Biology HL Past papers

Past papers used:

●

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Some definitions - more to be added

chromosome​:structure formed by DNA and proteins

gene​: a heritable factor that controls a specific characteristic
allele:​ one specific form of a gene occupying the same gene locus as other alleles of the gene differ from each
other in one more base sequences
genome​: the whole of the genetic information of an organism
proteome​: the sequence of proteins present in a cell and/or in an organism
linked genes:​ genes located on the same chromosome
nucleosomes​: histones around which DNA winds
saprotroph: ​an organism that lives on/in non-living/dead (organic) matter and secretes digestive
enzymes/digestive juices into it
pathogen:​ an organism/virus that causes a disease
passive immunity:​ the acquisition of antibodies from another organism
excretion:​ removal of waste products of cell reactions/metabolic activities/pathways

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 ● What information would a biologist use to add error bars on a graph?

Range Correlation Standard Mean

deviation

A Yes Yes - -

B Yes - Yes -

C - - Yes Yes

D - Yes - Yes

01-Cells
● What is the function of proteins in active transport?
A.To serve as electron carriers in the membranes
B. To interact with hormones to influence cell activity
C. To serve as channels so that proteins can diffuse across the membrane
D.​ To release energy from ATP so that specific substances can cross the membrane

❖ Explain how the surface area to volume ratio influences cell sizes (3)
➢ small cells have larger ratio (than larger cells)/ratio decreases as size increases (1)
➢ surface area/membrane must be large enough to absorb nutrients/oxygen/substances needed
(1) and excrete/pass out waste products(1)
➢ need for materials is determined by (cell) volume´(1)
➢ cell size is limited (by SA/Volume ratio)/cells divide when they reach a certain size (1)
➢ higher rate of diffusion across/through membrane at higher surface area (1)

(b) State the function of life in Paramecium that is carried out by: (i) cilia.(ii) contractile vacuole
● i) movement / locomotion OR feeding/nutrition I
● ii)homeostasis OR maintain osmotic balance / osmoregulation / expels «excess» water / maintains
«cell» water content

Stem cells and differentiation

❖ State two characteristics of stem cells that distinguish them from other body cells (2)
➢ retain the capacity to divide (1)
➢ they are undifferentiated / unspecialized (1)
➢ have the ability to differentiate (along different pathways)/are
multipotent/pluripotent/totipotent (1)

❖ Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells (3)

➢ named source of stem cells e.g. bone marrow / cord blood / inner cell mass of embryo /
embryonic stem cells; (1)
➢ name of condition that is treated using the stem cells e.g. leukaemia / heart disease / diabetes /
other possibility (1)
➢ one precise detail of how the stem cells replace/ replenish (differentiated) cells that are the
cause of the condition (1)

➢ Example:

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 ■ Source: stem cells obtained from bone marrow;
■ Condition: leukaemia;
■ Detail: patient’s bone marrow cells (are killed and) replaced with the stem cells;

❖ Describe the characteristics of stem cells that make them potentially useful in medicine (5)
➢ stem cells have/retain the capacity to divide (1), therefore can be used to produce cell
cultures/large amounts of identical cells (1) which can be used to repair/replace, lost/damaged,
cell/tissue (1)
➢ stem cells are undifferentiated/unspecialized (1), meaning that they can differentiate/specialise
in many different ways (1), which is called pluri/totipotency (1)
➢ these properties allow for the formation of a variety of organs/tissues (1)
➢ used in medical research (1)
➢ for the treatment of a named disease, e.g.leukemia (1)

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the use of adult stem cells.3
● Advantages
○ a. «adult stem cells» can divide «endlessly» /can differentiate
○ b. «adult stem cells» can be used to repair/regenerate «tissues»
○ c. fewer ethical objections «than with embryonic stem cells»
○ d. adult source not killed / «source» would not have grown into new human / no death of
embryos used to provide stem cells
○ e. adults can give «informed» consent for use of their stem cells
○ f. no rejection problems / patient’s own cells used
○ g. less chance of cancer/«malignant» tumor development «than with embryonic stem cells»
○ h. most tissues in adults contain some stem cells
● Disadvantages
○ i. difficult to obtain/collect/find in adult body/;
○ j. some «adult» tissues contain few/no stem cells/very few available
○ k. (adult stem cells) differentiate into fewer cell types «than embryonic cells»/WTTE

❖ Outline differentiation of cells in a multicellular organism (4)

➢ differentiation is development in different/specific ways (1), causing cells to become
specialized (1)
■ example of a differentiated cell in a multicellular organism, e.g. nerve cell, muscle
cells (1)
■ a group of differentiated cells is a tissue(1)
➢ cells have all genes/could develop in any way (1), however some genes are switched
on/expressed but not others (1)
➢ position/hormones/cell-to-cell signals/chemicals determine how a cell develops (1)

Cell theory
❖ Outline the cell theory (3)
➢ all living things are composed of cells (1)
➢ cells are the smallest units of life (1)
➢ all cells come from preexisting cells (1)

❖ Discuss possible exceptions to cell theory (4)

➢ skeletal muscle fibers are larger/have many nuclei/are not typical cells (1)
➢ fungal hyphae are (sometimes) not divided up into individual cells as they are aspetate (1)
➢ unicellular organisms can be considered acellular (1) because they are larger than a typical
cell/carry out all functions of life (1)

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 ➢ statement of cell theory/all living things/most tissues are composed entirely of true cells (1)
■ some tissues/organs contain large amounts of extracellular material (1)
■ e.g.v​ itreous humor of eye/ mineral deposits in bone/ xylem in trees/other example (1)
○

Describe how Pasteur’s experiments provided convincing evidence to falsify the concept of spontaneous
generation. (3)
● a. spontaneous generation is life appearing from nothing/from non-living/cells only come from
pre-existing cells/life
● b. broth/culture medium «for bacteria» «used/placed» in flasks
● c. broth boiled/sterilized «in some flasks» to kill microbes
● d. no clouding/signs of bacteria growth/reproduction/microbes did not appear «in flasks of boiled
broth»
● e. after necks of flasks snapped boiled broth became cloudy/growth «of microbes»
● f. because microbes from the air contaminated the «boiled» broth
● g. curved necks allowed exposure to air but prevented entry of microbes

Membranes
❖ Draw a labelled diagram to show the structure of the plasma membrane (5)
➢ phospholipid bilayer​ - with heads and tails (1)
➢ hydrophilic/phosphate/polar heads and hydrophobic/hydrocarbon/fatty acid/non-polar tails
labeled (1)
➢ integral/intrinsic protein ​- embedded in the phospholipid bilayer (1)
➢ protein channel ​- integral protein showing clear channel/pore (1)
➢ peripheral/extrinsic protein​ - not protruding into the hydrophobic region (1)
➢ glycoprotein​ with carbohydrate attached - carbohydrate should be outside the bilayer (1)
➢ cholesterol ​- positioned across one half of the bilayer, not protruding (1)
➢ thickness​ indicated - 10nm (1)

❖ What is an integral protein? (1)

➢ A protein embedded in the lipid bilayer of a membrane. e.g. protein channels, or pumps

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

❖ Draw a labelled diagram of the ultrastructure of a prokaryote (4)
➢ Cell wall (shown as a double line)
➢ Plasma membrane
➢ Nucleoid (region containing) naked DNA (distinguished from the rest of the cytoplasm)
➢ Ribosome (dots in cytoplasm)
➢ Cytoplasm
➢ Flagella (at least a quarter long as the cell)
➢ Pilli (less than a quarter long as the cell)

❖ Draw a labelled diagram showing the structure of a prokaryotic cell (6)

➢ cell wall shown clearly and labelled
➢ cell surface membrane shown thinner than and adjacent to cell wall and labelled
➢ cytoplasm shown with no nucleus present and labelled
➢ ribosomes shown free in the cytoplasm and labelled
➢ loop of DNA shown in the cytoplasm/nucleoid and labelled as DNA
➢ plasmid shown as a small loop and labelled

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 ➢ slime capsule shown as a layer outside the cell wall and labelled
➢ mesosome shown as a membrane invagination and labelled
➢ flagellum shown and labelled ​(reject if shown with microtubules)

❖ Draw a labelled diagram to show the organelles which are found in the cytoplasm of plant cells (6)
➢ Award 1 mark for each of the following structures accurately drawn and labelled
➢ rough endoplasmic reticulum
➢ free ribosomes
➢ Golgi apparatus
➢ mitochondrion
➢ chloroplast
➢ vacuole
➢ nucleus
➢ lysosome
➢ smooth endoplasmic reticulum

❖ State one function of each of the following organelles: lysosome, Golgi apparatus, rough endoplasmic
reticulum, nucleus, mitochondrion. (5)
➢ lysosome:​ hydrolysis/digestion/break down of materials (macromolecules)

➢ Golgi apparatus​: synthesis/sorting/transporting/secretion of cell products

➢ rough endoplasmic reticulum:​ site of synthesis of proteins (to be secreted)/ intracellular

transport of polypeptides to Golgi apparatus

➢ nucleus:​ controls cells activities/mitosis/replication of DNA/transcription of DNA

(tRNA)/directs protein synthesis

➢ mitochondrion:​ (aerobic) respiration/generates ATP

❖ Draw a labelled diagram showing the ultra-structure of an animal cell as seen in an electron
micrograph. (6)
➢ Award 1 mark for each of the following structure clearly drawn and labelled correctly. Award
marks for labelled eukaryotic structures, then deduct 1 mark per labelled prokaryotic
structure shown, e.g. mesosome, cell wall.
➢ nuclear membrane/nucleus (with nuclear membrane shown double with pores)
➢ ribosomes (free or attached to ER)
➢ endoplasmic reticulum/ ER
➢ plasma/cell membrane (​reject if shown as a double line)​
➢ mitochondria (shown with inner and outer membrane)
➢ Golgi (apparatus)
➢ lysosomes

❖ Distinguish between the structure of plant and animal cells. (6)

➢ Award 1 mark per difference
➢ plant cells
■ have cell walls, animals do not
■ have plastids/ chloroplasts, animals do not
■ have a large central vacuole, animals do not
■ store starch, animal cells store glycogen
■ have plasmodesmata, animal cells do not

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 ➢ animal cells
■ have centrioles, plant cells do not
■ have cholesterol in the cell membrane, plant cells do not
■ plant cells are generally have a fixed shape/ more regular whereas animal cells are
more rounded

Plant Animal

have cell walls don’t have cell walls

have plastids/chloroplasts don’t have plastids/chloroplasts

have a large central vacuole don’t have a large central vacuole/have a small,
temporary vacuole

store starch store glycogen

have plasmodesmata don’t have plasmodesmata

don’t have centrioles have centrioles

don’t have cholesterol in the membrane have cholesterol in the membrane

generally have a fixed shape/more regular shape animal cells are more rounded

❖ Using a table, compare the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (5)

Prokaryote Eukaryote

DNA naked/loop of DNA not associated with linear DNA associated with proteins/histones,
proteins/histones forming chromosomes

DNA located in the cytoplasm/nucleoid/no DNA within a nucleus/nuclear membrane

nucleus

no membrane bound organelles present membrane bound organelles present

70S ribosomes 80S ribosomes

cell wall made up of peptidoglycan/not cellulose cell wall made up of cellulose/chitin/not

or chitin peptidoglycan

mesosomes present no mesosomes present

no mitochondria mitochondria

Cell membranes

❖ Explain how the structure and function of phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell
membranes (9)
➢ phospholipid structure:
■ hydrophobic tail/hydrophilic head
■ head made from glycerol and phosphate

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 ■ tail made from two fatty acids
■ saturated/ unsaturated fatty acid (in tail)

➢ arrangement in membrane
■ phospholipids form a bilayer
■ heads face outside the membrane/ tails face inside the membrane/ hydrophobic
interior/hydrophilic exterior of membrane

A suitable annotated diagram may incorporate all or many of the above points. Award 5 marks
maximum for a suitable diagram that is labelled correctly.

➢ phospholipids held together by hydrophobic interactions

➢ phospholipid layers are stabilized by interaction of hydrophilic heads and surrounding water
➢ phospholipids allow for membrane fluidity/ flexibility
➢ fluidity/ flexibility helps membranes to be (functionally) stable
➢ phospholipids with short fatty acids/ unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid
■ fluidity is important in breaking and remaking membranes (e.g. endocytosis/
exocytosis)
➢ phospholipids can move about/ move horizontally/ "flip flop" to increase fluidity
➢ hydrophilic/ hydrophobic layers restrict entry/ exit of substances

❖ Outline the role of proteins in membranes (5)

➢ integral proteins are embedded in the membrane/phospholipid bilayer (1)
➢ peripheral proteins are on the surface of the membrane (1)
➢ some integral proteins (are transmembrane proteins that) extend from one side of the
membrane to the other (1)
➢ hormone binding sites (1) e.g. insulin;
➢ enzymes; e.g. sucrase / succinate dehydrogenase (1)
➢ cell adhesion (1)
➢ cell-to-cell communication recognition / antigenic markers / glycoproteins / contact inhibition
(1)
➢ channels/pores for passive transport/facilitated diffusion (1)
➢ pumps/carriers for active transport (1)
➢ receptors for neurotransmitters (1) such as acetylcholine (1)
➢ electron carriers (1) e.g. electron transport chain of cellular respiration; pigments (in
rods/cones) (1)

❖ Explain how polar and non-polar amino acids help channel proteins and enzymes carry out their
functions.
➢ non-polar amino acids cause channel proteins to embed in a membrane (1)
➢ polar amino acids at either end cause channel proteins to be transmembrane / retain protein
position in membrane (1)
➢ polar amino acids lining pore allow polar particles to pass through/form hydrophilic channels
through membranes (1)
➢
➢ polar amino acids on surface of enzyme allow it to dissolve in water (1)
➢ polar and non-polar amino acids contribute to the specificity of an enzyme (1)
➢ non-polar amino acids of surface of enzyme allow it to embed in a membrane (1)
➢ polar amino acids at active site of enzyme attract polar substrates (1)
➢ positively charged amino acids attract negatively charged substrate / vice versa (1)
➢ non-polar amino acids at active site attract non-polar substrate (1)

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Membrane transpor​t
❖ Explain the role of vesicles in transportation of materials within cells (8)
➢ vesicles are membrane bound packages/droplets
➢ formed by pinching off/budding off a piece from a membrane
➢ can carry proteins
➢ rough ER synthesizes proteins
➢ proteins enter/accumulate inside the ER
➢ transported to Golgi apparatus for processing
➢ targeted to/transported to specific cellular organelles
➢ fuse with membrane of organelle so contents of vesicle join the organelle
➢ transported to the plasma membrane
➢ fuses with plasma membrane releases/secretes contents
➢ exocytosis

❖ Describe four different types of transport of substances across a membrane (4)

➢ simple diffusion => when molecules move down a concentration gradient directly through
membrane/unaided by carrier molecule (1)
➢ passive transport => by ​facilitated diffusion​ through (specific) channel proteins (1)
➢ osmosis of water => movement via aquaporins/from area of low solute concentration to area
of high solute concentration (1)
➢ active transport => movement against a concentration gradient using protein pumps/ATP (1)
➢ exocytosis => vesicles attach to plasma membrane and release materials to exterior (1)
➢ endocytosis / phagocytosis => cell membrane invaginates/pinches off to bring material to
interior (1)

❖ Describe the process of active transport (4)

➢ uses/ requires energy/ ATP
➢ goes against concentration gradient/ lower to higher concentration
➢ requires a protein in the cell membrane/ pump/ carrier protein (​reject channel​)
➢ hydrolysis of ATP/ ATP --> ADP + phosphate
➢ involves a conformational change in the pump/ protein/ diagram to show this

02-Molecular Biology
❖ State the role of 4 named minerals needed by living organisms (4)
➢ Sulfur: a part of some amino acids (e.g. cysteine)
➢ Calcium: strengthening/formation of bones/synaptic transmission/muscle contraction
➢ Phosphorus: formation of nucleic acids/ATP/GTP/NADP/phospholipids
➢ Iron: formation of haemoglobin/transport of oxygen
➢ Potassium: nerve transmission/sodium potassium pump/osmoregulation
➢ Magnesium: part of chlorophyll molecule
➢

Proteins
❖ List the general functions of non-membrane proteins (4)
➢ contraction / movement
➢ acts as a catalyst/enzymes / specific example of an enzyme function
➢ structure / support / specific example of a structural/support role
➢ transport

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 ➢ defence / immunity
➢ as hormones / communication
➢ DNA packing / histones
➢ other function;

❖ State four functions of proteins, giving a named example of each (4)

➢ structure – collagen (1)
➢ transport – transthyretin / hemoglobin (1)
➢ enzyme/catalyst – lysozyme (1)
➢ movement – actin / tubulin (1)
➢ hormones – insulin (1)
➢ antibodies – immunoglobulin (1)
➢ storage – albumin (1)

❖ List four functions of proteins, giving an example of each. ​4 marks​ SL

➢ name of function and named protein must both be correct for the mark
➢ storage - zeatin (in corn seeds)/casein (in milk)
➢ transport - hemoglobin/lipoproteins (in blood)
➢ hormones - insulin/growth hormone/TSH/FSH/LH
➢ receptors - hormone receptor/neurotransmitter receptor/receptor in chemoreceptor cell
➢ movement - actin/myosin
➢ defense - antibodies/immunoglobin
➢ enzymes - catalase/RuBP carboxylase
➢ structure - collagen/keratin/tubulin/fibroin
➢ electron carriers - cytochromes
➢ pigments - opsin
➢ active transport - sodium potassium pumps/calcium pumps
➢ facilitated diffusion - sodium channels/aquaporins
➢ mark first four functions only, but allow other named examples

❖ Describe the relationship between genes, polypeptides and enzymes (4)

