing countries, countries with economies in transition and other countries, at their request, to
help them address reproductive health and population issues, as well as raise awareness of these issues
in all countries. The three main areas are: to help ensure universal access to reproductive health,
200
including family planning and sexual health;

to support population and development
strategies that enable capacity building in
population programming; and to promote
awareness of population and development
issues. The UNFPA Headquarters is in New
York. To learn more, visit <www.unfpa.org>.
World Food Programme
The World Food Programme (WFP) is the

food aid organization of the UN system. The UNAMID officers escorting a convoy of WFP trucks in North Darfur.
Ten double-trailer trucks delivered 350 metric tons of food to the
WFP not only provides food aid primarily to
Nifasha and Shaddad IDP camps. The trip took more than eight
low income, food-deficit countries, but also hours due to difficult road conditions and security challenges. 10
assists in the implementation of economic February 2014. UN Photo #579425 by Albert González Farran.
and social development projects and meet the

relief needs of victims of natural and other disasters. The programme also administers the International
emergency food reserve with a minimum target of 500,000 tons of cereals. The Board reports to
ECOSOC and the FAO Council. All contributions are on voluntary basis. The WFP Headquarters is in
Rome. To learn more, visit <www.wfp.org>.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) is to promote and
protect the effective enjoyment by all of all civil, cultural, economic, political, and social rights, including
the right to development. The High Commissioner also functions as the UN official with responsibility for
UN human rights activities. He or she acts under the direction of the Secretary-General and within the
framework of the overall competence, authority and decisions of the general assembly, ECOSOC and the
Commission of Human Rights. Their Office is in Geneva. To learn more, visit <www.ohchr.org>.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
The work of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is humanitarian
and non-political. Its principal functions are to provide international protection to refugees, seek durable
solutions to their plight, and furnish them with material assistance. Protection involves preventing
refoulement and forcibly seeking durable solutions to refugees’ problems. UNHCR attempts to help
those who wish to go home and tries to assist them to reintegrate into their home communities. Where
this is not feasible, it works to help them in countries of asylum or, failing that, to resettle them in other
countries. Material assistance is provided in the form of food, shelter, medical aid, education, and other
social services. UNHCR reports to the General Assembly through ECOSOC. Their Headquarters is in
Geneva. To learn more, visit <www.unhcr.org>.
United Nations Institute for Training and Research
The major objective of United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) is to enhance
the effectiveness of the United Nations in achieving its major objectives, in particular the maintenance
of international peace and security and the promotion of economic and social development. The institute
201
is to provide training to persons, particularly from developing countries, for assignments with UN or
specialized agencies and for assignments in their national services that are connected with the work of
UN Headquarters in Geneva. To learn more, visit <www.unitar.org>.
Military, Civil Defence, and Logistics Section
The Military, Civil Defence, and Logistics Section (MCDLS) has two components: the Military and
Civil Defence Unit (MCDU) and the Logistics Support Unit (LSU). MCDU was established by a decision
of the IASC in 1995 to ensure the most efficient use of military and civil defence assets in support
of humanitarian operations. The MCDU serves as the UN focal point for governments, international
organizations, and military and civil defence establishments for the employment of these assets in
humanitarian situations and coordinates their mobilization when needed. MCDU conducts the UN’s
Civil-Military Coordination (UN-CMCoord) courses, and coordinates UN agency participation in major
exercises with humanitarian scenarios. The unit also maintains the UN’s Central Register − a database
of non-commercial governmental and other resources which may be available for humanitarian use.
These resources include a wide range of equipment and supplies (food, shelter, water capabilities,
transportation assets, medical care), expert teams, and disaster response contacts. LSU is responsible
for managing OCHA’s stockpile of emergency relief items stored at the UN Humanitarian Response Depot
(UNHRD) in Brindisi, Italy. The OCHA stockpile contains basic non-food, non-medical disaster relief and
survival items donated by various governments, including items such as tents, blankets, water supply
and purification equipment, and electricity-generating equipment, which can be immediately dispatched
to affected areas. To learn more, visit <www.unhrd.org>.
United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA)
provides education, health, relief, and social services to 3.7 million registered Palestine refugees in
Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip. Since its establishment, the Agency has
delivered its services both in times of relative calmness and open conflict. It has fed, housed, and
clothed tens of thousands of fleeing refugees and at the same time educated and given health care to
hundreds of thousands of young refugees. To learn more, visit <www.un.org/unrwa>.
Section 9.3 UN Specialized Agencies
International Labour Organization
The International Labour Organization (ILO) seeks to improve working and living conditions
through the adoption of international labour conventions and recommendations, setting minimum
standards in such fields as wages, hours of work, conditions of employment, and social security. It also
conducts research and technical cooperation activities, including vocational training and management
development, with an aim to promote democracy and human rights, alleviate unemployment and
poverty and protect working people. The ILO Headquarters is in Geneva. To learn more, visit <www.ilo.
org>.
202
Cliff dwellings on the

