Visual perception - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Visual_perception

Visual perception
Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment using light in the
visible spectrum reflected by the objects in the environment. This is different from visual
acuity, which refers to how clearly a person sees (for example "20/20 vision"). A person can
have problems with visual perceptual processing even if they have 20/20 vision.

The resulting perception is also known as visual perception, eyesight, sight, or vision
(adjectival form: visual, optical, or ocular). The various physiological components involved in
vision are referred to collectively as the visual system, and are the focus of much research in
linguistics, psychology, cognitive science, neuroscience, and molecular biology, collectively
referred to as vision science.

Contents
Visual system
Study
Early studies
Unconscious inference
Gestalt theory
Analysis of eye movement
Face and object recognition
The cognitive and computational approaches
Transduction
Opponent process
Artificial visual perception
See also
Vision deficiencies or disorders
Related disciplines
References
Further reading
External links

Visual system
In humans and a number of other mammals, light enters the eye through the cornea and is
focused by the lens onto the retina, a light-sensitive membrane at the back of the eye. The
retina serves as a transducer for the conversion of light into neuronal signals. This
transduction is achieved by specialized photoreceptive cells of the retina, also known as the
rods and cones, which detect the photons of light and respond by producing neural impulses.
These signals are transmitted by the optic nerve, from the retina upstream to central ganglia

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in the brain. The lateral geniculate nucleus, which transmits the information to the visual
cortex. Signals from the retina also travel directly from the retina to the superior colliculus.

The lateral geniculate nucleus sends signals to primary visual cortex, also called striate cortex.
Extrastriate cortex, also called visual association cortex is a set of cortical structures, that
receive information from striate cortex, as well as each other.[1] Recent descriptions of visual
association cortex describe a division into two functional pathways, a ventral and a dorsal
pathway. This conjecture is known as the two streams hypothesis.

The human visual system is generally believed to be sensitive to visible light in the range of
wavelengths between 370 and 730 nanometers (0.00000037 to 0.00000073 meters) of the
electromagnetic spectrum.[2] However, some research suggests that humans can perceive light
in wavelengths down to 340 nanometers (UV-A), especially the young.[3]

Study
The major problem in visual perception is that what people see is not simply a translation of
retinal stimuli (i.e., the image on the retina). Thus people interested in perception have long
struggled to explain what visual processing does to create what is actually seen.

Early studies

There were two major ancient Greek schools,

providing a primitive explanation of how vision
works.

The first was the "emission theory" which

maintained that vision occurs when rays
emanate from the eyes and are intercepted by
visual objects. If an object was seen directly it
was by 'means of rays' coming out of the eyes
and again falling on the object. A refracted
image was, however, seen by 'means of rays' as
well, which came out of the eyes, traversed The visual dorsal stream (green) and ventral
through the air, and after refraction, fell on the stream (purple) are shown. Much of the human
visible object which was sighted as the result of cerebral cortex is involved in vision.
the movement of the rays from the eye. This
theory was championed by scholars like Euclid
and Ptolemy and their followers.

The second school advocated the so-called 'intro-mission' approach which sees vision as
coming from something entering the eyes representative of the object. With its main
propagators Aristotle, Galen and their followers, this theory seems to have some contact with
modern theories of what vision really is, but it remained only a speculation lacking any
experimental foundation. (In eighteenth-century England, Isaac Newton, John Locke, and
others, carried the intromission/intromittist theory forward by insisting that vision involved a
process in which rays—composed of actual corporeal matter—emanated from seen objects and
entered the seer's mind/sensorium through the eye's aperture.)[4]

Both schools of thought relied upon the principle that "like is only known by like", and thus
upon the notion that the eye was composed of some "internal fire" which interacted with the

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"external fire" of visible light and made vision possible. Plato makes this assertion in his
dialogue Timaeus, as does Aristotle, in his De Sensu.[5]

Alhazen (965 – c. 1040) carried out many investigations

and experiments on visual perception, extended the work
of Ptolemy on binocular vision, and commented on the
anatomical works of Galen.[6][7] He was the first person to
explain that vision occurs when light bounces on an object
and then is directed to one's eyes.[8]

Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) is believed to be the first

to recognize the special optical qualities of the eye. He
wrote "The function of the human eye ... was described by Leonardo da Vinci: The eye has a
a large number of authors in a certain way. But I found it central line and everything that
to be completely different." His main experimental reaches the eye through this central
finding was that there is only a distinct and clear vision at line can be seen distinctly.
the line of sight—the optical line that ends at the fovea.
Although he did not use these words literally he actually is
the father of the modern distinction between foveal and peripheral vision.[9]

Issac Newton (1642–1726/27) was the first to discover through experimentation, by isolating
individual colors of the spectrum of light passing through a prism, that the visually perceived
color of objects appeared due to the character of light the objects reflected, and that these
divided colors could not be changed into any other color, which was contrary to scientific
expectation of the day.[2]

Unconscious inference

Hermann von Helmholtz is often credited with the first modern study of visual perception.
Helmholtz examined the human eye and concluded that it was incapable of producing a high
quality image. Insufficient information seemed to make vision impossible. He therefore
concluded that vision could only be the result of some form of "unconscious inference",
coining that term in 1867. He proposed the brain was making assumptions and conclusions
from incomplete data, based on previous experiences.[10]

Inference requires prior experience of the world.

Examples of well-known assumptions, based on visual experience, are:

light comes from above

objects are normally not viewed from below
faces are seen (and recognized) upright.[11]
closer objects can block the view of more distant objects, but not vice versa
figures (i.e., foreground objects) tend to have convex borders

The study of visual illusions (cases when the inference process goes wrong) has yielded much
insight into what sort of assumptions the visual system makes.

Another type of the unconscious inference hypothesis (based on probabilities) has recently
been revived in so-called Bayesian studies of visual perception.[12] Proponents of this
approach consider that the visual system performs some form of Bayesian inference to derive

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a perception from sensory data. However, it is not clear how proponents of this view derive, in
principle, the relevant probabilities required by the Bayesian equation. Models based on this
idea have been used to describe various visual perceptual functions, such as the perception of
motion, the perception of depth, and figure-ground perception.[13][14] The "wholly empirical
theory of perception" is a related and newer approach that rationalizes visual perception
without explicitly invoking Bayesian formalisms.

Gestalt theory

Gestalt psychologists working primarily in the 1930s and 1940s raised many of the research
questions that are studied by vision scientists today.[15]

The Gestalt Laws of Organization have guided the study of how people perceive visual
components as organized patterns or wholes, instead of many different parts. "Gestalt" is a
German word that partially translates to "configuration or pattern" along with "whole or
emergent structure". According to this theory, there are eight main factors that determine how
the visual system automatically groups elements into patterns: Proximity, Similarity, Closure,
Symmetry, Common Fate (i.e. common motion), Continuity as well as Good Gestalt (pattern
that is regular, simple, and orderly) and Past Experience.

Analysis of eye movement

During the 1960s, technical development permitted the

continuous registration of eye movement during
reading,[16] in picture viewing,[17] and later, in visual
problem solving,[18] and when headset-cameras became
available, also during driving.[19]

The picture to the right shows what may happen during

the first two seconds of visual inspection. While the
background is out of focus, representing the peripheral Eye movement first 2 seconds
vision, the first eye movement goes to the boots of the (Yarbus, 1967)
man (just because they are very near the starting fixation
and have a reasonable contrast).

The following fixations jump from face to face. They might even permit comparisons between
faces.

It may be concluded that the icon face is a very attractive search icon within the peripheral
field of vision. The foveal vision adds detailed information to the peripheral first impression.

It can also be noted that there are different types of eye movements: fixational eye movements
(microsaccades, ocular drift, and tremor), vergence movements, saccadic movements and
pursuit movements. Fixations are comparably static points where the eye rests. However,
the eye is never completely still, but gaze position will drift. These drifts are in turn corrected
by microsaccades, very small fixational eye-movements. Vergence movements involve the
cooperation of both eyes to allow for an image to fall on the same area of both retinas. This
results in a single focused image. Saccadic movements is the type of eye movement that
makes jumps from one position to another position and is used to rapidly scan a particular
scene/image. Lastly, pursuit movement is smooth eye movement and is used to follow

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objects in motion.[20]