➢ a gene is a sequence of DNA bases (1)
➢ DNA/gene codes for a specific sequence of amino acids/polypeptide (1)
➢ enzymes are proteins/composed of polypeptides (1)
➢ sequence of amino acids determines tertiary structure/folding/shape of active site (1)
➢ change in the gene/mutation will affect the active site/function of an enzyme (1)
➢ enzymes are involved in replication/transcription of genes (1)
➢ enzymes are involved in synthesis of polypeptides (1)

❖ Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationship between amino acids and dipeptides.
4 marks​ SL
➢ diagram of peptide bond drawn
➢ condensation / dehydration synthesis: water produced (when two amino acids joined)
➢ hydrolysis: water needed to break bond
➢ dipeptide --> amino acids - hydrolysis occurs
➢ amino acids --> dipeptide - condensation occurs

Polar/non-polar
❖ Discuss the solubility of proteins in water. ​4 marks​ HL
➢ solubility depends on what amino acids /R groups are present
➢ smaller proteins are more soluble than big ones

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 ➢ proteins with many polar / hydrophilic amino acids / R groups are more soluble / soluble
➢ proteins with polar / hydrophilic amino acids / R groups ​on the outside​ are soluble
➢ example of a polar amino acid / group
➢ globular proteins are more soluble than fibrous proteins
➢ solubility of proteins may also be affected by conditions (pH, temperature, salinity)
➢ denaturation makes proteins insoluble
➢ proteins do not form true solutions in water but colloidal solutions

❖ Describe the significance of polar and non-polar amino acids. ​5 marks

For the maximum mark the response must have polar and non-polar amino acids
➢ polar amino acids: 3 max
■ hydrophilic
■ can make hydrogen bonds
■ found in hydrophilic channels/parts of proteins projecting from membranes
■ found on surface of water-soluble protein

➢ non-polar amino acids: 3 max

■ hydrophobic
■ forms van der Waals/hydrophobic interactions with other hydrophobic amino acids
■ found in protein in interior of membranes
■ found in interior of water soluble proteins
Organization
❖ The complex structure of proteins can be explained in terms of four levels of structure, primary,
secondary, tertiary and quaternary. ​5 marks​ HL
➢ a. Primary structure involves the sequence of amino acids that are bonded together to form a
polypeptide. State the name of the linkage that bonds the amino acids together.​ ​1 mark
■ peptide bonds / peptidic bonds

➢ b. Beta pleated sheets are an example of secondary structure. State o​ ne​ other example.​ ​1 mark
■ alpha-helix / alpha helices

➢ c. Tertiary structure in globular proteins involves the folding of polypeptides. State one type of
bond that stabilizes the tertiary structure.​ ​1 mark
■ ionic / polar / hydrogen / hydrophobic / van der Waals' / disulfide (not covalent)

➢ d. Outline the quaternary structure of proteins.​ ​2 marks

■ linking together of polypeptides to form a single protein
■ using the same bonding as for tertiary structure
■ linking of a non-polypeptide structure / prosthetic group
■ named example of quaternary structure e.g. hemoglobin (has four polypeptides)

❖ Describe the structure of proteins. ​9 marks​ HL

➢ (primary structure is a) chain of amino acids/sequence of amino acids
■ (each position is occupied by one of) 20 different amino acids
■ linked by peptide bonds
➢ secondary structure formed by interaction between amino and carboxyl/-NH and -C=O groups
■ (weak) hydrogen bonds are formed
■ (å-) helix formed / polypeptide coils up
■ or (ß-) pleated sheet formed
➢ tertiary structure is the folding up of the polypeptide
■ stabilized by disulfide bridges / hydrogen / ionic / hydrophobic bond

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 ➢ quaternary structure is where several polypeptide subunits join
■ conjugated proteins are proteins which combine with other non-protein molecules
■ for example metals / nucleic acids / carbohydrates / lipids

❖ Describe, with examples, the secondary structures of proteins. ​5 marks​ HL

➢ å helix is a secondary structure
➢ polypeptide is coiled into a helix / diagram showing this
➢ ß-pleated sheet is a secondary structure
➢ polypeptide folds back on itself (several times) to form a sheet / diagram showing this
➢ å helix /ß (pleated) sheet / secondary structures held together by hydrogen bonds
➢ hydrogen bonds at regular spacing
➢ hydrogen bonding between C=O and N-H groups
➢ dimensions of secondary structures are constant
➢ not all of a polypeptide form secondary structures (in most proteins)

❖ Distinguish between fibrous and globular proteins, giving one example of each. ​5 marks
➢ award 1 for each of the following pairs up to 3 max
➢ fibrous has repetitive amino acid sequences whereas globular has irregular amino acid
sequences
➢ fibrous are long and narrow whereas globular are spherical
➢ fibrous used for structural functions whereas globular have metabolic/other functions
➢ fibrous tend to be insoluble in water whereas globular tend to be soluble in water
➢ award one max for example of fibrous proteins
➢ collagen/myosin/keratin/fibroin/elastin/silk
➢ reject fibrinogen​ ​award one max for example of globular proteins
➢ catalase/other named enzyme/hemoglobin/myoglobin/insulin/other named peptide
hormone/immunoglobulin/other globulin protein
➢ reject examples of fibrous and globular proteins apart from the first named example

❖ Distinguish between globular and fibrous proteins (6)

Globular Fibrous

(mostly) water soluble mostly water insoluble

rounded shape strands/sheets/long/narrow

more sensitive to fluctuations/changes in less sensitive to fluctuations/changes in

pH/temperature/salt pH/temperature/salt

hormones/catalysis/transport/defence functions structural/movement functions

named enzyme/immunoglobulin/hemoglobin/insulin keratin/collagen/fibrin/actin/myosin/silk protein

Carbohydrates
❖ 2. Describe the use of carbohydrates and lipids for energy storage in animals. ​5 marks
➢ Answers must discuss both carbohydrates and lipids to receive full marks​ ​carbohydrates: 3
max
➢ stored as glycogen (in liver)
➢ short-term energy storage
➢ more easily digested than lipids so energy can be released more quickly

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 ➢ more soluble in water for easier transport
➢ lipids: 3 max
➢ stored as fat in animals
➢ long-term energy storage
➢ more energy per gram than carbohydrates
➢ lipids are insoluble in water so less osmotic effect

❖ Glucose and galactose are examples of monosaccharides. State one other example of a
monosaccharide. (1)
➢ ribose (1)
➢ fructose (1)
➢ ribulose (1)
➢ deoxyribose (1)
➢ allow others

❖ State the type of chemical reaction that occurs when lactose is digested into glucose and galactose (1)
➢ hydrolysis (1)

❖ There are several different types of carbohydrate. State which type of carbohydrate lactose is (1)
➢ disaccharide (1)

❖ Outline, with examples, the types of carbohydrate found in living organisms (4)

1 mark for correct name + composition

➢ monos​ accharide:
■ consists of one unit
■ glucose, galactose, fructose, ribose, (deoxyribose) (1)

➢ disaccharide:
■ consists of 2 units/2 monosaccharides
■ lactose, sucrose, maltose (1)

➢ polysaccharide​:
■ consists of many units/monosaccharides
■ cellulose, glycogen, starch (1)

❖ Describe the importance of hydrolysis in digestion (6)

➢ digestion:
■ the breakdown of large, complex molecules into small, simple molecules (1), to allow
for diffusion/to make soluble (1) and hence the absorption into blood vessels (1) and
then into cells (1)
■ these small molecules can then be joined to reform the organism's unique
macromolecules (1)
➢ hydrolysis is a process which uses water (1) and enzymes (1) to break down large, complex
molecules into small, simple molecules (1)
■ polysaccharides are hydrolysed into di/monosaccharides (1)
■ proteins are hydrolysed into amino acids (1)
■ lipids/fats/triglycerides are hydrolysed into fatty acids and glycerol (1)

Water
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 ❖ 1. Describe the significance of water to living organisms. ​6 marks​ SL
Each feature or property must be related to living organisms in order to receive a mark.​ ​Features may
include:
➢ surface tension - allows some organisms (e.g. insects) to move on water's surface
➢ polarity / capillarity / adhesion - helps plants transport water
➢ transparency - allows plants to photosynthesize in water / allows animals to see
➢ (excellent) solvent - capable of dissolving substances for transport in organisms
➢ (excellent) thermal properties (high heat of vaporization)
➢ - excellent coolant
➢ ice floats - lakes / oceans do not freeze, allowing life under the ice
➢ buoyancy - supports organisms
➢ structure - turgor in plant cells / hydrostatic pressure
➢ habitat - place for aquatic organisms to live

❖ Describe four properties of water that are due to hydrogen bonding and polarity (4)
➢ due to hydrogen bonding:
■ high specific heat capacity => as large amounts of energy needed to break the
H-bonds/to raise the temperature (1)
■ boiling point is high/100 C as H-bonds must be broken to change from liquid to gas
(1)
■ cooling effect of evaporation due to H-bonds taking energy from liquid water to
break / high latent heat of evaporation (1)
■ water molecules on surface resistant to forces because of surface tension (1)
■ water is most dense at 4 C due to more regular hydrogen bonding; (1)

➢ due to polarity:
■ water molecules stick together through cohesion; (full idea required)
■ water molecules stick to other polar molecules through adhesion; (full idea required)
■ good solvent of polar organic molecules; (1)

OTHER FORMAT - SAME CONTENT

➢ high specific heat capacity => as large amounts of energy are needed to break the H bonds (1)
➢ high boiling point (100°C) => due to ephemeral hydrogen bonds which must be broken to
change from a liquid to a gas, which takes a lot of energy (1)
➢ high latent heat of vaporisation => due to ephemeral hydrogen bonds which take a lot of
energy to be broken (1)
➢ most dense a 4°C => due to more regular hydrogen bonding (1)
➢ water molecules resistant to forces => due to surface tension formed by hydrogen bonding (1)
➢ cohesion => the attraction between water molecules + adhesion => the attraction of water to
other polar molecules
■ ​Something like:
● due to waters dipolarity, caused by oxygen having a higher electronegativity
than hydrogen, hydrogen has a partial positive charge, while oxygen has a
partial negative charge. This allows for the formation of hydrogen bonds
between water molecules (cohesion) and between water and other polar
molecules (adhesion) (1)
➢ solvent for organic molecules => dipolarity
Lipids
❖ List three functions of lipids (3)
➢ energy source/storage

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 ➢ insulation
➢ provision of essential fatty acids
➢ hormones
➢ waterproofing
➢ component of membranes
➢ buoyancy
➢ bile salts
➢ protection of internal organs

❖ 3. Describe the structure of triglycerides. ​6 marks​ SL

➢ composed of C, H and O (​must be stated)​
➢ relatively more C and H/less O than carbohydrates
➢ composed of fatty acids and glycerol
➢ glycerol is CH2.OH.CH.OH.CH2OH/ diagram showing it separately or as part of a
triglyceride
➢ fatty acids are carboxyl groups with hydrocarbon chain attached/ diagram showing it
separately or as part of a triglyceride
➢ ester bonds/diagram showing C-O-C=O
➢ three fatty acids/hydrocarbon chains linked to each glycerol (​must be stated)​
➢ 12-20 carbon atoms per hydrocarbon tail/diagram showing this number
➢ saturated if all the C-C bonds are single/unsaturated if one or more double bonds
➢ whole molecule is nonpolar/hydrophobic

❖ 4. List three functions of lipids. ​3 marks​ SL

➢ energy storage / source of energy / respiration substrate
➢ (heat) insulation
➢ protection (of internal organs)
➢ water proofing / cuticle
➢ buoyancy
➢ (structural) component of cell membranes
➢ electrical insulation by myelin sheath
➢ (steroid) hormones
➢ glycolipids acting as receptors

Enzymes
General + factors

❖ Explain the effect of a competitive inhibitor on the reaction rate (2)

➢ a competitive inhibitor slows down the rate as it competes for the active site
■ OR
competitive inhibitor has a similar shape/structure/composition to substrate and slows down
reaction rate
➢ binding of competitor is reversible
➢ as the substrate concentration increases, more substrate binds to the active site than the
competitor and the reaction rate increases
➢ as the substrate concentration increases, the rate reaches the maximum plateau same as with
no inhibitor

❖ Outline enzyme-substrate specificity ​5 marks

➢ active site​ of enzyme binds to specific ​substrate
➢ shape of the active site and substrate fit/complement each other

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 ➢ lock and key​ model
➢ chemical properties of substrate and enzyme attract/opposite charges
➢ enzyme/active site is not rigid and substrate can induce slight changes in shape
➢ allows substrates of similar structure to bind with same enzyme
➢ induced fit
➢ causes weakening of bonds in substrate to lower activation energy

❖ Explain how allosteric control of metabolic pathways by end-product inhibition includes negative
feedback and non-competitive inhibition. ​8 marks
➢ allosteric enzyme has binding site away from/other than active site
➢ (shape of an) allosteric enzyme alternates between active and inactive (form)
➢ non-competitive inhibitor binds to allosteric site/away from active site
➢ non-competitive inhibitor changes shape of active site
➢ non-competitive inhibitors do not compete with substrate for the active site
➢ end-product can inhibit enzyme needed for early/first step in metabolic pathway
➢ negative feedback since increased level of product decreases rate of its own production
➢ metabolic pathway regulated according to the requirement for its end-product
➢ idea that inhibition is reversible
➢ award one for named enzyme​ ​award one for its non-competitive/end-product inhibitor

❖ Define the term ​active site​ of an enzyme. ​1 mark​ SL

➢ the site (on the surface of and enzyme) to which substrate(s) bind / the site (on the enzyme)
where it catalyzes a chemical reaction

❖ Outline how enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions. ​2 marks​ SL

➢ bring substrates close together in active site / in correct orientation
➢ forms enzyme-substrate complex / substrate(s) bind to active site
➢ lowers the activation energy for the reaction

❖ Explain the effect of pH on enzyme activity. ​3 marks​ SL

➢ enzymes have an optional pH
➢ lower activity above and below optimum pH / graph showing this
➢ too acidic / base pH can determine enzyme
➢ change shape of active site / tertiary structure altered
➢ substrate cannot bind to active site / enzyme-substrate complex cannot form
➢ hydrogen / ionic bonds in the enzyme / active site are broken / altered

❖ Compare the induced fit model of enzyme activity with the lock and key model. ​4 marks​ HL
➢ in both models substrate binds to active site
➢ substrate fits active site exactly in lock and key, but does not in induced fit
➢ substrate / active site changes shape in induced fit, but does not in lock and key
➢ in both models an enzyme - substrate complex is formed
➢ in lock and key binding reduces activation energy but in the induced fit change to substrate
reduces activation energy
➢ lock and key model explains narrow specificity but induced fit allows broader specificity
➢ induced fit explains competitive inhibition, but lock and key does not

❖ Draw graphs to show the effect of enzymes on the activation energy of chemical reactions ​5 marks​ HL
➢ (for the first graph, which may be either exothermic or endothermic, award up to {1 mark} for
any of the following, up to {4 marks})
➢ vertical axis with energy label and horizontal axis with time label

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 ➢ labels showing reactant / substrate and product
➢ labeled line showing correct shape and curve without enzyme
➢ labeled line showing correct shape and curve with enzyme
➢ labels for activation energy with and without enzymes
➢ (Award {1 mark}for a second graph which shows the correct curves for an endergonic
reaction if the first graph was exothermic or vice versa. For the second graph, no marks will
be awarded for labels)

❖ Explain how proteins act as enzymes, including control by feedback inhibition in allosteric enzymes. ​9
marks​ HL
➢ enzymes are globular proteins
➢ there is an active site
➢ substrate(s) binds to active site
➢ shape of substrate (and active site) changed / induced fit
➢ bonds in substrate weakened
➢ activation energy reduced
➢ sketch of energy levels in a reaction to show reduced activation energy
➢ in feedback inhibition a (end) product binds to the enzyme
➢ end-product is a substance produced in last / later stage of a pathway
➢ modulator / inhibitor / effector / product binds at the allosteric site / site away from the active
site
➢ binding causes the enzyme / active site to change shape
➢ substrate no longer fits the active site
➢ the higher the concentration of end-product the lower the enzyme activity
➢ enzyme catalysts the first / early reaction in pathway so whole pathway is inhibited
➢ prevents build-up of intermediates
➢ allosteric inhibition is non-competitive

❖ Explain how polar and non-polar amino acids help channel proteins and enzymes carry out their
functions.
➢ non-polar amino acids cause channel proteins to embed in a membrane (1)
➢ polar amino acids at either end cause channel proteins to be transmembrane / retain protein
position in membrane (1)
➢ polar amino acids lining pore allow polar particles to pass through/form hydrophilic channels
through membranes (1)
➢ polar amino acids on surface of enzyme allow it to dissolve in water (1)
➢ polar and non-polar amino acids contribute to the specificity of an enzyme (1)
➢ non-polar amino acids of surface of enzyme allow it to embed in a membrane (1)
➢ polar amino acids at active site of enzyme attract polar substrates (1)
➢ positively charged amino acids attract negatively charged substrate / vice versa (1)
➢ non-polar amino acids at active site attract non-polar substrate (1)

❖ Outline the models that describe how substrates bind to enzymes (2)
➢ lock-and-key => where substrate (exactly) fits the active site of the enzyme/where substrate is
complementary to the active site (1)
➢ induced fit => where active site/substrate changes shape so substrate can bind/fit (1)

❖ Explain how the active site promotes enzyme–substrate specificity. [2]

➢ shape of the active site matches the shape of the substrate (1)

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 ➢ charge/chemical properties of the active site attracts the substrate (1)
➢ active site can change to induce fit of substrate (1)

❖ Outline possible effects of acids on enzyme activity [2]

➢ changes in the ionization/charge of amino acids/R groups (1), alters the 3D structure of the
active site/tertiary structure/causes the enzyme to be denatured (1)
➢ The substrate can no longer bind to the active site (1)), decreasing the rate of reaction (1)
➢ could increase if the optimum pH of the enzyme is acidic (1)

❖ Outline the effects of temperature and substrate concentration on the activtiy of enzymes (4)
➢ enzymes most active at one temperature/optimum temperature (1)
➢ any deviation from that temperature lowers the enzyme activity (1)
➢ denaturing/change in active site/no activity at higher temperatures / inactivated at (very) low
temperatures (1)

➢ increasing the substrate concentration increases the enzyme activity/more enzyme substrate
complex formed/more collisions between enzyme and substrate (1)
➢ eventually no increase in enzyme activity with increased substrate concentration / plateau
when enzymes are working to the maximum/when all active sites occupied/saturated (1)

Accept answers shown graphically.