Bandiagara Escarpment in
Teli, in the central region
of Mali. The Escarpment
was entered in the UNESCO
(UN Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization)
World Heritage List in
1989. 31 March 2015. UN
Photo #627432 by Marco
Dormino.
Food and Agriculture Organization
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) was established for the purpose of raising the nutrition
levels and standard of living around the world; securing improvements in the efficiency of the production
and distribution of all food and agriculture products; bettering the conditions of rural populations; and
thus, contributing toward an expanding world economy and ensuring humanity’s freedom from hunger.
The Headquarters is in Rome. To learn more, visit <www.fao.org>.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
The purpose of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is
to contribute to peace and security by promoting collaboration among the nations through education,
science, and culture in order to further universal respect for justice, the rule of law, and for the human
rights and fundamental freedoms which are affirmed for the people of the world, without distinction of
race, sex, language, or religion. The Headquarters is in Paris. To learn more, visit <www.unesco.org>.
World Health Organization
The main objective is the attainment by all people of the highest possible level of health as defined
in the World Health Organization (WHO) Constitution as a state of complete physical, mental and
social well-being and not merely the absence of diseases or infirmity. WHO also promotes conventions,
agreements, regulations, and makes recommendations about international nomenclature of diseases,
causes of death, and public health practices. It develops and promotes international standards
concerning food and biological, pharmaceutical, and similar substances. The Headquarters is located in
Geneva. To learn more, visit <www.who.int>.
203
Section 9.4 International Organizations with Member States
European Union
The European Union is built on a unique institutional

system. The Member States delegate sovereignty for
certain matters to independent institutions, which
represent the interests of the Union as a whole, its
member countries, and its citizens. The Commission
traditionally upholds the interests of the Union as a
whole, while each national government is represented
within the Council, and the European Parliament is
directly elected by citizens. Democracy and the rule of Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon (third from left) meets
law are, therefore, the cornerstones of the structure. with Neven Mimica (second from right), European
Commissioner for International Cooperation and
This “institutional triangle” is flanked by two other
Development in Vienna, Austria. 03 November 2014.
institutions: the Court of Justice and the Court of UN Photo # 610457 by Amanda Voisard.
Auditors. An additional five bodies make the system

complete. To learn more, visit <www.europa.eu.int>.
»» European Commission’s Directorate-General for International

Cooperation and Development (DG DEVCO)
According to its mission statement, the work of the European Commission’s Directorate-General for
International Cooperation and Development (DG DEVCO) is carried out with the ultimate aim of reducing
poverty in the world; ensuring sustainable development; promoting democracy, peace, and security. As
well as designing policies to achieve these objectives, DG DEVCO is responsible for implementing the
EU’s external aid instruments. DG DEVCO coordinates the actions of the EU institutions, the EU Member
States and other EU actors around the Union’s core values, objectives and common priorities. To learn
more, visit <https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/node/7316>.
»» European Union Humanitarian Office
The European Union’s mandate to the European Union Humanitarian Office (ECHO) is to provide
emergency assistance and relief to the victims of natural disasters or armed conflict outside the
European Union. The aid is intended to go directly to those in distress, irrespective of race, religion,
or political convictions. ECHO’s task is to ensure goods and services get to crisis zones fast. Goods
may include essential supplies, specific foodstuffs, medical equipment, medicines, and fuel. Services
may include medical teams, water purification teams, and logistical support. Goods and services reach
disaster areas via ECHO partners. To learn more, visit <http://ec.europa.eu/echo/>.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) provides the governments
of its 29 Member States a setting in which to discuss, develop, and perfect economic and social policy.
They may also work to coordinate domestic and international policies that “increasingly, in today’s
globalized world, must form a web of even practice across nations.” Their exchanges may lead to formal
204
agreements in order to encourage the free-flow of capital and services, to crack down on bribery, or to
end subsidies for shipbuilding. Most of all, their discussion makes for better-informed work within their
own governments along the spectrum of public policy and clarifies the impact of national policies on the
international community. It also offers the chance to exchange perspectives with other countries similar
to their own. To learn more, visit <www.oecd.org>.
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) is a regional security organization
whose 55 participating States are from Europe, Central Asia, and North America. The OSCE has been
established as a primary instrument for early warning, conflict prevention, crisis management, and
post-conflict rehabilitation under Chapter VIII of the Charter of the United Nations. The OSCE approach
to security is comprehensive and co-operative. It addresses a wide range of security-related issues,
including arms control, preventive diplomacy, confidence and security-building measures, human rights,
election monitoring, and economic and environmental security. All OSCE participating States have equal
status, and decisions are based on consensus. To learn more, visit <www.osce.org>.
The International Organization for Migration
The International Organization for Migration (IOM) is committed to the principle that humane
and orderly migration benefits migrants and society. As an intergovernmental body, IOM acts with its
partners in the international community to assist in meeting the operational challenges of migration,
to advance understanding of migration issues, encourage social and economic development through
migration and uphold the human dignity and well-being of migrants. IOM helps States and individuals to
solve migration problems through three types of programmes:
The Humanitarian Migration Programme provides migration assistance to persons fleeing conflict
situations, to refugees being resettled in third countries or repatriated, to stranded individuals and
unsuccessful asylum seekers returning home, to internally and externally displaced persons, to other
persons compelled to leave their homelands, to individuals seeking to reunite with their families and to
migrants involved in regular migration.
The Migration for Development Programme provides skilled manpower to States, taking into account
national development priorities as well as the needs and concerns of receiving communities.
The Technical Cooperation Programme offers advisory services on migration to governments,