Face and object recognition

There is considerable evidence that face and object recognition are accomplished by distinct
systems. For example, prosopagnosic patients show deficits in face, but not object processing,
while object agnosic patients (most notably, patient C.K.) show deficits in object processing
with spared face processing.[21] Behaviorally, it has been shown that faces, but not objects, are
subject to inversion effects, leading to the claim that faces are "special".[21][22] Further, face
and object processing recruit distinct neural systems.[23] Notably, some have argued that the
apparent specialization of the human brain for face processing does not reflect true domain
specificity, but rather a more general process of expert-level discrimination within a given
class of stimulus,[24] though this latter claim is the subject of substantial debate. Using fMRI
and electrophysiology Doris Tsao and colleagues described brain regions and a mechanism for
face recognition in macaque monkeys.[25]

The inferotemporal cortex has a key role in the task of recognition and differentiation of
different objects. A study of the MIT shows that subset regions of the IT cortex are in charge of
different objects.[26] By selectively shutting off neural activity of many small areas of the
cortex, the animal gets alternately unable to distinguish between certain particular pairments
of objects. This shows that the IT cortex is divided into regions that respond to different and
particular visual features. In a similar way, certain particular patches and regions of the cortex
are more involved into face recognition than other objects recognition.

Some studies tend to show that rather than the uniform global image, some particular features
and regions of interest of the objects are key elements when the brain need to recognise an
object in image.[27][28] In this way, the human vision is vulnerable to small particular changes
to the image, such as disrupting the edges of the object,   modifying texture or any small
change in a crucial region of the image.[29]

Studies of people whose sight has been restored after a long blindness reveal that they cannot
necessarily recognize objects and faces (as opposed to color, motion, and simple geometric
shapes). Some hypothesize that being blind during childhood prevents some part of the visual
system necessary for these higher-level tasks from developing properly.[30] The general belief
that a critical period lasts until age 5 or 6 was challenged by a 2007 study that found that older
patients could improve these abilities with years of exposure.[31]

The cognitive and computational approaches

In the 1970s, David Marr developed a multi-level theory of vision, which analyzed the process
of vision at different levels of abstraction. In order to focus on the understanding of specific
problems in vision, he identified three levels of analysis: the computational, algorithmic and
implementational levels. Many vision scientists, including Tomaso Poggio, have embraced
these levels of analysis and employed them to further characterize vision from a
computational perspective.[32]

The computational level addresses, at a high level of abstraction, the problems that the visual
system must overcome. The algorithmic level attempts to identify the strategy that may be
used to solve these problems. Finally, the implementational level attempts to explain how
solutions to these problems are realized in neural circuitry.

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Marr suggested that it is possible to investigate vision at any of these levels independently.
Marr described vision as proceeding from a two-dimensional visual array (on the retina) to a
three-dimensional description of the world as output. His stages of vision include:

A 2D or primal sketch of the scene, based on feature extraction of fundamental

components of the scene, including edges, regions, etc. Note the similarity in concept to a
pencil sketch drawn quickly by an artist as an impression.
A 21⁄2 D sketch of the scene, where textures are acknowledged, etc. Note the similarity in
concept to the stage in drawing where an artist highlights or shades areas of a scene, to
provide depth.
A 3 D model, where the scene is visualized in a continuous, 3-dimensional map.[33]

Marr's 21⁄2D sketch assumes that a depth map is constructed, and that this map is the basis of
3D shape perception. However, both stereoscopic and pictorial perception, as well as
monocular viewing, make clear that the perception of 3D shape precedes, and does not rely
on, the perception of the depth of points. It is not clear how a preliminary depth map could, in
principle, be constructed, nor how this would address the question of figure-ground
organization, or grouping. The role of perceptual organizing constraints, overlooked by Marr,
in the production of 3D shape percepts from binocularly-viewed 3D objects has been
demonstrated empirically for the case of 3D wire objects, e.g.[34] For a more detailed
discussion, see Pizlo (2008).[35]

A more recent, alternative, framework proposes that vision is composed instead of the
following three stages: encoding, selection, and decoding.[36] Encoding is to sample and
represent visual inputs (e.g., to represent visual inputs as neural activities in the retina).
Selection, or attentional selection, is to select a tiny fraction of input information for further
processing , e.g., by shifting gaze to an object or visual location to better process the visual
signals at that location. Decoding is to infer or recognize the selected input signals, e.g., to
recognize the object at the center of gaze as somebody's face. In this framework[37],
attentional selection starts at the primary visual cortex along the visual pathway, and the
attentional constraints impose a dichotomy between the central and peripheral visual fields
for visual recognition or decoding.