❖ 22. Explain, using one named example, the effect of a competitive inhibitor on enzyme activity. ​6
marks​ HL
➢ competitive inhibitor has similar shape/structure to the substrate
➢ therefore it fits to the active site
➢ no reaction is catalyzed so the inhibitor remains bound
➢ substrate cannot bind as long as the inhibitor remains bound
➢ only one active site per enzyme molecule
➢ substrate and inhibitor compete for the active site
➢ therefore high substrate concentrations can overcome the inhibition
➢ as substrate is used up ratio of inhibitor to substrate rises
➢ named example of inhibitor plus inhibited enzyme / process / substrate

Lactose free milk

❖ Explain the use of lactase in biotechnology. ​4 marks​ SL
➢ yeast/​Kluveromyces lactis​/cultured
➢ lactase extracted from yeast/​Kluveromyces lactis/​ culture
➢ lactase used in lactose-free milk production
➢ lactase breaks down lactose into glucose plus galactose
➢ allows lactose-intolerant people to consume milk products
➢ galactose and glucose are sweeter than lactose, so less sugar needs to be added to sweet foods
containing milk
➢ bacteria ferment glucose and galactose more quickly than lactose, so production of yoghurt
and cottage cheese is faster

❖ Explain the production of lactose-free milk (3)

➢ lactase added to milk/lactase immobilised (1)
➢ lactose hydrolysed into glucose and galactose (1)
➢ for people who are lactose intolerant/lack lactase (1)
➢ increases sweetness/solubility/smooth texture in processed foods (1)

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 ❖ Explain the production of lactose-free milk (6)
➢ milk contains lactose / lactose is milk sugar (1)
➢ lactose is broken down to glucose and galactose (1) by (the enzyme) lactase (1) which is
lacking in people with lactose intolerance(1)
➢ lactose-free milk is sweeter than milk containing lactose (1)
➢ lactase produced by small intestine / produced by yeast sometimes found in milk (1)
➢ lactase can be added directly to milk (1) or can be immobilized in beads / biotechnological
techniques (1)
➢ ultrafiltration of milk to remove lactose (1)

❖ Discuss the use of lactase in the production of lactose-free milk (8)

➢ lactose is a disaccharide/sugar (found in milk) (1)
➢ lactase digests lactose into galactose and glucose (1)
➢ lactase produced naturally by yeast (1)
➢ biotechnology companies isolate lactase for use in food processing (1)
➢ lactase can be added to milk to reduce the level of lactose in the milk (1) (or) lactase can be
put on a surface / immobilized enzyme (1)
➢ lactose-intolerant people cannot drink milk (unless it is lactose-reduced) (1)
➢ galactose and glucose are sweeter than lactose; so less sugar is needed in food production
from milk (1)
➢ bacteria ferment glucose and galactose more quickly than lactose, so production of
yoghurt/cottage cheese is faster (providing an economic benefit) (1)
➢ galactose and glucose are more soluble so improve the texture of ice cream (1)
➢ other legitimate advantage/disadvantage of use of lactose-reduced milk (1)

❖ Outline three reasons of converting lactose to glucose and galactose during food processing (3)
➢ it allows people who are lactose intolerant/have difficulty digesting lactose to consume milk
(products) (1)
➢ galactose and glucose taste sweeter than lactose reducing need for additional sweetener (in
flavoured milk products) (1)
➢ galactose and glucose are more soluble than lactose / gives smoother texture / reduces
crystallization in​ ice cream​ (1)
➢ (bacteria) ferment glucose and galactose more rapidly (than lactose) shortening production
time (of yoghurt/cottage cheese) (1)
Metabolism
❖ Outline the control of metabolic pathways (6)
➢ metabolic pathways can be a sequence/chain (1) or cycles of reactions (1)
➢ different enzymes control each reaction in the sequence/cycle (1)
➢ accumulation of an end-product can inhibit the first enzyme of the sequence/ pathway (1)
➢ (an end-product inhibitor) joins an allosteric site/a site separate from active site (1), causing a
change in the shape of the active site (1), preventing the binding of substrate (1) until the level
of the end-product is reduced (and the inhibition removed) (1)
➢ this is an example of negative feedback (1)
Inhibition
❖ Explain the effect of inhibitors (8)
➢ inhibitors decrease enzyme activity and hence decrease the rate of reaction (1)

➢ competitive inhibition:
■ competitive inhibitors have a similar shape to the substrate (1), therefore competes
with the substrate for the active site of the enzyme (1)

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 ■ when it binds to the active site, it blocks it, preventing the substrate from binding (1)
■ e.g. PABA competes with sulfonamide for the active site of an enzyme which helps
synthesize folic acid (required for growth) (1)
■ an increase in substrate concentration can reduce the effect of the inhibitor (1)
● ALLOW GRAPH - labeled => rate of reaction/substrate concentration; both
curves (normal + competitive)

➢ non-competitive inhibition:
■ the substrate and the inhibitor are not chemically similar/have a different shape (1),
causing the inhibitor to bind to a different site than the active site, known as the
allosteric site (1)
■ this causes a conformational change/change in shape of the active site,
preventing/reducing the binding of the substrate (1)
■ e.g. respiratory enzymes and cyanide (cyanide acts as a non-competitive inhibitor) (1)
■ an increase in substrate concentration does not decrease the degree of inhibition (1)
■ end product inhibition is an example of noncompetitive inhibition (1)

❖ Compare competitive and noncompetitive inhibition (5)

❖ Explain how end product inhibition can affect the synthesis of an amino acid (2)
➢ amino acid/end product produced if used up/not enough present (1)
➢ production stops if amino acid/end product unused/accumulates/in excess (1)
➢ amino acid/end product changes active site of (first) enzyme of pathway (1)
➢ (this is an example of) negative feedback (1)

03-Genetics + 10-Genetics and evolution + 07-Nucleic acids

Recombination​ = the reassortment of alleles into combinations different from those of the parents as a result of:
● independent assortment

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● crossing over
● fertilization.

❖ How is the sequence of DNA conserved?

A. Unwinding of the double helix by helicase during DNA replication
B. Separation of the sister chromatids by opposite poles during mitosis
C. Transcription into complementary RNA for protein synthesis
D.​ Complementary base pair matching during DNA replication

● What is “naked DNA”?

A. DNA not surrounded by a nuclear membrane
B. DNA that is single-stranded due to heat treatment
C​. DNA not associated with proteins
D. DNA not supercoiled into chromosomes

● A pea plant that is homozygous for purple flowers is crossed with pea plants having white flowers and
the descendants are all plants with purple flowers. One of these F1 plants is then crossed with a pea
plant having white flowers. In the resulting offspring, what can be expected?
A. 100% of plants with purple flowers
B. 100% of plants with white flowers
C. 75% of plants with purple flowers, 25% with white flowers
D.​ 50% of plants with purple flowers, 50% with white flowers

● Color blindness is caused by a recessive allele. A woman and her partner have normal vision. Their
first child has color blindness. What is the probability of their second child having color blindness if it
is a son?
A.100%
B. 25%
C.​ 50%
D. 0%

● Which DNA has identical base pair sequences?

I. DNA that segregates during mitosis

II. DNA that segregates during meiosis I
III. DNA that segregates during meiosis II

​A.​ I only
B. I and II only
C. I and III only
D. II and III only

● How can forensic scientists obtain sufficient data from one hair follicle to make a reliable identification
by DNA profiling?
​ A. ​By performing a PCR with DNA from the sample
B. By digesting the sample with more than one restriction enzyme
C. By performing electrophoresis with many other known samples
D. By choosing a hair follicle with a particularly long hair

● Corn can be modified to kill corn-boring insects when they eat the corn. Why is the use of this
genetically modified crop opposed by environmentalists?

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 A. Corn boring insects will feed on wild plants instead of corn crops
B. Over-production of corn could lead in poorer soil quality
C. More corn will be produced, lowering corn prices
​ D​. Other insects that eat corn pollen could be killed

❖ Explain the control of gene expression in eukaryotes (8)

➢ mRNA conveys genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes where it guides polypeptide
production
➢ gene expression requires the production of specific mRNA through transcription
➢ most genes are turned off/not being transcribed at any one time OR some genes are only
expressed at certain times
➢ some genes are only expressed in certain cells/tissues OR cell differentiation involves changes
in gene expression
➢ transcription factors can increase or decrease transcription
➢ transcription factors/proteins may enhance or prevent the binding of RNA polymerase
➢ hormones/chemical environment of a cell can affect gene expression
➢ example of a cell environment (e.g. auxin, insulin, cytoplasmic gradient in embryo
➢ nucleosomes limit access of transcription factors to DNA/regulate gene expression
➢ DNA methylation appears to control expression as an epigenetic factor
➢ some DnA methylation patterns are inherited
➢ regulated by post-transcriptional modification

❖ State one type of environmental factor that may increase the mutation rate of a gene (1)
➢ radiation

DNA structure and other general stuff

❖ Define the terms chromosome, gene, allele and genome (4)
➢ chromosome:​structure formed by DNA and proteins (1)
➢ gene:​ ​a heritable factor that controls a specific characteristic (1)
➢ allele:​ ​ one specific form of a gene occupying the same gene locus as other alleles of the gene
➢ genome:​ t​ he whole of the genetic information of an organism (1)

❖ Define the terms ​gene​ and ​allele​ and explain how they differ. 4​ marks
➢ gene is a heritable factor / unit of inheritance, composed of DNA, controls a specific
characteristic / codes for a polypeptide / protein
➢ allele is a form of a gene occupying the same gene locus / same position on chromosome and
alleles differing (from each other) by one / a small number of bases(s)/ base pair(s)

❖ Define ​linked genes​. (1)

➢ genes located on the same chromosome (1)
Explain the reason for linked genes not following the pattern of inheritance discovered by Mendel. (3)
● a. «linked genes are» on the same chromosome ✔ Reject sex-linkage 2
● b. Mendel ‘s genes were on different chromosomes ✔
● c. linked genes are inherited together OR no independent assortment ✔
● d. «linked genes» only separated by crossing over OR fewer recombinants than with unlinked genes ✔

nucleosomes:
❖ Outline the structure of the nucleosomes in eukaryotic chromosomes. ​4 marks​ HL
➢ contain histones
➢ eight histone molecules form a cluster in a nucleosome

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 ➢ DNA strand is wound around the histones
➢ wound around twice in each nucleosome
➢ (another) histone molecule holds the nucleosome(s) together

❖ Outline the structure and functions of nucleosomes (4)

➢ structure​:
■ found in eukaryotes (1), between two/in, a linker region (1)
■ consists of DNA wrapped around a histone (1) octamer (1)
■ another histone protein holds together the nucleosome (1)
➢ function:
■ helps to supercoil chromosomes/to facilitate DNA packaging (1)
■ regulates transcription/gene expression (1)

DNA structure
❖ Explain the structure of the DNA double helix, including its subunits and the way in which they are
bonded together. ​8 marks​ HL
➢ subunits are nucleotides
➢ one base, one deoxyribose and one phosphate in each nucleotide
➢ description/ diagram showing base linked to deoxyribose C1 and phosphate to C6
➢ four different bases - adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine
➢ nucleotides linked up with sugar-phosphate bonds
➢ covalent/ phosphodiester bonds
➢ two strands (of nucleotides) linked together
➢ base to base
➢ A to T and G to C
➢ hydrogen bonds between bases
➢ antiparallel strands
➢ double helix drawn or described

❖ Draw as simple diagram of the molecular structure of DNA. ​5 marks​ SL

➢ two sugar-phosphate backbones shown
➢ A with T and C with G
➢ double helical shape shown
➢ antiparallel nature of strands indicated
➢ ten base pairs per turn of helix
➢ correct hydrogen bonding shown (A=T and C=G)

❖ Outline how a protein combines with DNA to form the eukaryotic chromosome. ​4 marks​ HL
➢ proteins are histones
➢ eight protein molecules linked/octomeres
➢ DNA wound around protein
➢ protein with DNA wrapped around a nucleosome

❖ Distinguish between unique and highly repetitive sequences (5)

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 ❖ Compare the genetic material of prokaryotes and eukaryotes (6)

Prokaryotic DNA Eukaryotic DNA

circular linear

one chromosome many chromosomes

not associated with proteins/naked DNA/no associated with proteins/histones/nucleosomes

nucleosomes present

plasmids present no plasmids present

no introns exons and introns

found in the nucleoid region contained in the nucleus

one replication/initiation pont many replication/initiation points

mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA similar to prokaryotic DNA

both use DNA as their genetic material

❖
DNA profiling

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 ❖ Describe the use of DNA profiling in forensic investigations (4)
➢ cut DNA into fragments using restriction enzymes/endonucleases (1)
➢ satellite DNA/(short) repeated sequences are used (1)
➢ PCR used to amplify/copy many times (satellite) DNA (1)
➢ DNA fragments separated by size / DNA separated by gel electrophoresis (1)
➢ pattern of bands/fragments compared to bands of suspected person/criminal (1)

❖ Describe the method used to amplify small quantities of DNA to obtain large enough quantities for
DNA profiling (3)
➢ polymerase chain reaction/PCR (1)
➢ (DNA obtained from) blood/semen/hairs/other source of tissue (1)
➢ combined with necessary raw materials/one example of raw material (1)
➢ in thermal cycler / (PCR) maschine (1)
➢ DNA replicated many times (1)

❖ Outline the process of DNA profiling (genetic fingerprinting), including ways in which it can be used.
6 marks​ ​SL and HL
➢ sample of DNA obtained / leucocytes / from mouthwash / hair / other named source
➢ satellite DNA / repetitive sequences used for profiling
➢ amplification of DNA by polymerase chain reaction / PCR
➢ cutting DNA into fragments using restriction enzymes
➢ separation of fragments of DNA (by electrophoresis)
➢ separation according to the length of the fragments
➢ pattern of bands obtained / different pattern of bands with DNA from different individuals

➢ used for criminal investigations / example of use in criminal investigation

➢ used to check paternity / who is the father / mother / parent
➢ used to check whether two organisms are clones

❖ Outline DNA profiling (genetic fingerprinting), including one way in which it has been used. ​5 marks
SL and HL
DNA profiling: 4 max
➢ sample of DNA / blood / saliva / semen is obtained
➢ reference samples of DNA are obtained
➢ PCR used to amplify / produce more copies of the DNA
➢ DNA broken into fragments by restriction enzymes
➢ DNA fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis
➢ DNA separated into a series of bands
➢ bands compared between different samples
➢ if pattern of bands is the same then DNA is (almost certainly) from same source
➢ if some bands are similar then individuals are (almost certainly) related

specific example: 1 max

➢ testing of paternity / forensics / classification / archeology / another specific example

Genetic code;
❖ Describe the genetic code. ​6 marks​ SL
➢ composed of mRNA base triplets
➢ called codons
➢ 64 different codons
➢ each codes for the addition of an amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain

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 ➢ the genetic code is degenerate
➢ meaning more than one codon can code for a partiuclar amino acid
➢ the genetic code is universal
➢ meaning it is the same in almost all organisms
➢ (AUG is the) start codon
➢ some (nonsense) codons code for the end of translation

❖ Explain briefly the advantages and disadvantages of the universality of the genetic code to humans. ​4
marks​ HL
➢ genetic material can be transferred between species/ between humans
➢ one species could use a useful gene from another species
➢ transgenic crop plants/ livestock can be produced
➢ bacteria/ yeasts can be genetically engineered to make a useful product
➢ viruses can invade cells and take over their genetic apparatus
➢ viruses cause disease

Base substitution mutations

❖ Describe the consequences of a base substitution mutation with regards to sickle cell anemia. ​7 marks
➢ the sequence of nucleotide bases in DNA codes for the sequence of amino acids in proteins
➢ DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is translated into amino acids of protein
➢ normal (ß chain) hemoglobin gene / DNA produces normal (ß chain) hemoglobin protein /
amino acids
➢ substitution= the replacement of one (or more) nucleotide base with another
➢ caused by a copying mistake during DNA replication
➢ as a result of a mutagen / X-rays / chemical / UV radiation / other mutagen
➢ mutation in normal (ß chain) hemoglobin gene alters the sequence of nucleotide bases
➢ normal nucleotide sequence = CTC altered to CAC
➢ resulting in altered mRNA (GAG to GUG) during transcription
➢ resulting in altered sequence of amino acids in (ß chain) hemoglobin protein (glutamic acid to
valine) during translation
➢ causing red blood cells to change shape / sickle under low oxygen conditions
➢ causing sickle cells anemia when two copies of the mutated gene are inherited
➢ producing a sickle cell carrier when one copy of the mutated gene is inherited
➢ sickle cells anemia reduces oxygen flow to organs, leading to their deterioration

Variation/Meiosis/cell cycle
❖ State the pattern of inheritance that would result in continuous variation (1)
➢ polygenic

❖ Deduce two processes that occur during interphase (2)