intergovernmental agencies, non-governmental organizations and others. To learn more, visit <www.
iom.int>.
World Trade Organization
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is essentially the only global international organization
brokering the rules of trade between nations. WTO agreements are negotiated and signed by the bulk
of the world’s trading nations and ratified in their parliaments. The goal is to help producers of goods
and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business. The WTO’s overriding objective is to help
trade flow smoothly, freely, fairly, and predictably by administering trade agreements; acting as a forum
for trade negotiations; settling trade disputes; reviewing national trade policies; assisting developing
205
countries in trade policy issues through technical assistance and training programmes; and cooperating
with other international organizations. The WTO has more than 130 members, accounting for more than
90% of the world’s trade. As many as 30 more nations are negotiating membership. To learn more, visit
<www.wto.org>.
Section 9.5 Non-Governmental International Organizations
Amnesty International
Amnesty International is a worldwide campaigning

movement that works to promote human rights and other
international standards. In particular, Amnesty International
campaigns to “free all prisoners of conscience” as well as to
ensure fair and prompt trials for political prisoners; abolish
the death penalty, torture, and other cruel treatment of
prisoners; end political killings and disappearances; and
oppose human rights abuses by opposition groups.
Amnesty International has around a million members

and supporters in 162 countries and territories. Activities
range from public demonstrations to letter-writing, from
human rights education to fundraising concerts, from
individual appeals on a particular case, to global campaigns
on a particular issue. Amnesty International is impartial and
independent of any government, political persuasion, or Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon addresses
VISTA group at Norwegian Red Cross. 06 July
religious creed. Amnesty International is financed largely by
2015. UN Photo #637229 by Rick Bajornas.
subscriptions and donations from its worldwide membership.
Its headquarters are in London. To learn more, visit <www.
amnesty.org>.
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is the world’s largest humanitarian network.
The Movement is neutral and impartial, and provides protection and assistance to people affected by
disasters and conflicts. The Movement is made up of nearly 100 million members, volunteers, and
supporters in 189 National Societies and the following components:
»» International Committee of the Red Cross
Established in 1863, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) is at the origin of the
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. The ICRC is an impartial, neutral, and independent
organization whose exclusively humanitarian mission is to protect the lives and dignity of victims of war
and internal violence and to provide them with assistance. It directs and coordinates the international
relief activities conducted by the Movement in situations of conflict. It also endeavours to prevent
suffering by promoting and strengthening humanitarian law and universal humanitarian principles.
206
The ICRC is a private initiative that has acquired international stature through the many tasks
assigned to it by the Geneva Conventions and the Additional Protocols. These tasks concern the
protection of war victims. Its mandate enables it to take issues with States and parties to a conflict by
opening delegations and dispatching delegates.
The international dimension of the ICRC is confirmed by the headquarters agreements it has
concluded with more than 50 States. These agreements, which are subject to international law, specify
the ICRC’s legal status on the territory of States in which it exercises its humanitarian activities. They
recognize it as an international legal entity and grant it the privileges and immunities normally enjoyed
by intergovernmental organizations. These include immunity from legal process, which protects it from
administrative and judicial proceedings, and inviolability of its premises, archives and other documents.
ICRC delegates enjoy a status similar to that of officials of intergovernmental organizations. Such
privileges and immunities are indispensable for the ICRC because they guarantee two conditions essential
to its action: neutrality and independence. Being non-governmental by nature and membership, it stands
apart from both the United Nations system and other non-governmental humanitarian organizations. To
learn more, visit <www.icrc.org>.
»» The International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent

Societies
The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) is a global humanitarian
organization, which coordinates and directs international assistance following natural and man-made
disasters in non-conflict situations. Its mission is to improve the lives of vulnerable people by mobilizing
the power of humanity. The IFRC works with National Societies in responding to catastrophes around
the world. Its relief operations are combined with development work, including disaster preparedness
programmes, health and care activities, and the promotion of humanitarian values. In particular, it
supports programmes on risk reduction and fighting the spread of diseases, such as HIV, tuberculosis,
avian influenza and malaria. The organization also works to combat discrimination and violence, and
promote human rights and assistance for migrants. To learn more, visit <www.ifrc.org>.
Section 9.6 International Governmental Organizations

Several countries have international development agencies, which promote development and provide
assistance to developing countries. Most often the areas of the agencies committed to internationally
agreed objectives such as e.g. reduce the proportion of people living in extreme poverty and/or ensuring
health care and/or access primary education. The agencies work in cooperation with other governments
and multilateral institutions with similar objectives, with the civil societies, academic communities and
with appropriate non- governmental organizations. There are a number of these agencies around the
globe representing many different nations. While not all of the IGOs will be discussed in detail here, one
can serve as a typical example of those generally found in the developed countries.
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA) is an intergovernmental

organization founded in 1995 that seeks to nurture and support sustainable democracy worldwide.
Independent of specific national interests, IDEA works with both new and long-established democracies
207
Joanna Reid (centre), Head of

the Somalia programme in the
United Kingdom’s Department
for International Development
(DFID), meets with Somali
mine and ordinance disposal
experts in Baidoa. She also
monitored progress on
other UK-funded projects.
20 October 2013. UN Photo
#567423 by Mahamud Hassan.
to develop the institutions and culture of democracy. It operates at international, regional, and national
level, in partnership with a range of institutions. To learn more, visit <www.idea.int>.
State-Sponsored Aid Organizations
»» United States Agency for International Development
United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is the principal U.S. agency to extend
assistance to countries recovering from disaster, seeking alleviation from poverty, and engaging in
democratic reforms. It is an independent federal government agency that receives overall foreign policy
guidance from the US Secretary of State. The agency works in six principal areas: economic growth and
agricultural development; population, health and nutrition; environment; democracy and governance;
education and training; and humanitarian assistance. USAID’s strength is its field offices around the
world, where officers work in close partnership with private volunteers, indigenous organizations,
universities, American government agencies and businesses, and other governments. To learn more,
visit <www.usaid.gov>.
Other States with aid organizations holding similar structures and objectives are:
»» Australia (AUSAID): <https://dfat.gov.au/aid/>.
»» Canada (CIDA/ACDI): <www.international.gc.ca/>.
»» Denmark (DANIDA): <www.um.dk/danida>.
»» Finland (Finnida): <http://global.finland.fi>.
»» France (AfD): <www.afd.fr>.
»» Germany (GIZ): <www.giz.de>.
208
»» Iceland (ICIDA): <www.iceida.is>.
»» Japan (JICA): <www.jica.go.jp/english>.
»» Netherlands (Dutch Development Cooperation): <www.

government.nl/topics/development-cooperation>.
»» Norway (NORAD): <www.norad.no>.
»» Sweden (SIDA): <www.sida.org>.
»» Switzerland (Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation):

<www.eda.admin.ch/sdc>.
»» United Kingdom (DFID): <www.dfid.gov.uk>.
Section 9.7 Non-Governmental Organizations

The following organizations are a small sample. Some are religious or spiritual in nature while
others are secular. All aim to serve humanity. More than 1,500 non-governmental organizations have
consultative status with ECOSOC.
Catholic Relief Service
In order to assist the poor and disadvantaged outside the country, Catholic Bishops of the United
States founded Catholic Relief Services (CRS) in 1943. CRS gives assistance based on need, regardless
of creed, race, or nationality to people in more than 80 countries around the world. The core of their
work is to honour the dignity of the human person and to work for a world in which all flourish in
accordance with that dignity. The headquarters is located in Baltimore, USA. To learn more, visit <www.
catholicrelief.org>.
Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere
The Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE) is one of the world’s largest private
non-profit international relief and development organizations. Founded in the aftermath of World War
II, CARE has become a leader in sustainable development and emergency aid, reaching tens of millions
of people each year in more than 60 countries in Africa, Asia, Europe, and Latin America. CARE reaches
out to people whose lives are devastated by humanitarian emergencies, or who are struggling each day
in poor communities to survive and improve their lives. The organization focuses its approach on the
family and community levels. This means that every family should have: food; health care; a place to
live; education; a safe and healthy environment; and the ability to participate in decisions affecting their
family, community, and country. CARE’s programmes seek to help poor families obtain this security.
The CARE International Secretariat, located in Brussels, Belgium, is the organization’s central hub.
The Secretariat coordinates the efforts of 10 national members in North America, Europe, Japan, and
Australia. To learn more, visit <www.care.org>.
209
A health worker from a non-