Transduction
Transduction is the process through which energy from environmental stimuli is converted to
neural activity. The retina contains three different cell layers: photoreceptor layer, bipolar cell
layer and ganglion cell layer. The photoreceptor layer where transduction occurs is farthest
from the lens. It contains photoreceptors with different sensitivities call rods and cones . The
cones are responsible for color perception and are of three distinct types labelled red, green
and blue. Rods, are responsible for the perception of objects in low light.[38] Photoreceptors
contain within them a special chemical called a photopigment, which is embedded in the
membrane of the lamellae; a single human rod contains approximately 10 million of them.
The photopigment molecules consist of two parts: an opsin (a protein) and retinal (a lipid).[39]
There are 3 specific photopigments (each with their own wavelength sensitivity) that respond
across the spectrum of visible light. When the appropriate wavelengths (those that the specific
photopigment is sensitive to) hit the photoreceptor, the photopigment splits into two, which
sends a signal to the bipolar cell layer, which in turn sends a signal to the ganglion cells, the
axons of which form the optic nerve and transmit the information to the brain. If a particular
cone type is missing or abnormal, due to a genetic anomaly, a color vision deficiency ,
sometimes called color blindness will occur.[40]

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Opponent process
Transduction involves chemical messages sent from the photoreceptors to the bipolar cells to
the ganglion cells. Several photoreceptors may send their information to one ganglion cell.
There are two types of ganglion cells: red/green and yellow/blue. These neurons constantly
fire—even when not stimulated. The brain interprets different colors (and with a lot of
information, an image) when the rate of firing of these neurons alters. Red light stimulates the
red cone, which in turn stimulates the red/green ganglion cell. Likewise, green light
stimulates the green cone, which stimulates the red/green ganglion cell and blue light
stimulates the blue cone which stimulates the yellow/blue ganglion cell. The rate of firing of
the ganglion cells is increased when it is signaled by one cone and decreased (inhibited) when
it is signaled by the other cone. The first color in the name of the ganglion cell is the color that
excites it and the second is the color that inhibits it. i.e.: A red cone would excite the red/green
ganglion cell and the green cone would inhibit the red/green ganglion cell. This is an
opponent process. If the rate of firing of a red/green ganglion cell is increased, the brain
would know that the light was red, if the rate was decreased, the brain would know that the
color of the light was green.[40]

Artificial visual perception

Theories and observations of visual perception have been the main source of inspiration for
computer vision (also called machine vision, or computational vision). Special hardware
structures and software algorithms provide machines with the capability to interpret the
images coming from a camera or a sensor.

See also
Color vision Machine vision
Computer vision Motion perception
Depth perception Multisensory integration
Entoptic phenomenon Interpretation (philosophy)
Gestalt psychology Spatial frequency
Lateral masking Visual illusion
Naked eye Visual processing
Visual system

Vision deficiencies or disorders

Achromatopsia Illusory palinopsia
Akinetopsia Prosopagnosia
Apperceptive agnosia Refractive error
Associative visual agnosia Recovery from blindness
Color blindness Scotopic sensitivity syndrome
Hallucinogen persisting perception Visual agnosia
disorder Visual snow

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Related disciplines
Cognitive science Optometry
Neuroscience Psychophysics
Ophthalmology

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Further reading

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Visual perception - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_perception

Von Helmholtz, Hermann (1867). Handbuch der physiologischen Optik. 3. Leipzig: Voss.
Quotations are from the English translation produced by Optical Society of America
(1924–25): Treatise on Physiological Optics (http://poseidon.sunyopt.edu/BackusLab/Hel
mholtz/).

External links
The dictionary definition of vision at Wiktionary
The Organization of the Retina and Visual System (http://webvision.med.utah.edu/)
Effect of Detail on Visual Perception (http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/EffectOfDetailOn
VisualPerception/) by Jon McLoone, the Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
The Joy of Visual Perception (http://www.yorku.ca/eye/toc.htm) Resource on the eye's
perception abilities.
VisionScience. Resource for Research in Human and Animal Vision (http://www.visionscie
nce.com/) A collection of resources in vision science and perception.
Vision and Psychophysics. (http://www.cis.rit.edu/people/faculty/montag/vandplite/course.
html)
Visibility in Social Theory and Social Research. (http://www.palgrave.com/products/title.as
px?pid=385931) An inquiry into the cognitive and social meanings of visibility.
Vision (http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Category:Vision) Scholarpedia Expert articles
about Vision

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