➢ DNA synthesis/replication/OWTTE (1)
➢ (cell) growth / increase in the number of organelles/specific organelle mentioned (1)
➢ transcription/synthesis of RNA (1)

❖ Outline the cell cycle (4)

➢ G1 the cell grows/duplication of organelles (1)
➢ S is synthesis stage when DNA is synthesized/replicated (1)
➢ G2 the chromosomes begin condensing/preparation for cell division (1)
➢ G , S and G 1 2 make up interphase (1)
➢ during mitosis nuclear division occurs/all four stages listed (1)

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 ➢ during cytokinesis cytoplasm/cell divides/daughter cells formed (1)

❖ Outline the processes that occur during the first division of meiosis (6)
➢ consists of ​prophase​, ​metaphase​, ​anaphase​, ​telophase​ (1)
➢ chromosome number halves (1)
➢ prophase:
■ homologous chromosomes pair up/form bivalents/in a process called synapsis (1)
■ crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids/chromatids of different
homologues (1)
■ nuclear envelope breaks down at the end of prophase/beginning of metaphase(1)
➢ metaphase:
■ tetrads/bivalents/homologous pairs, align on/move to, the metaphase plate/equator (1)
■ the spindle fibres/microtubules attach to the centromeres/kinetochore (1)
➢ anaphase:
■ homologous chromosomes separate/pulled to opposite poles (1)
➢ telophase:
■ nuclear envelope reform/doesn’t reform because of meiosis II (1)

❖ Explain how DNA is used to pass on genetic information to offspring accurately but also produce a
variation in species (8)
➢ “to pass on genetic information to offspring accurately” - include mutations
■ DNA is replicated semi-conservatively/from a template (1)
■ mutations can be a source of variation (1), as the resulting protein may have new or
different functions, which may be neutral, beneficial or harmful (1)
■ however mutations in the DNA may not result in changes in the amino of which the
triplet codes (1)

➢ Sources of variation:
■ genetic code is redundant (1)

■ genes occur as paired alleles which can be different (1)

■ crossing over occurs (in prophase) (1), which recombines linked alleles producing
new combinations (1)

■ random orientation of bivalents/homologous chromosomes (in metaphase 1) (1)

result in a large genetic variation in haploid gametes/2​23​, possible combinations, (not
including variations caused by crossing over) (1)

■ random recombination of alleles during fertilization (1)

➢ Consequences of variation:
■ different phenotypes among members of the same population (1), may lead to
enhanced survival of recombinants due to natural selection (1)

❖ Explain the process that results in genetic variation in the sperm produced by an adult male (5)
➢ independent assortment/random orientation of bivalents/pairs of chromosomes/homologous
chromosomes (1) in metaphase I (1)
➢ 2^23/2n possible combinations (where n is the haploid number of chromosomes) (1)

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 ➢ crossing over / recombination of linked genes (1) during prophase I (1) can occur anywhere
along a chromosome (1)
➢ orientation of chromatids (in metaphase II) (1)
➢ (gene) mutations may occur (1)

❖ Explain how meiosis results in genetic variation in gametes (2)

➢ crossing over (between nonsister chromatids) during prophase I (1)
➢ random orientation of bivalents/tetrads/homologous pairs during metaphase I (1)
➢ random orientation of chromatids/chromosomes during metaphase II (1)

❖ Explain how meiosis results in an effectively infinite genetic variety of gametes (8)
➢ one (homologous) chromosome is from the mother and one from the father (1)

➢ homologous chromosomes pair up in prophase I (1), (process of synapsis)

➢ crossing over occurs/chiasma form in prophase I (1), resulting in a recombination of linked
genes (1).
➢ The two chromatids of metaphase I chromosomes are therefore not identical (1)
➢ many possible points of crossing over (1), as it occurs at random positions (1)

➢ random orientation (of bivalents) in metaphase I (1)

➢ in anaphase, chromosomes move to opposite poles (1)
➢ independent assortment of genes (1), allowing for 2​23​ possible combinations (not including
combinations resulting from crossing over)
➢ The result of meiosis are therefore four genetically different nuclei/gametes from each meiosis
(1)

❖ 5. Compare the processes of mitosis and meiosis. ​6 marks

➢ answers must be pair-wise comparisons to receive any marks.
Meiosis Mitosis

2 cell divisions/reduction division one cell division

chromosome number halved (diploid to chromosome number stays the same

haploid)

produces genetically diverse produces genetically identical

separation of homologues in anaphase I and separation of sister chromatids

of sister chromatids in anaphase II

crossing over occurs in prophase I no crossing over occurs

formation of tetrads/synapsis no formation of tetrads/no synapsis

produces gametes for sexual reproduction produces cells for growth/repair/asexual

reproduction

4 daughter cells produced 2 daughter cells produced

random assortment of maternal and paternal daughter cells with both copies of
chromosomes chromosomes/random assortment does not
ocur

replication of DNA in interphase I replication of DNA in interphase

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 same four phases twice four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
telophase

5. (a) Describe the process of crossing over. [2]

● a. occurs during prophase I/during meiosis ✔ 2 max
● b. homologous chromosomes form bivalents/pair up ✔
● c. breakage and rejoining of chromatids ✔
● d. exchange «of DNA/alleles» between non-sister chromatids/homologous chromosomes ✔

● Down syndrome:
❖ Outline how the process of meiosis can lead to Down's syndrome. ​4 marks
➢ in metaphase homologs in center of cell / spindles attached
➢ homologues are separating
➢ one pair doesn't separate / non-disjunction
➢ in telophase cells divide into two
➢ cells have either one more / one less chromosome
➢ can occur in second division of meiosis
➢ sister chromatids fail to separate
➢ fertilization with one gamete / sperm / egg carrying extra chromosome
➢ Down's syndrome is trisomy of chromosome 21

DNA replication

❖ Explain how DNA replication is carried out by eukaryotes. ​8 marks​ HL

➢ DNA replication is semi-conservative
➢ helicase cause the double helix to unwind
➢ helicase separates the two strands of the DNA molecules
➢ hydrogen bonds between bases broken to separate the two strands
➢ DNA polymerase attaches nucleotides
➢ nucleotides are in the form of deoxynucleoside triphosphates
➢ complementary base pairing/ A only pairs with T and C with G
➢ DNA polymerase III can only work in a 5` to 3' direction
➢ on the lagging/ 3` to 5` strand DNA replication occurs discontinuously

29
 ➢ Okazaki fragments are formed on the lagging/ 3` to 5` strand
➢ DNA polymerase III cannot start a new chain of nucleotides
➢ RNA primase inserts a RNA primer
➢ DNA polymerase I replaces the RNA primer/ nucleotides with DNA
➢ DNA ligase seals the nicks between the nucleotides

❖ State a role for each of four different named enzymes in DNA replication. ​6 marks​ HL
Award 1 mark for any two names of the enzymes and up to 2 marks maximum. Award 1 mark for one
function for each of the named enzymes.
➢ helicase​ => splits/ breaks hydrogen bonds/ uncoils DNA/ unwinds DNA
➢ DNA polymerase / DNA polymerase III ​ => adds nucleotides (in 5' to 3' direction)/ proof
reads DNA
➢ RNA primase​ => synthesizes a short RNA primer (which is later removed) on DNA
➢ DNA polymerase I ​=> replaces RNA primer with DNA
➢ (DNA) ligase​ =>joins Okazaki fragments/ fragments on lagging strand/ makes
sugar-phosphate bonds between fragments

❖ Explain the role of the following enzymes in DNA replication (4)

➢ Helicase:​ unwinds/unzips the DNA into two strands by breaking hydrogen bonds (1)
➢ DNA polymerase III:​ connects/forms covalent bonds between nucleotides in a 5’ to 3’
direction/polymerizes nucleotides (1)
➢ RNA primase:​ forms RNA primers/short RNA strands (1)
➢ DNA ligase:​ joins/seals the nick between the Okazaki fragments (1)

❖ Explain how the process of DNA replication depends on the structure of DNA. ​9 marks​ HL
➢ DNA molecule is double (stranded)
➢ hydrogen bonds linking the two strands are weak/ can be broken
➢ DNA can split into two strands
➢ split by helicase
➢ helicase moves progressively down the molecules
➢ backbones are linked by covalent/ strong bonds
➢ strands do not therefore break/ base sequence conserved
➢ reference to semi-conservative replication
➢ base pairing/ sequences are complementary
➢ A=T and C=G
➢ the two original strands therefore carry the same information
➢ the two new strands have the same base sequence as the two original ones
➢ the strands have polarity
➢ base/ nucleotides added in 5` to 3` direction
➢ the two strands have opposite polarity
➢ discontinuous segments/ Okazaki fragments added to one strand
➢ DNA ligase needed to connect the segments

❖ 6. Compare the processes of DNA replication and transcription. ​9 marks​ HL

Replication Transcription

both involve unwinding the helix

both involve separating the two strands

30
both involve breaking hydrogen bonds between bases

both involve complementary base pairing

both involve C pairing with G

both work in a 5’ to 3’ direction

both involve linking/polymerization of nucleotides

both require a start signal, but this signal is different for each

adenine pairs with thymine adenine pairs with uracil

both strands copied only one strand copied

DNA ligase required/formation of Okazaki no ligase/no Okazaki fragments

fragments

may be multiple origins of replications only one starting point

results in the formation of DNA strand results in the formation of a mRNA strand

DNA polymerase used RNA polymerase used

helicase required no helicase required

uses DNA nucleotides uses RNA nucleotides

DNA nucleotides composed of deoxyribose (has an RNA nucleotides composed of ribose (has -H on the
-OH on the 2’ carbon) 2’ carbon)

❖ DNA replication involves a number of enzymes, including DNA polymerase. Identify one other
enzyme involved in replication (1)
➢ DNA Ligase/RNA primase/ligase (1)

❖ Explain the process of DNA replication in prokaryotes (8)

➢ DNA replication is ​semi-conservative​ (1), meaning that each molecule formed, consists of one
new strand and one strand from the parent molecule (1)
➢ helicase​ uncoils the DNA (1) and separates the two strands by ​breaking the hydrogen bonds
between complementary bases​ (1)
➢ RNA primase​ adds a ​primer​/short length of ​RNA​ (1)
➢ DNA polymerase III​ binds to ​primer​ (1)
➢ DNA polymerase III adds nucleoside triphosphates in a 5’ to 3’ direction (1) according to
complementary base pairing/A-T and G-C (1).
➢ when nucleoside triphosphates are added, 2 phosphates are released, which provides energy
for this process (1)
➢ (on the leading strand), there is continuous synthesis towards the replication fork (1)
➢ (on the lagging strand), there is discontinuous synthesis, by short lengths of DNA (Okazaki
fragments) being formed betwenén the RNA primers (1)
➢ DNA polymerase I ​removes RNA/primers and replaces them with DNA (1)
➢ ligase​ seals gaps between nucleotides, by making sugar-phosphate bonds (1)

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 ❖ 2 nucleotides would be permanently separated during replication. Name the process where they would
be temporarily separated (1)
➢ transcription (1)

Transcription

❖
❖ Outline transcription in prokaryotes (6)
➢ transcription is the copying of a strand of DNA into RNA/RNA formation (1)

➢ RNA polymerase binds to promoter region of DNA (1)

➢ anti-sense strand as template / only one strand copied (1)
➢ RNA polymerase unwinds DNA/separates the strands (1)
➢ RNA nucleotides/nucleoside triphosphates are added at 3 end (1) and pair with
complementary bases on DNA (1) => Adenine to Thymine, Cytosine to Guanine, and Uracil
to Adenine (1) ​ (do not accept letters alone)
➢ adjacent RNA nucleotides joined with covalent/sugar-phosphate bonds (1)
➢ RNA polymerase separates from DNA when reaches terminator/termination sequence (1)

➢ no introns/post-transcriptional modification/RNA splicing (as occurs in eukaryotes);

❖ Explain the process of transcription leading to the formation of mRNA (8)

➢ RNA polymerase; (polymerase number is not required) binds to a promoter on the DNA (1)
➢ unwinds the DNA strands (1)
➢ binds nucleoside triphosphates (1) to the antisense strand of DNA (1) as it moves along in a
5'→3' direction (1) using complementary pairing/A-U and C-G (1)
➢ losing two phosphates to gain the required energy (1)
➢ until a terminator signal is reached (in prokaryotes) (1)
➢ RNA detaches from the template and DNA rewinds (1)
➢ RNA polymerase detaches from the DNA (1)
➢ many RNA polymerases can follow each other (1)
➢ introns have to be removed in eukaryotes to form mature mRNA (1)

❖ Distinguish between the sense and the antisense strands during transcription (1)
➢ only the antisense strand is transcribed / the antisense strand is transcribed to mRNA and the
sense strand is not transcribed/has the same base sequence as mRNA (with uracil instead of
thymine) (1)
Translation

32
 ❖ Compare DNA transcription with translation. ​4 marks​ HL
➢ both in 5` to 3` direction
➢ both require ATP
➢ DNA is transcribed and mRNA is translated
➢ transcription produces RNA and translation produces polypeptides/ protein
➢ RNA polymerase for transcription and ribosomes for translation/ ribosomes in translation only
➢ transcription in the nucleus (of eukaryotes) and translation in the cytoplasm/ at ER
➢ tRNA needed for translation but not transcription

❖ Explain the relationship between genes and polypeptides. ​5 marks​ SL

➢ genes code for proteins/ polypeptides
➢ one gene one polypeptide
➢ (one) gene is transcribed into (one) mRNA
➢ mRNA is translated by a ribosome to synthesize a polypeptide
➢ if the information on a gene is changed/ mutated this may alter the structure of a protein
➢ genetic information transcribed by eukaryotes is edited before it is translated
➢ polypeptides may be altered before they become fully functional proteins
❖

tRNA structure
❖ The process of translation involves the use of transfer RNA (tRNA) and amino acids. Outline the
structure of tRNA. ​5 marks​ HL
➢ tRNA is composed of one chain of (RNA) nucleotides
➢ tRNA has a position/end/site attaching an amino acid (​reject tRNA contains an amino acid)​
➢ at the 3' terminal / consisting of CCA/ACC
➢ tRNA has an anticodon
➢ anticodon of three bases which are not base paired / single stranded / forming part of a loop
➢ tRNA has double stranded sections formed by base pairing
➢ double stranded sections can be helical
➢ tRNA has (three) loops (somethimes with an extra small loop)
➢ tRNA has a distinctive three dimensional / clover leaf shape
➢ Accept any of the points above if clearly explained using a suitably labelled diagram

Process

33
❖ Explain the process of translation. ​9 marks​ HL
➢ 5' to 3' (direction of movement along mRNA)
➢ (small subunit of) ribosome binds to mRNA
➢ moves along mRNA until it reaches the start codon / AUG / translation starts at AUG
➢ tRNA binds to ribosome / mRNA
➢ large subunit binds to small subunit
➢ two tRNAs bound to ribosome at the same time
➢ bind of tRNA with anticodon complementary to codon on mRNA
➢ tRNAs carry an amino acid
➢ anticodon / codon codes for an amino acid
➢ amino acid linked by a peptide bond to the polypeptide / to another amino acid
➢ ribosome moves on along the mRNA
➢ tRNA displaced and another attaches to vacant binding site
➢ stop codon reached
➢ polypeptide/protein is released / tRNA and mRNA detached from ribosome
➢ ribosome splits into (large and small) subunits

❖ Describe the roles of mRNA, tRNA and ribosomes in translation. ​6 marks​ HL

➢ mRNA with genetic code/ codons
➢ tRNA with anticodon
➢ tRNA with amino acid attached
➢ ribosome with two sub-units
➢ mRNA held by ribosome
➢ start codon
➢ two tRNA molecules attached with mRNA on ribosome
➢ peptide bond between amino acids on tRNA
➢ polypeptide forms
➢ continues until a stop codon is reached
➢ polypeptide is released

❖ Outline how enzymes in the cytoplasm of cells are produced. ​8 marks​ HL

➢ synthdsized by ribosomes
➢ free ribosomes/ribosomes not attached to ER
➢ mRNA is translated
➢ mRNA binds to the ribosome
➢ tRNAs bring amino acids
➢ anticodon on tRNA binds to codon on mRNA
➢ formation of peptide linkage
➢ two tRNAs can bind to the ribosome at once
➢ growing polypeptide linked to amino acid on tRNA
➢ ribosome moves on down mRNA
➢ 5' to 3'
➢ reference to stop/start codons
➢ coenzymes added

❖ Describe the structure and functions of ribosomes (6)

➢ made of protein (1) and rRNA (1)
➢ large subunit and small subunit (1)
➢ three tRNA binding sites (1), Aminoacyl/A, Peptidyl/P and Exit/E (1)
➢ mRNA binding site (on small subunit) (1)

34
 ➢ 70S in prokaryotes / 80S in eukaryotes (1)
➢ can be free / bound to RER (in eukaryotes) (1)

❖ Outline how the structure of the ribosomes is related to its function in translation (6)
➢ translation is a protein synthesis (1)
➢ ribosome structure:
■ formed by rRNA and proteins (1)
■ about 20-30 nm / 80S in eukaryotes (1)
■ organized into a tertiary structure/globular shape (1)
■ contains a small and a large subunit (1)
■ has three binding sites for tRNA on large subunits (1), which are binding site A, P
and E (1)
■ binding site for mRNA on small subunit (1)
➢ 2 tRNA can bind at the same time (1)
➢ ribosomal RNA catalyses formation of peptide bonds (1)