governmental organization
assists refugees at a transit
camp in Tunisia near the
Libyan border. Thousands
have fled Libya since a violent
standoff between government
forces and rebels erupted
there over two weeks ago. 05
March 2011. UN/OCHA Photo
#466619 by David Ohana.
Lutheran World Federation
The Lutheran World Federation (LWF) is a global communion of Christian churches in the Lutheran
tradition. Founded in 1947, the LWF now has 131 member churches in 72 countries, representing
59.5 million of the world’s 63 million Lutherans. The location of the LWF secretariat in the Ecumenical
Center in Geneva, Switzerland, facilitates close cooperation with the World Council of Churches, other
Christian World Communions, as well as international secular organizations. The LWF acts on behalf of
its member churches in areas of common interest such as ecumenical relations, theology, humanitarian
assistance, human rights, communication, and the various aspects of mission and development work.
To learn more, visit <www.lutheranworld.org>.
Médecins Sans Frontières
Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), also known as Doctors Without Borders, is one of the world’s
largest independent international medical relief agency aiding victims of armed conflict, epidemics, and
natural and man-made disasters, and others who lack health care due to geographic remoteness or
ethnic marginalization. It sends more than 2,000 volunteers, of more than 45 nationalities, to some 80
countries annually. The organization operates independently of all governments, institutions, political,
economic, or religious influences. It depends on volunteer health professionals in fulfilling its mission.
Largely supported by private donors, the organization is able to maintain great flexibility and total
independence in its choice of operations.
Doctors Without Borders was established in 1971 by a group of physicians determined to offer
emergency assistance wherever wars and man-made disasters take place. Its guiding principles are laid
down in a charter to which all members of the organization are bound. In accordance with universal
medical ethics and the right to humanitarian assistance, Doctors Without Borders observes strict
impartiality and demands full and unhindered freedom in performing its functions.
Doctors Without Borders has a wide range of expertise and proven techniques and strategies of
intervention. The organization is able to effectively pool the logistics and human resources necessary
to provide rapid and efficient aid. When medical assistance is not enough to save lives, Doctors Without
Borders will speak out against human rights abuses and violations of humanitarian law that its teams
witness in the course of providing medical relief. To learn more, visit <www.doctorswithoutborders.
org>.
210
Oxfam International
Founded in 1995, Oxfam is an international group of 11 autonomous non-government organizations.

Member organizations are of diverse cultures, history, and language, but share the commitment of
working for an end to the waste and injustice of poverty, both in longer-term development work and in
times of urgent humanitarian need. The individual Oxfam organizations work in different ways but have
a common purpose: addressing the structural causes of poverty and related injustices. The Oxfams
work primarily through local organizations in more than 100 countries.
The Oxfam International Secretariat is a small team of staff, which coordinates communication and
cooperation between 11 members from its base in Oxford, UK. The Washington Advocacy Office, set up
in 1995 with a staff of four, lobbies the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the United
Nations on issues agreed to by the 11 members. To learn more, visit <www.oxfam.org>.
Save the Children Fund
Save the Children was founded in 1919 and currently works in over 100 countries across the globe.
Save the Children is the largest independent movement for children. Save the Children’s programmes
bring relief to millions of children and deliver immediate but sustainable results. They have a very
respected reputation and are often followed as examples by other development organizations. To learn
more, visit <www.savethechildren.net>.
211
1. NGOs participating in the UN system 6. What is the WTO’s objective?

number _____.
A. To contribute to peace and security by
A. In the hundreds (100+) promoting collaboration among the nations
B. In the thousands (1,000+) through education, science, and culture
C. In the tens of thousands (10,000+) B. To help trade flow smoothly, freely, fairly,
D. In the millions (1,000,000+) and predictably
C. The attainment by all people of the highest
2. What do NGOs around the world have in
possible level of health
common?
D. All of the above
A. They are the same size
B. They are not state-operated 7. What is the WHO’s objective?
C. They have the same budget and resources A. To contribute to peace and security by
D. They have the same level of field experience promoting collaboration among the nations
through education, science, and culture
3. Which UN programme has a team
B. To help trade flow smoothly, freely, fairly,
permanently on standby to deploy to
relief missions following disasters and and predictably
humanitarian emergencies anywhere in C. The attainment by all people of the highest
the world? possible level of health
A. UNEP D. All of the above
B. UNRWA
8. TRUE or FALSE? All NGOs currently
C. UNODC
hold honorary consultative status with
D. UNDAC ECOSOC.
A. True
4. Where are OCHA’s stockpile of
emergency relief items stored? B. False
A. At the UN Humanitarian Response Depot