❖ Explain the process of translation. ​9 marks​ HL

➢ consists of initiation, elongation and termination
➢ mRNA translated in a 5' to 3' direction
➢ binding of ribosome to mRNA
➢ small sub-unit then large
➢ first/ initiator tRNA binds to start codon/ to small subunit of ribosome
➢ AUG is the start codon
➢ second tRNA binds to ribosome
➢ large subunit moves down mRNA after a second tRNA binds
➢ amino acid/ polypeptide on first tRNA is transferred/ bonded to amino acid on second tRNA
➢ peptide bonds between amino acids/ peptidyl transferase
➢ requires GTP
➢ movement of ribosome/ small subunit of ribosome down the mRNA
➢ loss of tRNA and new tRNA binds
➢ reach a stop codon/ termination
➢ polypeptide released
➢ tRNA activating enzymes link correct amino acid to each tRNA
➢ (activated) tRNA has an anticodon and the corresponding amino acid attached

❖ Translation occurs in living cells. Explain how translation is carried out, from the initiation stage
onwards (9)
➢ translation involves initiation, elongation/translocation and termination (1)
➢ mRNA binds to the small sub-unit of the ribosome (1)
➢ ribosome slides along mRNA to the start codon (1)
➢ anticodon of tRNA pairs with codon on mRNA (1) by complementary base pairing (1)
➢ (anticodon of) tRNA with methionine pairs with start codon / AUG is the start codon (1)
➢ second tRNA pairs with next codon (1)
➢ peptide bond forms between amino acids (1)
➢ ribosome moves along the mRNA by one codon 1)
➢ movement in 5 to 3 direction (1)
➢ tRNA that has lost its amino acid detaches (1)
➢ another tRNA pairs with the next codon/moves into A site (1)
➢ tRNA activating enzymes (1)link amino acids to specific tRNA (1)
➢ stop codon (eventually) reached (1)

35
Blood groups
❖ Outline one example of inheritance involving multiple alleles. ​5 marks
➢ multiple alleles means a gene has three or more alleles / more than two alleles
➢ ABO blood groups / other named example of multiple alleles
➢ ABO gene has three alleles / equivalent for other example
➢ IA IB and i shown (at some point in the answer) / equivalent for other example
accept other notation for alleles if clear
➢ any two of these alleles are present in an individual
➢ homozygous and heterozygous genotye with phenotypes (shown somewhere)
➢ all six genotypes with phenotypes given (shown somewhere)
➢ example / diagram of a cross involving all three alleles

❖ Describe the inheritance of ABO blood groups including an example of the possible outcomes of a
homozygous blood group A mother having a child with a blood group O father. ​5 marks
➢ example of co-dominance
➢ multiple alleles / 3 alleles
➢ (phenotype) O has (genotype) ii
➢ B can be IB IB or IB i
➢ A can be IA IA or IA i
➢ AB is IA IB
➢ (P are) i i x IA IA
➢ (gametes) i and IA
➢ (F1 genotype) IA i
➢ (F1 phenotype) blood group A
accept other notations if used consistently and if phenotype and genotype are clearly distinguished

Biotechnology/Genetic engineering
Gene transfer
❖ Outline a technique for transferring genes between species. ​5 marks​ ​SL and HL
➢ gene of interest is cut out
➢ with restriction enzyme
➢ RNA used to produce DNA
➢ using reverse transcriptase
➢ plasmid cut open with same restriction enzyme
➢ gene inserted into plasmid
➢ blunt ends / sticky ends
➢ spliced together by DNA ligase
➢ recombinant plasmids are cloned / many copies produced
➢ recombinant plasmids are inserted into new host cells / virus / bacteriophage / yeast
➢ inserted by shooting / spraying / microencapsulation / by heat treatment

❖ Describe the method used to amplify small quantities of DNA to obtain large enough quantities for
DNA profiling (3)
➢ polymerase chain reaction/PCR (1)
➢ (DNA obtained from) blood/semen/hairs/other source of tissue (1)
➢ combined with necessary raw materials/one example of raw material (1)
➢ in thermal cycler / (PCR) maschine (1)
➢ DNA replicated many times (1)

❖ Describe the technique for the transfer of the insulin gene using ​E. coli​. ​6 marks​ ​SL and HL

36
 ➢ mRNA is extracted
➢ DNA copy of RNA is made using reverse transcriptase
➢ plasmids are cut open with endonucleases (at specific sequences)
➢ insulin gene and plasmid arsye mixed together
➢ addition of 'sticky ends' to the DNA copy (so that it will combine with the cut plasmid)
➢ DNA ligase will seal the plasmid
➢ recombinant plasmid is inserted into ​E. coli
➢ E. coli​ is cultured
➢ E. coli​ begins to make insulin

GMOs
❖ Using a named example of a genetically modified crop, discuss the ethical issues of its use (6)
➢ a named example of a genetically modified crop, e.g. Bt corn/golden rice (1)
➢ the specific gene added allows a new protein to be synthesized by the plant/specific
modification, e.g. gene from ​Bacillus thuringiensis ​(1)
➢ biological effect of the modification, e.g.makes the plat toxic to herbivorous
insects/insects/pests/corn borers (1)
➢ benefits: (max.two)
■ e.g.increased crop yields/less land needed (1)
■ reduced need for use of chemical pesticides (1)
➢ harmful effects/costs: (max two)
■ e.g. ingestion of toxin by non-target species (1)
■ concerns about the contamination of neighboring non-GMO crops affecting trade (1)
■ high costs (1)

❖ Explain the technique of gene transfer resulting in genetically modified organisms (5)
➢ gene transfer takes a gene of one species and inserts it into another (1) using a plasmid/viral
vector/ballistic impregnation/electroporation (1)
➢ reverse transcriptase is used to synthesize a cDNA strand from a mRNA (1)
➢ restriction enzymes/endonucleases are used to cut out/excise gene (1)
➢ the same endonuclease is used to cut open the plasmid (1), forming sticky ends, which are
used to link the DNA/gene to the plasmid (1)
➢ DNA ligase used to seal nicks/splice (1)
➢ bacterium takes in plasmid/plasmid transferred to bacterium/plant/host cell (1)
➢ example (e.g. human insulin from bacteria/yeast; salt resistant tomato)

❖ Discuss the potential benefits and possible harmful effects of genetic modification. ​7 marks​ ​SL and HL
❖ named example of desired outcome ​e.g.​ herbicide resistance

Award 6 max if no named example given. Award 5 max if both possible benefits and possible
harmful effects are not addressed.
Possible benefits: 4 max
❖ benefits include more specific (less random) breeding than with traditional methods
❖ faster than traditional methods
❖ some characteristics from other species are unlikely in the gene pool / selective breeding
cannot produce desired phenotype
❖ increased productivity of food production / less land required for production
❖ less use of chemical (​e.g.​ pesticides)
❖ food production possible in extreme conditions
❖ less expensive drug preparation
❖ e.g.​ pharmaceuticals in milk

37
 ❖ human insulin engineered so no allergic reactions
❖ may cure genetic diseases

Possible harmful effects: 4 max

❖ some gene transfers are regarded as potentially harmful to organism (especially animals)
❖ release of genetically engineered organisms in the environment
❖ can spread and compete with the naturally occurring varieties
❖ some of the engineered genes could also cross species barriers
❖ technological solution when less invasive methods may bring similar benefits
❖ reduces genetic variation / biodiversity

Cloning
❖ Discuss the ethical arguments for and against the cloning of humans. ​4 marks​ ​SL and HL
arguments against cloning: 3 max
➢ reduces the value / dignity of the individual / causes psychological problems
➢ high miscarriage rates / cloned individuals are likely to have developmental disorders / health
problems / cloned individuals may show premature aging
➢ costly process and money could be better spent on other types of healthcare
➢ cloning may be done for inappropriate motives / replace lost loved one / perfect race etc.

arguments for cloning: 3 max

➢ identical twins are formed by cloning so it is a natural process
➢ cloned embryos can be tested for genetic disease / genetic screening
➢ increased chance of children for infertile couples
➢ cloning research may lead to spin-offs for other research areas such as cancer / transplant
research / regeneration research

❖ Outline the ethical issues of cloning humans. ​6 marks​ ​SL and HL

➢ clones are genetically identical individuals / cell lines / tissues
risks to society
➢ cloning mammals is expensive / allocation of resources
➢ cloning could lead to copying selected individuals / equity concerns
➢ could lead to uncontrolled / unethical eugenics
risks to individuals
➢ many cloned animals die soon after birth / die for complications / premature aging of clones
➢ cloned humans could experience identity crises / problems in psychological development
➢ reduction of human dignity
➢ cloned tissues will still possess genetic diseases
➢ risk for unknown consequences too great
belief systems
➢ artificial cloning in humans is opposed by some as being unnatural / against their religion
➢ cloning occurs naturally when identical twins form
benefits
➢ cloning humans may help to provide tissues / organs for transplantation
➢ research in cellular mechanisms / developmental biology / possible medical breakthroughs

Human Genome project

❖ Outline the outcomes of the human genome project (4)
➢ complete human DNA was sequenced (1)
➢ all human genes got identified and mapped (1)
➢ protein structures/functions were found/developed (1)

38
 ➢ evidence for evolutionary relationships/human origins/ancestors found (1)
➢ mutations/base substitutions/single nucleotide polymorphisms found (1)
➢ development of screens/test for diseases using specific genes (1)
➢ using base sequences, new drugs/gene therapy approaches could be developed (1)
➢ tailor medication to individual genetic variation/pharmacogenomics (1)
➢ promoting international cooperation/global endeavours (1)

Sex linkage:
❖ Distinguish between autosomes and sex chromosomes in humans (4)
➢ X and Y chromosomes determine sex (1)
➢ females XX and males XY (1)
➢ X chromosome is larger than the Y chromosome (1) therefore carries more genes
➢ 22 pais of autosomes (1)
➢ males and females have the same types of autosomes (1)

❖ Outline sex linkage. ​5 marks

➢ gene carried on sex chromosome / X chromosome / Y chromosome
➢ inheritance different in males than in females
➢ males have only one X chromosome therefore, only one copy of the gene
➢ mutation on Y chromosome can only be inherited by males
➢ women can be carriers if only one X chromosome affected
➢ example of sex linked characteristics (e.g. hemophilia / color blindness)
➢ example of cross involving linkage

❖ Explain, using a named example, why many sex-linked diseases occur more frequently in men than
women. ​9 marks
➢ named example of sex-linked disease (hemophilia, red-green color blindness)
➢ caused by recessive allele on the X chromosome
➢ example of pair of alleles (e.g. X H and X h) ​(reject if alleles do not correspond)
➢ females are XX and males are XY
➢ females have two alleles of the gene and males have only one
➢ allele causing the disease is rare / uncommon
➢ probability of females inheriting rare allele twice as low
➢ calculation of squaring the gene frequency
➢ female would have to inherit the allele from her father
➢ who would have suffered from the disease
➢ so females can carry the gene but still be normal
➢ but males (with the gene) will have the disease

❖ Describe the inheritance of hemophilia including an example using a Punnett grid (6)
➢ sex-linked/due to gene on the X chromosome (1)
➢ more common in males who only receive one X chromosome (1)
➢ female is hemophilic if homozygous recessive/homozygous recessive normally fatal (1)
➢ Accept if in punnet grid/square:
■ X​H ​for dominant/normal allele and for recessive/X​h ​hemophilia allele (1)
➢ Punnett square:
■ correct parental genotypes and gametes (1)
■ correct genotype of offspring (1)
■ correct phenotype ratio or percentage (1)

39
 X​H X​h

X​H X​H​X​H X​H​X​h

Y X​H​Y X​h​Y
➢ half the males are hemophilic and half of the females are carriers (1)

KARYOTYPING
❖ Explain the use of karyotyping in human genetics (8)
➢ Definition of karyotype:
■ a karyotype is the number and type of chromosomes found in an organism (1)

➢ Construction:
■ cells collected from the chorionic villus by CVS, from the amniotic fluid by
amniocentesis (1)
■ karyotyping requires cells in metaphase, therefore cells are stimulated to divide and
reach metaphase (1)
■ Cells are bursted and chromosomes are spread out (1)
■ a photo is taken of the chromosomes (1)
■ chromosomes are arranged in pairs (1) according to size, structure, banding pattern
and position of the centromere (1)

➢ Significance:
■ used to identify gender (1) => males=XY, females=XX (1)
■ used to identify chromosomal abnormalities/mutations/non-disjuction (1)
● e.g. down syndrome due to extra chromosome 21, Patau due to extra
chromosome 13, Edwards due to extra chromosome 18, Klinefelter due to
extra X chromosome (1)
■ used in prenatal diagnosis of chromosomal abnormalities (1) which may allow for the
preparation towards the consequences of the abnormality in offspring (1) or may lead
to the decision to abort the fetus (1)

❖ 4. Karyotyping involves arranging the chromosomes of an individual into pairs. Describe one
application of this process, including the way in which the chromosomes are obtained. ​5 marks
application of karyotyping​ {2 max}
➢ find gender / test for Down's syndrome / other chromosome abnormality
➢ identify sex chromosomes / numbers of chromosome 21 / other chromosomes counted
➢ XX = female and XY = male / third chromosome 21 indicates Down's syndrome / other
chromosome abnormality (e.g. Klinefelter's syndrome)

obtaining chromosomes​ {3 max}

➢ fetal cells obtained from amniotic fluid / amniocentesis / other named source
➢ white blood cells obtained
➢ cells encouraged to divide
➢ cells accumulated / blocked in metaphase
➢ prepare slide / chromosomes examined

❖ Describe the causes of Down syndrome (4)

➢ Down syndrome is caused by non-disjunction (1), which occurs during meiosis (1)
➢ chromosome pairs fail to separate in meiosis I / chromatids in meiosis II / anaphase II (1)

40
 ➢ some gametes have an extra chromosome (1)
➢ can lead to zygotes/individuals with an extra chromosome / individual has 47 chromosomes
(1)
➢ in Down syndrome this would be trisomy 21/extra chromosome 21 (1)
➢ increased probability with increased age of mother/ages of parents (1)

❖ Explain the causes of sickle cell anemia (8)

➢ caused by a gene mutation (1) => a base substitution (mutation) (1)
➢ changes in the code on the DNA (1) from CTC to CAC/GAG to GTG / mRNA changes from
GAG to GUG (1) leads to a change in transcription / change in mRNA (1) which (in turn)
leads to a change in translation / change in polypeptide chain/ protein (1)
➢ (the tRNA) adds the wrong amino acid to the polypeptide chain (1) => glutamic acid replaced
by valine (1)
➢ produces abnormal hemoglobin (1) causing abnormal red blood cell/erythrocyte shape / sickle
shape (1) which lowers the ability to transport oxygen (1)
➢ sickle-cell allele is codominant (1)
➢ homozygote/HbS HbS have sickle cell anemia/is lethal / heterozygote/HbS HbA has the sickle
trait/is carrier (and is more resistant to malaria) (1)

❖ Describe how skin color is genetically determined (5)

➢ skin colour is an example of polygenic inheritance (1), meaning that many/more than two
genes contribute to a person’s skin colour (1)
➢ due to the amount of melanin in the skin (1)
➢ due to a combination of alleles (1), which allows for the presence of a range of skin colours /
continuous variation of skin colour (1)
➢ phenotypes do not follow simple Mendelian ratios of dominance and recessiveness (1)
➢ the environment also affects gene expression of skin colour / sunlight/UV light stimulate
melanin production (1)
➢ the more recessive alleles there are, the lighter the skin colour (1) (vice versa)

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Ecology
42
Greenhouse effect

● Which expected effect of temperature increase on arctic ecosystems will increase carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere?
A. Greater production of plants due to warmer temperatures and changing vegetation
​B​. Greater decomposition of organic matter currently stored in permafrost
C. Less ice and snow will cause incoming radiation to be absorbed more readily
D. Melting ice from glaciers and icebergs will cause sea levels to rise

❖ State one greenhouse gas (1)?

➢ methane/carbon dioxide/oxides of nitrogen/water vapour/ozone/CFCs

❖ Explain how radiation of different wavelengths is involved in the greenhouse effect (2)
➢ incoming shorter-wave radiation/UV/visible pass through the Earth’s atmosphere
➢ converted to longer-wave radiation/heat/infrared radiation

❖ Outline the causes and consequences of the enhanced greenhouse effect (5)
➢ causes:
■ Possible intro:
■ The enhanced greenhouse effect is an elevated form of the natural greenhouse effect
resulting from a variety of factors connected with human activities. These factors
include:
■
■ heating of the atmosphere/global warming/climate change;
■ burning of fossil fuels/coal/oil/gas releases carbon dioxide (1)
■ deforestation/loss of ecosystems reduces carbon dioxide uptake (1)
■ methane released from cattle/livestock/melting permafrost/waste dumps (1)
■
➢ consequences:
■ heating of the atmosphere/global warming/climate change (1)
■
■ 2 max for the following:
■ melting of ice caps/glaciers/permafrost, causes sea level to rise, resulting in flooding,
extreme weather events such as droughts and more powerful hurricanes
■ changes in ocean currents
■ changes in species distributions (due to losses of habitats such as the ice habitats)
■ changes in migration patterns
■ increased decomposition rates and pest/pathogen species
■ other biotic consequence

❖ Explain the relationship between the rise in concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide and the
enhanced greenhouse effect (4)
➢ carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas (naturally produced by organisms) (1)
➢ human activity has increased the normal level of CO2/caused enhanced greenhouse effect (1)
➢ short-wave radiation from the Sun is re-radiated as longer wave radiation/ infrared/heat (1)
➢ infrared/heat captured by greenhouse gases/CO2 (1)

Accept any of the above points shown in a clearly annotated diagram.

❖ The enhanced greenhouse effect can cause a rise in atmospheric temperature

43
 ➢ Outline two consequences of global temperature rise on arctic ecosystems (2)
■ increased rates of decomposition of detritus in permafrost (1)
■ expansion of the range of habitats available to the temperate species (1)
■ loss of ice habitat (1)
■ changes in distribution of prey species affecting higher trophic levels (1)
■ increased success of pest species (1)
■ rise in sea levels (1)

Pyramids
❖ Describe what is shown in pyramids of energy (6)
➢ pyramid of energy shows the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next (in a
community)
➢ units are energy per unit area per unit time/kJ m^–2 yr^ –1 (1)
➢ bar width is proportional to the energy stored (in the biomass) in that trophic level (1)
➢ the first/lowest trophic level is producers (1)
➢ second level is primary consumers/herbivores (1)
➢ third level of secondary consumers/carnivores (1)
➢ only a small amount (10 to 20 %) of energy of one level is passed to the next (1)
➢ bar width/energy stored in the trophic level decreases (proportionally) as you go up each level
(1)
➢ pyramid shows that there is a limit to the length of food chains (1)
➢ Award any of the above marking points to a correctly drawn and clearly labelled pyramid

❖ Discuss reasons why levels of a pyramid of energy differ in size (2)

➢ (the shape of pyramid) shows energy lost from base to top of pyramid/80 to 90% lost at each
trophic level (1) (because) energy is used/released through cell respiration/heat/metabolism/
movement (at each trophic level) (1) and not all tissues are eaten i.e.
bone/hair/cellulose/excretion/undigested/die (so energy is not available for next trophic level)
(1)

❖ Define a saprotroph (1)

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 ➢ an organism that lives on/in non-living/dead (organic) matter and secretes digestive
enzymes/digestive juices into it (1)

❖ Outline one effect of temperature rise on plants (1)

■ rate of photosynthesis increases as temperature increases (1)
■ rate of transpiration increases as temperature increases (1)
■ shift in plant distribution (1)

❖ Explain how the flow of energy in the food web differs from the movement of nutrients (2)
➢ nutrients are recycled in a food web and energy enters and leaves/is not recycled (1)
➢ nutrients are recycled by saprotrophs/returned to environment and reused (1) while energy
(enters as light and) is dispersed as heat (1)

❖ Outline the role of living organisms on the carbon cycle (4)

➢ plants/producers fix carbon (dioxide)/use carbon (dioxide) in photosynthesis (produced) in
plants/producers from photosynthesis (1)
➢ (carbon compounds in) plants/producers eaten by animals/primary consumers/herbivores (1)
➢ (carbon compounds in) primary consumers eaten by secondary consumers/ passed along food
chain (1)
➢ carbon compounds/sugars/organic molecules digested and absorbed by consumers (1)
➢ carbon dioxide released by cell respiration (in plants/animals/consumers) (1)
➢ plants/animals die and are decomposed by (saprotrophic) bacteria/fungi (1)
➢ carbon dioxide released by cell respiration in bacteria/fungi/decomposers (1)
➢ enzymes released to digest/hydrolyse carbon compounds in organic matter (1)
➢ forest fires/combustion releases carbon dioxide (1)
➢ humans burn fossil fuels adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere (1)

❖ 1. Outline what is meant by the trophic level of an organism with ​three​ examples from one
named habitat. ​(4 max)
(Award 1 mark for the meaning)
➢ feeding level for an organism in a food chain
➢ naming of habitat (1 mark)
➢ naming three trophic levels correctly (1 mark)
➢ three examples froming a food chain from the named habitat (1 mark)

❖ 2. Compare the way in which autotrophic, heterotrophic and saprotrophic organisms obtain
energy. ​(6 max)
➢ autotrophs use an external / non-organic energy source
➢ (reject statements suggestion that energy is made)
➢ (some) autotrophs use light / (some) autotrophs use photosynthesis
➢ (some) autotrophs use inorganic chemical reactions / (some) autotrophs use
chemosynthesis
➢ heterotrophs obtain energy from other organisms
➢ heterotrophs (usually) ingest food / consume food
➢ saprotrophs obtain energy from non-living matter / dead organisms
➢ saprotrophs digest organic matter extracellularly

❖ 3. Discuss ways in which equilibrium is maintained in the biosphere. ​(Award 1 mark for any
of the below, up to 9)

45
 ➢ O2 used / CO2 produced in respiration
➢ CO2 used / O2 produced in photosynthesis
➢ water evaporates from lakes / oceans / soil
➢ water given off in transpiration
➢ water condensnes / falls as rain
➢ reference to mineral nutrient cycles
➢ nitrogen from atmosphere is fixed
➢ denitrification returns nitrogen to the atmosphere
➢ plants / autotrophs make organic compounds / biomass
➢ heterotrophs / decomposers break down organic compounds / biomass
➢ numbers of prey controlled by numbers of predators
➢ numbers of predators controlled by numbers of prey
➢ energy in sunlight continually supplied to biosphere
➢ energy lost from biosphere as heat

❖ 4. Explain the factors that cause a population to follow the sigmoid ( S-shaped) growth curve.
(8 max)
➢ during exponential growth the population grows at an increasing rate
➢ all / most / many offspring survive / birth rate higher than death rate
➢ all / most / many offspring reproduce
➢ each generation produces more offspring that the last
➢ plateau reached eventually / population levels off / birth rate equals death rate
➢ when carring capacity of environment is reached
➢ e.g.​ when no more food / nutrients / resources available
➢ e.g. ​when no more space for nesting / space for another purpose is available
➢ e.g.​ when numbers of predators have increased
➢ e.g.​ when levels of parasites / diseases have become very high
➢ transitional phase when limits to growth are starting to act
➢ (for exponential growth phase, accept converse examples)

❖ 6. Apply the concept of carrying capacity to the struggle for survival resulting from
overproduction of offspring. ​(5 max)
❖ the environment can only support a certain maximum population
❖ this population is sometimes exceeded (due to overproduction of offspring)
❖ food / space / resources are insufficient / competition for resources
❖ some individuals fail to obtain enough
❖ deaths / failure to reproduce / survival of the fittest
❖ population falls to carrying capacity
❖ reference to evolution by natural selection

05-Evolution and Biodiversity + 10.3

❖ What is essential for natural selection to occur?
​A.​ Variation between number of species
B. Large population size
C. High mortality rate

46
 D. Environmental catastrophe

❖ Describe the consequences of the potential overproduction in offspring (5)

➢ more offspring that the environment can support/carrying capacity is reached (1)
➢ increased mortality/lower life expectancy/more deaths (1)
➢ competition for resources/struggle for survival (1)
➢ food/mates/nesting site/territory/other example of resource shortage (1)
➢ variation between members of the population (1), causes some organisms to be better adapted
to survive/vice versa (1)
➢ the organisms that are better adapted reproduce, and can therefore pass on the favorable
genes/traits to the offspring (1)
➢ this is an example of​ natural selection, and leads to evolution (1)

❖ Compare the structures of Cnidaria and Mollusca (2)

➢ Cnidaria have radial symmetry while Mollusca have bilateral symmetry (1)
➢ Cnidaria have tentacles/nematocysts/stinging cells while Mollusca do not (1)
➢ Mollusca (may) have a (hard) shell while Cnidaria do not (1)
➢ Mollusca have a mouth and anus while Cnidaria have only one opening (1)
➢ Mollusca have a muscular/large foot while Cnidaria do not (1)
➢ other valid external difference

❖ Describe the features of organisms in the phylum Arthropoda (1)

➢ jointed legs/limbs/appendages/(hard) exoskeleton (1)

❖ Compare the structures of Annelida and Mollusca (2)

➢ Annelida are segmented while Mollusca are not (visibly segmented) (1)
➢ Annelida may have bristles/chetae/chaetae while Mollusca do not (1)
➢ Mollusca (may) have a (hard) shell while Annelida do not (1)
➢ Mollusca have a muscular/large foot while Annelida do not (1)
➢ other valid external difference

❖ Outline the evidence of evolution provided by fossils (3)

➢ fossils show changes over time (in organisms) (1)
➢ fossilized organisms are different from existing ones (1) (yet) share features with existing
organisms / homologous structures (1) suggest common ancestry (1)
➢ show intermediate stages in evolution of groups / missing link fossils (1)

❖ Outline the international system used for naming species of living organisms. ​(4 max)
➢ binomial system
➢ devised by Linnaeus
➢ the first name is the genus name
➢ the second name is the species name
➢ genus name can be abbreviated
➢ genus consists of a group of (closely related) species
➢ upper case for first letter of genus name and the rest of the binomial is lower case
➢ Sequoia sempervirens​ / other example
➢ first published name is the correct one
➢ local / colloquial names can be very confusing / helps international communication

❖ 8​. Discuss the definition of the term species. ​(8 max)

47
 ➢ a species is a group of organisms
➢ a species shares a common gene pool
➢ showing similar morphology / characteristics
➢ capable of interbreeding
➢ and producing fertile offspring
➢ but dissimilar organisms sometimes interbreed
➢ mule formed by crossing horse and donkey / other example of interspecific
hybridisation
➢ interspecific hybrids are sometimes fertile
➢ sometimes organisms that are very similar will not interbreed
➢ Drosophila pseudoobscura​ and ​persimilis​ / other example of sibling species
➢ reference to the problem of defining fossil species
➢ reference to the problem of species that only reproduce asexually
➢ reference to the problem of isolated populations gradually diverging

❖ 9. Describe the value of classifying organisms. ​(Award 1 mark for any of the below; up to 4
marks max)
➢ makes it easier to identify / compare / distinguish organisms
➢ helps us study with the huge numbers / diversity
➢ has predictive value / no need to study every organism in a group
➢ suggests evolutionary relationships / how closely related organisms are
➢ makes communication between biologists more effective
➢ allows generalisations about groups of organisms

❖ 10. Name the levels and the specific taxa in the hierachy of classification using humans as an
example. ​(2 max)
➢ (Kingdom) Animalia
➢ (Phylum) Chordata
➢ (Sub-phylum) Vertebrata
➢ (Class) Mammalia
➢ (Order) Primata
➢ (Family) Hominidae
➢ (Genus) ​Homo
➢ (Species) ​sapiens
➢ (4 to 6 correct 1 mark, 7 to 8 correct 2 marks. Award 1 if 7 to 8 correct but incorrect
order.)

❖ 11. Outline one example of how human activity has caused environmental change. ​(4 max)
➢ (Award up to 4 marks according to this scheme)​ 1 mark for human activity 1 mark for
name of impact 1 mark for mechanism of impact 1 markfor environmental change
➢ An example might be:
➢ electric power production causing
➢ air pollution through
➢ sulphur dioxide emmision from coal burning power plants leading to acid rain
➢ which can acidify freshwater lakes killing aquatic organisms

48
❖ 12. Explain the value of conservation programs. ​3 max
➢ all wild plants should be conserved
➢ trees should be conserved as sinks of carbon dioxide / habitats for animals
➢ wild species which may have commercial value ​(e.g. pharmaceuticals)
➢ wild relatives of domesticated plants / crop plants / e.g. of crop plant that should be
conserved
➢ as they carry useful genes / characteristics for breeding programs
➢ sepcies of plants which are endangered / threatened
➢ species upon which endangered animals depend

❖ 13. Outline the structural differences which characterize bryophytes, filicinophytes,

coniferophytes and angiospermophytes. ​9 marks
(9 for the following)
➢ bryophytes
■ small plants
■ no true stems or leaves
■ rhizoids only
■ dominant plant is haploid / is the gametophyte
■ spores produced in a capsule
■ non-vascular / lack of xylem and phloem
➢ filicinophytes
■ seedless
■ vascular tissues / xylem and phloem
■ roots
■ leaves and stems
■ spores produced in clusters / spores usually produced under the leaves
■ prothallus / small gametophyte / gametophyte grows independently
➢ coniferophyta
■ seeds not enclosed in ovary / pericarp / fruit
■ pollen and ovules
■ cones
■ often have narrow leaves / thick waxy cuticle
■ vascular tissue / xylem and phloem
➢ angiospermophytes
■ flowers / flowering plants
■ ovules / seed are enclosed
■ fruits
■ xylem vessels

❖ 14. List the structures that are found in angiospermophytes but not in bryophytes​. ​4 marks
(Award 1 mark for any of the below, up to 4) (The question does not state the number of
structures; allowance has to be made for a candidate that responds, say with four correct
responses, two of which overlap and thus would receive only three marks. However,
candidates should be directed to the fact that 4 marks indicates 4 points to be made.) (Bearing
this in mind the comment above - award marks on the basis of the correctness of the first four

49
 points made eg., if seven points are made and the first one is incorrect then the maximum is
three. Marks cannot be awarded where candidates contradict themselves)
➢ roots
➢ flowers
➢ fruits
➢ seeds
➢ xylem and phloem / well developed vascular tissue
➢ cuticle
➢ two spore types
➢ lignified tissue

❖ 15. List the structural differences between bryophytes and angiospermophytes. ​5 marks
(Award 1 mark for each structure not found in the other group, up to 5 marks)
➢ bryophytes have a thallus
➢ bryophytes have rhizoids
➢ bryophytes contain archegonia and antheridia
➢ bryophytes main plant is a gametophyte
➢ angiospermophytes have a (complex) vascular system /xylem / phloem
➢ angiospermophytes have a cuticle / bark on their surface
➢ angiospermophytes have lignified tissues
➢ angiospermophytes have flowers
➢ angiospermophytes grow pollen tubes / produce pollen
➢ angiospermophytes have (enclosed) seeds / fruits
➢ angiospermophytes have roots / stems / leaves
➢ angiospermophytes main plant is a gametophyte

❖ 16. Briefly explain Darwin`s theory of evolution. ​4 marks

➢ parents produce more offspring than survive
➢ there is competition among members of a species for survival/struggle for existence
➢ species show variation
➢ certain variations will give a selective advantage/survival of fittest
➢ depending on environment
➢ these variations will be passed on to the next generation
➢ leading to change in allele frequency

❖ 1​7. Outline two modern examples where evolution can be observed. ​2 marks
➢ change of beak shape in Galapagos finches
➢ resistance to pesticides/antibiotics
➢ bird predation on moths
➢ heavy metal tolerance in plants
➢ melanism in ladybird beetles

❖ 18. Outline five types of evidence which support the theory of evolution by natural selection.
6 marks
➢ geographic distribution
➢ ring species/other evidence from geographical distribution

50
 ➢ biochemistry
➢ cytochrome c/other biochemical evidence
➢ fossils/paleontological
➢ fossilized horse ancestors/other evidence
➢ homologous structures
➢ pentadactyl limb/vertebrate embryos/other
➢ recent observed evolution
➢ resistance to antibiotics/insecticides/heavy metal tolerance/other recent example

❖ 19. Outline one modern example of observed evolution by natural selection. ​2 marks
➢ named example
➢ selective pressure
➢ result
➢ example
➢ beaks of Galapagos finches
➢ competition for food
➢ change in numbers/proportion of birds with different sized beaks

❖ 20. Explain the evidence from homologous anatomical structures that supports the theory of
evolution. ​6 marks
➢ homologous structures are various different structures of the same basic plan
➢ derived from a similar embryonic origin
➢ variations on the basic structure allow different functions
➢ permitting exploitation of different ways of life/adaptive radiation
➢ the suggests divergence from a common ancestor
➢ named example of a homologous structure (​e.g.​ pentadactyl limb, flower, birds`
beaks)
➢ description of basic structure of this example
➢ variation related to different functions of this example

Hardy Weinberg equilibrium (p+q = 1) => p = dominant allele frequency /q = recessive allele
frequency)
How many of the mechanisms (mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, natural selection, sexual selection) can cause
a measurable deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium in only one generation?

=> all

08-Metabolism, cell respiration and photosynthesis

Metabolism - see enzymes topic 2
❖ Compare the structure of a chloroplast and a mitochondrion in relation to function. ​8 marks​ HL
➢ similarities:
➢ both are double membrane organelles
➢ both contain DNA
➢ both contain ribosomes
➢ both have an electron transport chain

51
 ➢ both produce ATP by chemiomosis
➢ both contain ATP synthase /ATPase
➢ 3 max for labelled diagrams without the similarities stated
➢ chloroplast:
➢ site of photosynthesis
➢ third membrane system / thylakoid membranes
➢ photosynthetic pigments/chlorophyll to absorb light
➢ light generated ATP production
➢ H+ gradient across thylakoid membrane
➢ mitochondrion:
➢ site of respiration
➢ ATP production by oxidation of organic molecules / fats / amino acids
➢ H+ gradient across inner membrane

Photosynthesis Respiration

site of photosynthesis site of respiration

light generated ATP production ATP production by oxidation of organic

molecules/fats/amino acids

third membrane system/thylakoid membranes

photosynthetic pigments/chlorophyll to absorb light

H+ gradient across thylakoid membrane H+ gradient across inner membrane

both are double membrane organelles

both contain ATP synthase /ATPase

both produce ATP by chemiosmosis

both have an electron transport chain

both contain ribosomes

both contain DNA

Photosynthesis

factors
❖ Explain the role of limiting factors in photosynthesis (8)
➢ the limiting factor is the factor nearest its minimum/furthest from its optimum (1)

52
➢ increasing a limiting factor with other factors remaining constant increases the rate (1),
increasing a non-limiting factor with other factors constant has no effect on the rate (1)

➢ light intensity:
■ light intensity is limiting in dim/low intensity light / at night (1)
■ photosynthesis (directly) proportional to intensity up to plateau / graph to show this
(1)
■ light intensity affects the light-dependent reactions/production of ATP/NADPH (1)

➢ temperature:
■ temperature limiting at low and high temperatures (1)
■ optimum temperature with lower rates above and below plateau / graph to show this
(1)
■ low temperatures limit the rate of light-independent reactions/Calvin cycle (1)
■ RuBP carboxylase/rubisco does not fix carbon dioxide at high temperatures (1)

➢ CO2 concentration:
■ carbon dioxide concentration is limiting in bright light and warm temperatures (1)
■ photosynthesis is (directly) proportional to CO2 concentration up to plateau / graph
to show this (1)
■ low CO2 concentration limits carbon fixation/reaction between CO2 and RuBP (1)

53
❖ Draw an annotated graph of the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis (4)

❖ marking points:
➢ curve intersects x axis at a point above zero (1)
➢ vertical axis labelled “rate of photosynthesis”, horizontal axis labeled “light intensity” (1)
➢ drawing shows that at low light intensities, increased light intensity leads to sharp increase in
rate of photosynthesis (1)
➢ drawn with a plateau at high light intensities (1)
➢ plateau annotated as maximum rate of photosynthesis (1)
➢ arrows added to axes/student annotates axis with “rate of photosynthesis increases” and “light
intensity increases” (1)

❖ Outline the effect of temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of
photosynthesis. ​6 marks​ SL
➢ light:
■ rate of photosynthesis increases as light intensity increases
■ photosynthetic rate reaches plateau at high light levels
➢ CO2:
■ photosynthetic rate reaches plateau at high light levels
■ up to a maximum when rate levels off
➢ temperature:
■ rate of photosynthesis increases with increase in temperature
■ up to optimal level / maximum
■ high temperatures reduce the rate of photosynthesis

54
 ➢ Some of the above points may be achieved by means of annotated diagrams or graphs.