9. USAID, DFID, and other state-sponsored
(UNHRD) in Brindisi, Italy aid agencies will likely fund:
B. At UN Offices in Geneva
A. Any development project
C. At UN Headquarters in New York
B. Only projects occurring in their home
D. All of the above country
C. Projects that align with national foreign
5. Which UN specialized agency seeks
to improve working and living policy guidance
conditions through the adoption of D. These agencies do not fund development
international labour conventions and
recommendations? 10. Which NGO has a direct religious
affiliation?
A. ILO
B. FAO A. Doctors without Borders
C. UNESCO B. Save the Children
D. WHO C. Lutheran World Federation

D. Oxfam International
212
1. Why is it important for an FO to establish contact with non-UN

organizations in the field?
2. How do intergovernmental organizations contribute to the

global community and the founding principles of the United
Nations?
3. What are the advantages and limitations of state-sponsored aid?

What are the advantages and limitations of non-governmental
organizations?
Answer Key »
1. C
2. B
3. D
4. A
5. A
6. B
7. C
8. B
9. C
10. C
213
Appendix A: List of Acronyms
Acronym Meaning
ACABQ Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions
AMR Annual Ministerial Review
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
AU African Union
CARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere
CD Conference on Disarmament
CEB Chief Executives Board for Coordination
CIMIC Civil-Military Cooperation
CMCS Civil-Military Coordination Section
CMO Chief Military Observer
CRS Catholic Relief Services
CSA Chief Security Advisor
CSFP Country Security Focal Point
CTC Counter-Terrorism Committee
DDA Department for Disarmament Affairs
DDR Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration
DESA Department of Economic and Social Affairs
DFS Department of Field Support
DGACM Department for General Assembly and Conference Management
DM Department of Management
DO Designated Official
DOS Department of Operational Support
DPA Department of Political Affairs
DPKO Department of Peacekeeping Operations
DPO Department of Peace Operations
DPPA Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs
DSS Department of Safety and Security
DUF Directives on the Use of Force
EC European Commission
214
ECA Economic Commission for Africa
ECE Economic Commission for Europe
ECHA UN Executive Committee on Humanitarian Affairs
ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
ECOSOC Economic and Social Council
ERC Emergency Relief Coordinator
ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
ESCWA Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
FO Field Operator
FSCO Field Security Coordinator Officer
GA General Assembly
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
HLCM High Level Committee on Management
HLCP High Level Committee on Programmes
HOM Head of Mission
HQ Headquarters
HR Human Rights
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
IASC Inter-Agency Standing Committee
IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
ICC International Criminal Court
ICJ International Court of Justice
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross
ICSID International Centre for Settlements of Investment Disputes
IDA International Development Association
IDEA International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance
IEFR International Emergency Food Reserve
215
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IFC International Finance Corporation
IFRC International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
IHL International Humanitarian Law
IHRL International Human Rights Law
ILO International Labour Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
IMPP Integrated Mission Planning Process
INSARAG International Search and Rescue Advisory Group
IOM International Organization for Migration
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ISAF International Security Assistance Force
ITU International Telecommunication Union
JLOC Joint Logistics Operations Centre
LSU Logistics Support Unit
LWF Lutheran World Federation
MCDLS Military, Civil Defence and Logistics Section
MCDU Military and Civil Defence Unit
MDG Millennium Development Goals
MIGA Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
MILOBS United Nations Military Observers
MLT Mission Leadership Team
MOSS Minimum Operations Security Standards
MOU Memorandum of Understanding
MSF Médecins Sans Frontières
MSO Mission Security Officer
NAM Non-Aligned Movement
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NGO Non-governmental organization
216
OAS Organization of American States
OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
OECD Organisation for European Cooperation and Development
OHCHR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights
OIC Organization of Islamic Conference
OIOS Office of Internal Oversight Services
OLA Office of Legal Affairs
OSCE Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
OSG Office of the Secretary-General
PAR Participatory Action Research
PBC Peacebuilding Commission
PFP Partnership for Peace Programme
RC Resident Coordinator
ROE Rules of Engagement
RRA Rapid Rural Appraisal
SC Security Council
SG Secretary-General
SHA Swiss Humanitarian Aid Unit
SMT Security Management Team
SOFA/SOMA Status of Forces/Mission Agreements
SRSG Special Representative of the Secretary-General
SSFP Senior Security Focal Point
SSM Senior Security Manager
SSR Security Sector Reform
TAM Technical Assessment Mission
TCC/PCC Troop/Police-Contributing Country
UNAIDS Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS
UNCITRAL United Nations Commission on International Trade Law
UNCT United Nations Country Team
217
UNDAC United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination Team
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNHQ United Nations Headquarters
UNHRC United Nations Human Rights Council
UNHRD UN Humanitarian Response Depot
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNIDO UN Industrial Development Organization
UNITAR UN Institute for Training and Research
UNNY UN Headquarters in New York
UNOG UN Office in Geneva
UNON UN Office in Nairobi
UNOPS UN Office for Project Services
UNOV UN Office in Vienna
UNPOL United Nations Police
UNRWA UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
UNSSC United Nations System Staff College
UNU UN University
UNV United Nations Volunteers
UPU Universal Postal Union
USAID United States Agency for International Development
WFP World Food Programme
WHO World Health Organization
WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WTO World Trade Organization
218
Appendix B: Current Peacekeeping Missions
UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS

MINUSMA MINURSO UNAMID UNMIK UNFICYP UNIFIL UNMOGIP
Mali Western Sahara Darfur Kosovo Cyprus Lebanon India and Pakistan
MINUJUSTH MINUSCA MONUSCO UNMISS UNISFA UNTSO UNDOF

Haiti Central African Republic Dem. Rep. of the Congo South Sudan Abyei Middle East Syria
Map No. 4259 Rev. 25 (E) UNITED NATIONS Department of Field Support
April 2018 Geospatial Information Section (formerly Cartographic Section)
UN Peacekeeping Map from the UN Cartographic Section, April 2018: <www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/dpko/P_K_O.pdf>.

MINURSO United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara established: 1991
MINUSCA United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the established: 2014
»» Looking for statistics
Central African Republic or other data about
MINUSMA United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali established: 2013
MINUJUSTHpeacekeeping around
United Nations Mission the
for Justice world
Support today? Visit
in Haiti established: 2017
MONUSCOtheUnited
UN Nations
Peacekeeping resource
Organization Stabilization Mission inpage
the Dem.for the
Republic of the Congo established: 2010
UNAMID African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur established: 2007
UNDOF most up-to-date
United information
Nations Disengagement about current
Observer Force established: 1974
UNFICYP United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus established: 1964
peacekeeping operations and other UN
UNIFIL United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon established: 1978
UNISFA missions:
United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei established: 2011
UNMIK United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo established: 1999
<https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/resources>.
UNMISS United Nations Mission in South Sudan established: 2011
UNMOGIP United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan established: 1949
UNTSO United Nations Truce Supervision Orginization established: 1984
219
About the Author: Mr. Julian Harston
A retired Assistant Secretary-

General to the United Nations, Mr.
Julian Harston previously served
as the Representative of the
Secretary-General in Belgrade,
Serbia in 2009, as well as the
Special Representative of the
Secretary-General for MINURSO,
Western Sahara from 2007 to 2009.
Photo by Anton Thorstensson/Swedish Armed Forces,

used with permission of Mr. Harston.
Currently, Mr. Harston is an independent consultant on matters of international peace and security.
For 25 years, he served as a member of the United Kingdom Diplomatic Service.
Harston was born in Nairobi, Kenya, son of Colonel Clive Harston of the King’s African Rifles. He
attended the King’s School in Canterbury, England and earned a Bachelor of Science in Politics from the
University of London as well as a degree in African Politics from the University of Rhodesia.
Harston has lectured all over the world to military and civilian audiences and has published several
papers on peacekeeping and international diplomacy. He also takes part as a role player and mentor in
NATO exercises. He lectures at the NATO School in Oberammergau, Germany and at the Polish Institute
for Diplomacy in Warsaw.
His career highlights include various professorships, counsellorships and diplomatic postings in
London and overseas in Malawi, Portugal, Switzerland, Vietnam, and Zimbabwe. In addition to the
positions mentioned, Harston has also held UN directorships and leadership appointments in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Croatia, Haiti, Serbia, and Timor-Leste.
Harston lives in Belgrade, Serbia. He is married with one son, and two stepdaughters. He is a
member of the East India Club and Special Forces Club in London, the UK’s Goodwood Aero Club, and
the Gremio Literario in Lisbon.
For more information, visit his website: <www.harstonconsulting.rs>.
220
Instructions for the End-of-Course Examination
Format and Material
The End-of-Course Examination is a multiple-choice exam that is accessed from the Online
Classroom. Most exams have 50 questions. Each question gives the student four choices (A, B, C, and
D), and only one is the correct answer. The exam covers material from all lessons of the course and may
also include information found in the annexes and appendices. Video content will not be tested.
»» Access the exam from your Online Classroom