❖ Explain how the rate of photosynthesis can be measured. ​7 marks​ SL

➢ CO2 + H2O --> (CH2O)n + O2/ suitable photosynthesis equation
➢ amount of CO2 absorbed (per unit time) can be measured
➢ increase in biomass (per unit time) can be measured
➢ O2 excretion (per unit time) can be measured
➢ methods for measuring the above:
➢ volume of O2 (bubbles) produced per unit time can be measured
➢ dry mass can be measured
➢ increase in starch concentration in leaves (as measured by iodine)
➢ use of pH indicator can monitor CO2 uptake in water
➢ the rate of photosynthesis measured is relative because some of the CO2 is produced by the
plant internally through respiration
➢ the rate of photosynthesis measured is relative because some of the carbohydrates are used
internally by the plant for respiration

❖ Outline two factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis (5)

➢ an increase in light intensity increases rate of photosynthesis (1) until a plateau is reached at
higher light intensities, or when another factor is limiting (1), as light is needed for the light
dependant reaction/example such as photolysis, photophosphorylation (1)
➢ an increase in temperature/heat increases rate of photosynthesis (1) to an optimum
temperature, above which the rate drops (1).
■ Temperature/heat affects enzyme activity/Calvin cycle/rubisco activity (1)
➢ an increase in carbon dioxide concentration increases the rate of photosynthesis (1) until a
plateau is reached at higher CO2 levels/when another factor is limiting (1), as Co2 is needed in
the light independent reaction/Calvin cycle/carboxylation of RuBP/production of glycerate-3-
phosphate (1)
process

❖ Explain the light dependent reactions (8)

➢ (chlorophyll/pigments/antenna complex) in photosystem II absorb light (1)
➢ photoactivation/light produces an excited/high energy/free electron (1), that passes from
carrier to carrier along an electron transport chain (1) from photosystem II to photosystem I
(1)
➢ during the electron transport chain, protons are pumped across into the thylakoid space, using
the energy lost at each exchange (1)
➢ ATP is produced by chemiosmosis (1)
➢ photoactivation excites electrons in photosystem I to a higher energy level, which reduce
NADP+, to form NADPH (1)
➢ electron from photolysis needed for photosystem II (1)
➢ oxygen from photolysis is a waste product (1)
➢ in cyclic photophosphorylation, electrons from photosystem I return it. (1)

❖ Explain the role of water in the light dependant reactions of photosynthesis (8)
➢ water only plays a role in non-cyclic photophosphorylation (1)
➢ chlorophyll absorbs light/photons and activates electrons of photosystem II (1)
➢ excited/active electrons of photosystem II are passed to carriers (1)
➢ photolysis is the splitting of water (1), which produces O2 and H+/proton and electrons (1)
➢ O2 released (as waste) (1), electrons replace lost electrons in photosystem II (1)
➢ electrons from photosystem II pass (through carriers) to photosystem I (1)

55
 ➢ electrons from photosystem I pass to NADP+ (in stroma) (1)
➢ NADP+ accepts H+/proton (from water) to form NADPH (1)
➢ electron flow causes protons pumped across thylakoid membranes/into the thylakoid space (1)
creating a proton concentration gradient (1)
➢ chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP synthesis (1)
➢ protons pass through ATP synthase/synthetase (1)
➢ NADPH/H+/proton is passed to the light-independent reactions (to fix carbon) (1)

❖ Outline the light independent reactions of photosynthesis (8)

➢ take place in the stroma of the chloroplast (1)
➢ produce carbohydrates (1)
➢ ribulose bisphosphate/RuBP is a five carbon compound (1) is fixed by carbon
dioxide/carboxylation (1) by RuBP carboxylase (enzyme)/Rubisco (1) forming an unstable six
carbon compound (1)
➢ this splits into (two molecules of) glycerate-3-phosphate/GP (1)
➢ ATP and NADPH produced in light-dependent reaction (1)
➢ ATP provides the energy (1)
➢ NADPH provides hydrogen (1)
➢ GP reduced to triose phosphate/TP (1)
➢ some three carbon sugars go to form hexose sugars (1)
➢ some go to making more RuBP (1)
➢ called the Calvin (Benson) cycle (1)

❖ Draw the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll. [4]

➢ labelled x-axis: wavelength / colour (1)
➢ labelled y-axis: absorbance / % absorption (1)
➢ peak between 400 and 500 nm / blue light (1)
➢ peak between 600 and 700 nm / red light (1)
➢ blue peak higher than red peak (1)

❖ Explain the role of water in photosynthesis. ​4 marks​ HL

➢ water is a substrate / reactant / raw material / for photosynthesis / equation for photosynthesis
➢ water is a source of electrons
➢ to replace those lost by chlorophyll / photosystem II
➢ water is a source of H+ needed to produce NADPH + H
➢ photolysis / splitting / breaking of water
➢ water for non-cyclic photophosphorylation / ATP production

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 ➢ water is transparent so photosynthesis can take place underwater / light can penetrate to
chloroplasts

❖ Explain photophosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis. ​8 marks​ HL

➢ chemiosmosis is synthesis of ATP coupled to electron transport and proton movement
➢ photophosphorylation is the production of ATP with energy from light
➢ light energy causes photolysis/splitting of water
➢ electrons energized (from chlorophyll)/photoactivation
➢ photolysis provides (replacement) electrons for those lost from excited chlorophyll
➢ photolysis provides protons/H+ (for thylakoid gradient)
➢ electron transport (carriers on membrane of thylakoid)
➢ causes pumping of protons/H+ across thylakoid membrane/ into thylakoid space
➢ protons/H+ accumulate in thylakoid space/proton gradient set up
➢ protons/H+ move down concentration gradient
➢ into stroma
➢ flow through ATPase/synthase
➢ leading to ATP formation

❖ Explain why the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis can only continue for a short time in
darkness. ​6 marks​ HL
➢ Award 1 mark for any of the below; up to a maximum of 6 marks)
➢ light independent reaction involve ATP/NADPH + H+ / intermediates which are made in light
dependent reactions
➢ supply of ATP/NADPH + H+ / intermediates used up / runs out in the dark
➢ ATP and NADPH + H+
➢ GP therefore not reduced / converted to triose phosphate
➢ RuBP therefore not regenerated
➢ carbon dioxide fixation therefore stops
➢ GP accumulates
➢ stomata close in the dark
➢ carbon dioxide is therefore not absorbed

❖ Explain how the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis rely on light-dependent reactions. ​8

marks​ HL
➢ light-independent reaction fixes CO2
➢ to make glycerate 3-phosphate
➢ to triose phosphate / phosphoglyceraldehyde /glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
➢ using NADPH
➢ ATP needed to regenerate RuBP
➢ ATP is made in light-dependent reactions
➢ light causes photoactivation / excitation of electrons
➢ flow of electrons causes pumping of protons into thylakoid membrane
➢ electrons are passed to NADP/NADP+
➢ NADPH produced in the light dependent reactions

❖ Explain the reactions involving the use of light energy that occur in the thylakoids of the chloroplast. ​8
marks​ HL
➢ chlorophyll / photosystem absorbs light
➢ electron raised to higher energy level / photoactivated
➢ splitting of water/photolysis replaces electron
➢ passing of excited electrons between chlorophyll molecules in photosystems

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 ➢ electron passed from photosystem II to carriers (in thylakoid membrane)
➢ production of ATP in this way is called photophosphorylation
➢ electron causes pumping of protons into the thylakoid
➢ proton gradient used by ATPase to drive ATP production
➢ electron passes to photosystem I at end of carrier chain
➢ electron re-excited and emitted by photosystem I
➢ electron passed to / used to reduce NADP+
➢ NADPH + H+ / reduced NADP produced
➢ cyclic photophosphorylation using photosystem I electron and ATPase only
➢ Accept any of the above points if clearly drawn and correctly labelled in a diagram.

❖ Outline the formation of carbohydrate molecules in photosynthesis starting from the absorption of light
energy. ​6 marks​ HL
➢ light-dependent reaction: 3 max
➢ chlorophyll absorbs light (energy)/photons
➢ electron activated/excited
➢ electron passed down electron carriers
➢ ATP produced
➢ NADP+ reduced/ reduced NADP produced/ NADPH produced
➢ light-independent reaction: 3 max
➢ CO2 fixed by/reacts with 5C molecule (RuBP)
➢ rubisco/ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/RuBP carboxylase catalyses reaction
➢ (two) 3C molecules/ glycerate 3-phosphate/GP produced
➢ reduced NADP and ATP used to reduce glycerate 3-phosphate/GP
➢ triose phosphate/TP produced

cellular respiration
❖ The enzyme ATP synthase has an essential role in aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Describe its
location (1) and function (2)
➢ inner mitochondrial membrane/cristae
➢ function:
■ protons build up in the intermembrane space due to the electron transport chain
■ protons move through the ATP synthase down the concentration gradient
■ catalyses formation of ATP

❖ Explain the similarities and differences in anaerobic and aerobic cellular respiration. ​8 marks​ SL
➢ Answers must include both similarities and differences to receive full marks.
➢ aerobic requires oxygen and anaerobic does not utilize oxygen
➢ similarities:​ ​3 max
➢ both can start with glucose
➢ both use glycolysis
➢ both produce ATP/energy(heat)
➢ both produce pyruvate
➢ carbon dioxide is produced
➢ (both start with glycolosis) aerobic leads to Krebs' cycle and anaerobic leads to fermentation
➢ differences:​ ​5 max​ ​anaerobic:​
➢ (fermentation) produces lactic acid in humans
➢ (fermentation produces ethanol and CO2 in yeast
➢ occurs in cytoplasm of the cell
➢ recycles NADH (NAD+)

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 ➢ aerobic cellular respiration
➢ pyruvate transported to mitochondria
➢ further oxidized to CO2 and water (in Krebs cycle)
➢ produce a larger amount of ATP (36-38 ATP)/anaerobic produces less ATP (2)
➢ can use other compounds / lipids / amino acids for energy

❖ In anaerobic conditions, plants release energy by glycolysis. Outline the process of glycolysis (6)
➢ occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell (1)
➢ substrate is hexose/glucose/fructose (1)
➢ phosphorylation of glucose/fructose/hexose (1), using 2 ATP molecules (1), and resulting in
the formation hexose diphosphate/glucose 6-phosphate (1)
➢ glucose/fructose/hexose diphosphate converted into two pyruvate molecules/3 carbon
compounds (1)
➢ pyruvate is oxidized (1) and forms 2 reduced NADs (1)
➢ Net gain of 2 ATPs per glucose (1)

❖ Draw the structure of a mitochondrion as seen in an electron microscope. ​5 marks​ HL

➢ Award 1 mark for each of the following structures clearly drawn and labelled correctly.
➢ outer membrane
➢ intermembrane space / outer compartment
➢ inner membrane
➢ matrix
➢ cristae
➢ ribosome
➢ naked / circular DNA
➢ ATP synthase
➢ Do not accept plasma membrane.

❖ Explain how the structure of the mitochondrion allows it to carry out its function efficiently. ​8 marks
HL
➢ membranes to compartmentalise / separate from processes in the cytoplasm
➢ small size gives large surface are to volume ratio
➢ large surface area to volume ratio allows rapid uptake / release of materials
➢ matrix contains enzymes of the Krebs cycle / matrix carries out Krebs cycle
➢ inner membrane invaginated / infolded / forms cristae to increase the surface area
➢ large surface area gives more space for electron transport chain / oxidative phosphorylation
➢ inner membrane contains ATP synthetase / ATPase / stalked particles that make ATP
➢ (narrow) gap between inner and outer membranes / intermembrane space ( ​must be stated or
labeled)​
➢ pH / H+ / proton concentration gradient rapidly established / steeper
➢ chemiosmosis therefore more efficient / chemiosmosis can occur
➢ inner membrane contains the electron transport pathway
➢ DNA present to act as genetic material
➢ ribosomes for protein synthesis
➢ some proteins do not need to be imported

❖ Outline the process of glycylosis. ​5 marks​ HL

➢ glucose/hexose/6C sugar converted to form pyruvate
➢ splitting of hexose (phosphate) / lysis
➢ oxidation of triose phosphate
➢ net gain of 2 NADH (+ H+) / reduced NAD

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 ➢ net gain of 2 ATP
➢ substrate level phosphorylation
➢ occurs in cytoplasm of cell
➢ no O2 required
➢ under feedback control / inhibition

❖ Explain the reactions that occur in the matrix of the mitochondrion that are part of aerobic respiration. ​8
marks​ HL
➢ pyruvate is decarboxylated/ CO2 removed
➢ link reaction/ pyruvate combined with CoA/ ethanoyl/acetyl CoA formed
➢ pyruvate is oxidized/ hydrogen removed
➢ reduction of NAD/ formation of NADH + H+
➢ whole coversion called oxidative decarboxylation
➢ Krebs cycle
➢ C2 + C4 ---> C6
➢ C6 ---> C5 giving off CO2
➢ C5 ---> C4 giving off CO2
➢ hydrogen atoms removed collected by hedrogen-carrying coenzymes
➢ ATP formed by substrate level phosphorylation
➢ oxygen accepts electrons/ oxygen combines with hydrogen
➢ total yield per turn of Krebs cycle = 2 CO2,, 3 NADH + H+, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP (directly
produced)

❖ Explain the process of aerobic respiration. ​8 marks​ HL

➢ by glycolysis, glucose is broken down into pyruvate (two molecules) in the cytoplasm
➢ with a small yield of ATP/ net yield of 2 ATP
➢ and NADH + H+/ NADH
➢ aerobic respiration in the presence of oxygen
➢ pyruvate converted to acetyl CoA
➢ by oxidative decarboxylation / NADH and CO2 formed
➢ fatty acids / lipids converted to acetyl CoA
➢ acetyl groups enter the Krebs cycle ​(accept acetyl CoA)
➢ Krebs cycle yields a small amount of ATP/ one ATP per cycle
➢ and FADH2/ FADH + H+/ NADH /NADH + H+/ reduced compounds/ electron collecting
molecules
➢ these molecules pass electrons to electron transport chain ​(reject donates H+)
➢ oxygen is final electron acceptor/ water produced
➢ electron transport chain linked to creation of an electrochemical gradient
➢ electrochemical gradient/ chemiosmosis pwers creation of ATP
➢ through ATPase/synthase/synthetase
➢ Accept any appropriate terminology for NAD and FAD.