by visiting <www.peaceopstraining.org/users/
courses/> and clicking the title of this course.
Once you arrive at the course page, click the red
“Start Exam” button.
Time Limit
There is no time limit for the exam. This allows the student to read and study the questions
carefully and to consult the course text. Furthermore, if the student cannot complete the exam in one
sitting, he or she may save the exam and come back to it without being graded. The “Save” button is
located at the bottom of the exam, next to the “Submit my answers” button. Clicking on the “Submit
my answers” button will end the exam.
Passing Grade
To pass the exam, a score of 75 per cent or better is required. An electronic Certificate of Completion
will be awarded to those who have passed the exam. A score of less than 75 per cent is a failing grade,
and students who have received a failing grade will be provided with a second, alternate version of the
exam, which may also be completed without a time limit. Students who pass the second exam will be
awarded a Certificate of Completion.
Continue your POTI training experience »

• Visit <www.peaceopstraining.org/courses/> for a list of all current courses.
• If a particular category of study interests you, such as Human Rights,

Logistics, or Military Studies, consider the POST Certificate programme
available in six areas of specialization. See the requirements at
<www.peaceopstraining.org/specialized-training-certificates/>.
• Stay connected with POTI by visiting our community page and engaging
with other students through social media and sharing photos from your
mission. Visit <www.peaceopstraining.org/community> for more. Once you
pass your exam, see your name featured on the Honour Roll as well.
221

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Introduction to the UN System:

Orientation for Serving on a

Peace Operations Training Institute

Study peace and humanitarian relief any place, any time

Cover Photo: UN Photo #553835 by Devra

Peace Operations Training Institute

Study peace and humanitarian relief any place, any time

Peace Operations Training Institute

First edition: 2001 by LCOL Christian Hårleman

Method of Study xi

Lesson 1 Framework for a Global Organization, Past and

Section 1.2 Purposes and Principles of the United Nations 16

Section 1.3 Legal Framework and Authority 19

Section 1.5 The United Nations System 23

Section 1.6 Measurable Global Impact 29

Lesson 2 The Principal Organs of the United Nations 32

Section 2.1 General Assembly 34

Section 2.2 Security Council 37

Section 2.3 Economic and Social Council 41

Section 2.4 Secretariat and the Secretary-General 43

Section 2.5 International Court of Justice 47

Section 2.6 Trusteeship Council 50

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

Lesson 3 The Role of the United Nations in Global Peace

Section 3.1 The Evolving UN Response to Global Conflict 56

Section 3.2 Mechanisms for Stronger Peace and Security 59

Section 3.3 The Guiding Principles of Peace Operations 61

Section 3.4 Multidimensional Components 65

Section 3.5 Types of Peace Operations 68

Section 3.6 Planning and Preparation 73

Section 3.7 Implementation 75

Section 3.8 Management Responsibilities 77

Section 3.9 The Peacekeeping Partnership 78

Lesson 4 The Role of the United Nations in Global

Section 4.1 The Development Concept 84

Section 4.3 Humanitarian Imperatives 89

Section 4.5 Principles of International Humanitarian Law 94

Section 4.6 Principles of Human Rights 96

Section 4.7 Human Development and Climate Change 106

Lesson 5 The Dynamic Field Environment 110

Section 5.1 Social and Cultural Environment 112

Section 5.2 Mission Environment 116

Section 5.3 Civil-Military Cooperation 119

Section 5.4 Safety and Security Environment 120

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

Lesson 6 Principles and Responsibilities of UN Field

Section 6.1 Service for Humanity 128

Section 6.2 Obligations and Duties 128

Section 6.3 Cultural and Social Demands 131

Section 6.4 Personal Demands 133

Section 6.5 Privileges and Immunities 135

Lesson 7 Safety and Security for UN Field Personnel 140

Section 7.1 Responding to Threats Facing the UN System 142

Section 7.2 Main Principles and Structure of the UN Security

Section 7.3 Responsibilities of UN Personnel 147

Section 7.4 Personal Safety and Precautions 149

Section 7.5 Travel Precautions 154

Section 7.6 Sexual Harassment and Sexual Assault 157

Section 7.7 Special Security Precautions 158

Section 7.8 First Aid 163

Section 7.9 Coping with Stress 166

Lesson 8 Strategies and Techniques for Effective

Section 8.1 Participatory Methods 174