❖ Outline the role of oxygen in providing cells with energy. ​6 marks​ HL

➢ (Award 1 mark for any of the below; up to 6 marks max.)
➢ needed for aerobic (but not anaerobic) resp./simple equation for aerobic resp.
➢ used in oxidative phosphorylation
➢ oxygen accepts electrons at the end of the ETC
➢ also accepts protons to form water / water formed using oxygen
➢ allows more electrons along the ETC
➢ allows NAD to be regenerated / reduced NAD to be oxidised
➢ allows ATP production

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 ➢ allows a high yield of ATP from glucose in respiration / 32-38 instead of 2

❖ Explain the formation of ATP by chemiomosis in cellular respiration. ​8 marks​ HL

➢ Credit can be given for any of these points shown on a correctly drawn and labelled diagram.
➢ occurs in mitochondria
➢ oxidative phosphorylation
➢ electrons passed along carriers/electron transport chain
➢ carriers in ​inner​ mitochondrial membrane/ cristae
➢ energy from electrons used to pump protons/ H+ into intermembrane space
➢ proton/H+ (concentration) gradient formed
➢ ATPase/synthase in inner membrane
➢ movement of proton/H+ down concnetration gradient through ATPase/synthase
➢ rotation of (head of) ATPase/synthase
➢ energy released produces ATP
➢ by phosphorylating ADP/ADP + Pi --> ATP
➢ oxygen is terminal (electron) acceptor (plus H+ to make water)

❖ Describe the central role of acetyl (ethanoyl) CoA in carbohydrate and fat metabolism. ​5 marks​ HL
➢ acetyl CoA enters Krebs cycle
➢ glucose / carbohydrates converted to pyruvate in glycolysis
➢ pyruvate enters mitochondria
➢ pyruvate converted to acetyl CoA
➢ by oxidative decarboxylation / hydrogen and CO2 removed
➢ fats enter mitochondria
➢ fats oxidised to acetyl CoA / oxidation of fatty acids / fats converted to acetyl CoA

09-Plant Biology
Structure
❖ Describe the differences in the structures of dicotyledonous plants and monocotyledonous plants (4)
➢ monocotyledon seeds contain one cotyledon/seed leaf (1)
➢ dicotyledon seeds contain two cotyledons/seed leaves (1)
➢ monocotyledons have parallel veins (1)
➢ dicotyledons have net-like veins (1)
➢ monocotyledon stems have scattered vascular bundles (1)
➢ dicotyledon stems have vascular bundles around edge (1)
➢ monocotyledon roots are adventitious/fibrous (1)
➢ dicotyledon roots are from radicle/tap root/branched (1)
➢ monocotyledon flower parts/petals are (usually) in threes (1)
➢ dicotyledon flower parts/petals are (usually) in fours or fives (1)

❖ Draw a plan diagram to show the arrangement of tissues in the stem of a dicotyledonous plant (5)

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 ● epidermis shown on the outside with thickness less than 10 % of overall diameter
● cortex labelled between the outer layer of the stem and the vascular bundles
● xylem shown on the inner side of the vascular bundles
● phloem shown on outer side of the vascular bundles
● vascular bundle with some way of indicating the entire structure
● pith shown in centre
● cambium shown between xylem and phloem

PHOTOSYNTHESIS + GLUCOSE STORAGE

❖ Outline how the glucose produced as a result of photosynthesis is transported and stored in plant (6)
➢ glucose transformed to sucrose (1)
➢ translocation of sugars/sucrose (1) by phloem (1) from source to sink (1) is an active process /
requires energy (1)
➢ source is photosynthetic tissue/leaves (1)
➢ sink is fruits/seeds/roots/storage organs (1)
➢ (sucrose) converted to starch (1) which is stored in storage organs/roots/tubers (1)

❖ Outline how and where energy is stored in plants (4)

➢ glucose (from photosynthesis) stored as starch (1), which is stored as granules in
chloroplast/in plastids (1) or in seeds/storage roots/stem tubers (1)
➢ stored as lipids/oils (1) in seeds (1)
➢ lipids store twice as much energy per gram as starch (1)

❖ Outline the transport of the products of photosynthesis to the storage structure (3)
➢ in phloem (1)
➢ sucrose (1) actively pumped into the phloem (1)
➢ movement from source to sink (1)

❖ Explain how triose phosphate is produced and used in the chloroplasts of a plant 6)
➢ ribulose bisphosphate/RuBP and carbon dioxide react together (1), catalysed by RuBP
carboxylase/Rubisco (1), a process called carbon fixation/part of light-independent reactions
(1)
➢ glycerate 3-phosphate/GP produced (1) and is reduced/converted to triose phosphate/TP (1)
using NADPH/(NADPH+H+ ) and ATP (1) from the light-dependent reactions (1)
➢ some triose phosphate used to regenerate RuBP (1)

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 ➢ some triose phosphate used to synthesize glucose (phosphate)/starch (1)

GAS EXCHANGE
❖ Describe how plants carry out gas exchange in the leaves (5)
➢ gases/O2 and CO2 enter and exit the leaf through the stomata (1) by diffusion/down the
concentration gradient (1)
➢ photosynthesis​ maintains the concentration gradient/high O2, low CO2 in leaf (1)
➢ guard cells​ open the stomata throughout the day/close the stomata at night (1)
➢ gases/CO2/O2 move through the ​air spaces​ in the spongy mesophyll (1)
➢ CO2 ​dissolves​ in the moisture in the mesophyll cell walls (1)

MINERAL ABSORPTION
❖ Explain the processes by which minerals are absorbed from the soil into the roots (8)
➢ Plants absorb minerals in ion form (1)
➢ examples of minerals, such as nitrate, phosphate, potassium (1)

➢ minerals can be absorbed by (facilitated) diffusion (1)

➢ diffusion is the movement of ions from high to low concentration/down a concentration

gradient (1)
➢ root hair cells provide a large surface area for absorption (1)

➢ Fungal hyphae help to absorb minerals/phosphate (1)

➢ minerals can be absorbed by active transport (1), as mineral ion concentration is smaller
outside the root than inside/absorbed against the concentration gradient (1), using carrier
proteins/pumps (1), and energy in the form of ATP (1)
➢ Proton pumps transport hydrogen ions out of the cell, allowing mineral movement in (1)

❖ Explain how minerals move into plants (8)

➢ minerals, such as magnesium, nitrate, phosphate etc (1) bound to soil particles (1) dissolve in
water (1)
➢ minerals diffuse down the concentration gradient towards the root, as the mineral
concentration next to the root is continuously decreasing (1)
➢ minerals and water move through the soil by mass flow (1)
➢ minerals enter the plant through roots (1) by active transport (1)
➢ the branching of the roots (1) as well as the presence of the root hairs (1) increase the surface
area for the absorption of minerals
➢ fungal hyphae help in the absorption of minerals/phosphate (by increasing the surface area) (1)
➢ root hair cells contain many mitochondria to provide energy/ATP for active transport (1)
➢ export of H​+​ creates electrochemical gradient/displaces ions bound to soil (1), resulting in
positive mineral ions to diffuse from the soil into the root cells (1)
➢ negative mineral ions cross membrane linked to H​+​ ions moving down the gradient (1)

❖ Outline the adaptations of plant roots for absorption of mineral ions from the soil (5)
➢ mineral ions are absorbed by active transport
➢ large surface area; branching (increases surface area)
➢ root hairs
➢ root hair cells have carrier protein/ion pumps (in their plasma membrane)
➢ (many) mitochondria in root (hair) cells; to provide ATP for active transport
➢ connections with fungi in the soil/fungal hyphae

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TRANSPIRATION
❖ Describe how water moves through a flowering plant (6)
➢ active transport of solutes from soil into roots (1) draws water by in by osmosis (1)
➢ water uptake is enhanced by root hairs, which provide a large surface area for water uptake (1)
➢ water is carried through xylem vessels (1)
➢ transpiration is the loss of water (vapour) from leaves and stems / stomata (1)
➢ (transpiration) creates suction/pull/negative pressure (1)
➢ cellulose wall with rings of lignin give strength to resist (low) pressure (1)
➢ water pulled up due to capillary action/cohesion/adhesion (1) in continuous column of
molecules/transpiration stream (1)

❖ Define the term transpiration and explain the factors that can affect transpiration in a typical terrestrial
plant (9)
➢ (transpiration is) loss of water vapour from the leaves/stomata (and stems) of plants (1)
➢ temperature, humidity, light (intensity) and wind all affect transpiration (1)
➢ high temperatures increase evaporation rate of water/transpiration (1)
➢ (accept converse) high humidity lowers the rate of water evaporation/transpiration (1)
➢ (accept converse) air currents/wind increase water evaporation/transpiration (1)
➢ (accept converse) high light (intensity)/sunlight (usually) increases photosynthesis/water
evaporation through the stomata/transpiration (1)
➢ stomata open to allow gaseous exchange/entry of CO2 (1)
➢ abscisic acid stimulates closing of stomata; guard cells open/close the stomata (1)
➢ adaptations of (xerophyte) plant structures reduce water loss/transpiration (1)
➢ max 2;
■ thicker leaf cuticle (1)
■ reduced surface area (1) due to rolled leaves/spines (1)
■ sunken/reduced stomata (1)
■ close stomata in day (1)
■ low growth form / CAM / C4 physiology (1)

Award [8 max] if definition is missing

GERMINATION

❖ Outline the conditions needed for the germination of a typical seed (3)
➢ water​ => to rehydrate seed/activate metabolic processes (1)
➢ oxygen​ => for aerobic respiration as seed germinates (1)
➢ suitable temperature​ => for enzyme activity (1)
➢ each type of seed has specific temperature requirements/temperature requirements ensures that
seeds germinate at the correct time of year (1)

❖ Explain the conditions that are needed to allow seeds to germinate (5)
➢ water needed to rehydrate the seed (1)
➢ gibberellin released / active after water absorbed (1)
➢ gibberellin needed to produce amylase (1)
➢ water needed to allow substances inside the seedling to be transported (1)
➢ oxygen needed for (aerobic) cell respiration (1)
➢ warmth needed to speed up metabolism/enzyme activity (1)
➢ warmth indicates that it is a favourable season for germination/spring (1)
➢ some seeds need a cold period to stimulate germination (1)

64
 ➢ some seeds need fire to stimulate germination (1)
➢ some seeds need to pass through an animal (gut) to stimulate germination (1)
;

11-Animal physiology and 06-Human physiology

Blood
❖ Describe the process of blood clotting (4)
➢ release of clotting factors from platelets/damaged cells (1)
➢ conversion of prothrombin to thrombin (1)
➢ thrombin catalyses the conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin (1)
➢ (insoluble) fibrin (net) captures blood cells (1)

❖ Blood is a liquid tissue containing glucose, urea, plasma proteins and other components. List the other
components of blood (5)
➢ erythrocytes/red blood cells (1)
➢ leukocytes/white blood cells (1) => phagocytes and lymphocytes (1)
➢ water/plasma (1)
➢ dissolved gases/CO​2​, O​2​ (1)
➢ platelets (1)
➢ hormones/named hormones (1)
➢ amino acids/albumin/antibodies (1)
➢ salts/minerals/ions (1)

Immunity
❖ Define the term​ pathogen​ (1)
➢ an organism/virus that causes a disease (1)

❖ Define the term ​passive immunity​ (1)

➢ the acquisition of antibodies from another organism (1)

❖ Outline why antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not against viruses (2)
➢ antibiotics block/inhibit specific metabolic pathways/cell functions found in bacteria (1)
➢ Accept specific examples of inhibition such as cell protein synthesis, cell wall formation.
➢ viruses must use host/eukaryotic cell metabolism / viruses do not have their own metabolic
pathways (1)
➢ host/eukaryotic cell metabolism/pathways not blocked/inhibited by antibiotics (1)

❖ Explain the principles of vaccination (8)

➢ vaccines are substances which contain a dead/weakened form of the pathogen/bacteria/virus
(1) and are introduced to the body by injection/on surface of skin/orally (1)
➢ antigens in the vaccine stimulates antibody production (1)
➢ antigen/pathogen engulfed by macrophage/phagocyte (1)
➢ each type of lymphocyte recognizes specific antigen (1)
➢ macrophages activate helper T-cells (1) which activate B-cells (1)
➢ B-cells divide to form clones/memory cells (1) and plasma cells/antibody producing cells (1)
resulting in (specific) immunity (1)
➢ vaccination/first exposure causes slow production of antibodies and lower level of antibodies
(1) (this idea can be illustrated on a diagram or graph)

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 ➢ contact with the disease leads to rapid production and higher level of antibodies (1) (this
idea can be illustrated on a diagram or graph)
➢ second/booster shot to stimulate memory cells/more production of antibodies (1)

MS of the same question on an other past paper

❖ vaccine is a modified/weakened/attenuated form of a pathogen / contains antigens from pathogens (1)

❖ vaccine injected/ingested/introduced to patient (1)
❖ pathogen/antigens stimulates specific immune response called primary/initial responses (1)
❖ antigens stimulate macrophages/lymphocytes/T-cells (1) which stimulate cloning of B-cells/plasma
cells; (1) including development of memory (B-)cells (1) that produce specific antibodies (1)
❖ (upon second exposure) production of antibodies is much faster (1) and there is a higher level of
antibody production / person has immunity (1) => called secondary response (1)
❖ labelled graph showing curve with higher slope/peak for secondary response than primary response (1)

❖ may need booster shot to maintain immunity (1)

❖ this is an example of active/artificial immunity (1)

❖ Discuss the cause, transmission and social implications of AIDS (8)

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Sexual reproduction in humans
DIAGRAMS
❖ Draw a labeled diagram of the reproductive system of a human female. ​6 marks​ ​SL/HL
❖ Award 1 for each of the following structures, clearly labeled and drawn in the correct position relative
to the other organs.
➢ ovary
➢ oviduct / fallopian tube
➢ uterus
➢ cervix
➢ vagina
➢ vulva / labia
➢ clitoris
➢ endometrium

❖ 2. Draw a labeled diagram of an adult male reproductive system. ​6 marks​ ​SL/HL

Award 1 for each of the following structures clearly drawn and correctly labeled. Connections between organs
must be correct for full marks.
➢ penis
➢ scrotum
➢ prostate gland
➢ sperm duct
➢ urethra / urinary tract
➢ seminal vesicle
➢ bladder
➢ testes
➢ epididymis
➢ sperm duct / Vas deferens

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 ➢ Cowper's gland
➢ seminiferous tubules
➢ erectile tissue

PUBERTY
3. Explain the hormonal control of puberty in boys. ​5 marks​ ​SL/HL
● LH levels rise and stimulate more testosterone production
● testosterone levels are very low before puberty
● testosterone levels rise during puberty
● testosterone causes puberty / secondary sexual characteristics
● testosterone has many target organs and response
● example of target organs and response
● ref to sequence of changes being related to level of testosterone needed
● testosterone stimulates sperm production
● FSH levels rise and cause sperm maturation

6. Draw the structure of a mature human egg. ​HL​ ​4 marks

Award 1 mark for each structure accurately drawn and correctly labeled.
● haploid nucleus
● centrioles
● cytoplasm (must show large volume relative to nucleus: minimum 4:1 diameter)
● polar body (must be drawn outside of egg cell)
● plasma membrane
● follicle cells / corona radiata
● cortical granules (must be drawn in vicinity of plasma membrane)
● zona pellucida​.

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❖ 10. Draw a labeled diagram of the structure of an ovary as seen using a light microscope. ​HL​ ​5 marks
➢ developing oocytes
➢ primary oocyte
➢ zona pellucida
➢ mature / Graafian follicle
➢ secondary oocyte
➢ corpus luteum
➢ corpus albacans
➢ egg being released / site of ovulation
➢ outer layer of germ cells / germinal epithelium
➢ medulla
➢ stroma
➢ region where blood vessels enter and leave

❖ 11. Draw the structure of the human female reproductive system immediately before ovulation. (Only
the ovaries, oviducts and uterus need to be shown.) ​6 marks​ ​SL/HL
➢ (The word 'immediately' can be interpreted broadly - but answers correctly justified will be
acceptable)
➢ two ovaries shown with oval shape
➢ follicle containing oocyte in one ovary (or both ovaries)
➢ Graafian follicle
➢ funnel of oviduct close to follicle
➢ oviduct shown as a narrow tube connecting ovary and uterus
➢ uterus shown either in side or front view
➢ thickened uterus lining / endometrium shows

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menstrual cycle
❖ Outline the role of FSH and LH in the menstrual cycle (6)
➢ FSH stimulates estrogen secretion by follicle cells (1) at start of menstrual cycle (1) leading to
development of endometrium (1)
➢ (FSH and) LH (rise to a peak and) causes egg to be released/ovulation (1) and causes follicle
cells to secrete less estrogen/more progesterone (1), which maintains endometrium/uterine
lining (1)
➢ LH promotes change of follicle to corpus luteum (1)
➢ the secretion of LH and FSH regulated by negative feedback (1)
➢ regulated/inhibited by high estrogen and progesterone levels (1)
➢ low progesterone levels cause menstruation (1)

❖ 8. Outline the levels of each of the hormones that control the menstrual cycle immediately before
ovulation. ​SL/HL​ ​3 marks
➢ (An answer in graphical form is also acceptable)
➢ LH levels very high / LH surge
➢ FSH levels are high
➢ estrogen levels are high
➢ progesterone levels are very low

❖ 9. Explain the roles of LH and FSH in the menstrual cycle, including the timing of their secretion
during the cycle. ​6 marks​ ​SL/HL
➢ FSH is secreted at the start of the cycle / early in the cycle / days 1 to 5 / when progesterone /
estrogen is low
➢ FSH stimulates follicle development
➢ FSH stimulates secretion of estrogen (by the follicle / ovary)
➢ LH is secreted in the middle of the cycle / before ovulation / days 10 to 14
➢ LH stimulates ovulation
➢ LH stimulates the development of the corpus luteum
➢ LH stimulates less estrogen
➢ more progesterone secretion / high progesterone / estrogen inhibits FSH and LH release

❖ 7. Explain the role of hormones in the regulation of the menstrual cycle in human females. ​8 marks
SL/HL
➢ FSH and LH are produced by the pituitary
➢ estrogen and progesterone are produced by the ovary
➢ FSH stimulates the ovary to produce a follicle
➢ developing follicles secrete estrogen
➢ estrogen inhibits FSH / negative feedback
➢ estrogen stimulates growth of endometrium / uterine lining
➢ estrogen stimulates LH secretion / positive feedback
➢ LH stimulates ovulation
➢ follicle becomes corpus luteum
➢ corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone
➢ estrogen and progesterone maintain the lining of the uterus / endometrium
➢ estrogen and progesterone inhibit LH and FSH / negative feedback
➢ after two weeks corpus luteum degenerates
➢ ovarian hormone levels / progesterone / estrogen fall
➢ menstrual bleeding begins / lining of uterine wall / endometrium lost
➢ Credit marking points above for a clearly drawn and correctly labeled diagram or flow char

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Spermatogenesis/oogenesis
❖ 4. Explain the processes involved in oogenesis in humans. ​9 marks​ ​HL
➢ mitosis used to produce many / 100 000s of cells
➢ so that the ovaries never run out of cells for use in oogenesis
➢ oogonia / cells must grow to a size large enough for meiosis
➢ growth involves accumulation of yolk / food reserves in cytoplasm
➢ replication of DNA is necessary before meiosis
➢ (first division of) meiosis needed to halve the chromosome number
➢ chromosome number must be halved as fertilization will double it
➢ first meiotic division takes place just before ovulation
➢ meiosis gives rise to genetically different cells
➢ variation needed for evolution
➢ second meiotic division occurs after fertilization
➢ division of cytoplasm is unequal
➢ because oocyte / egg needs a large amount of cytoplasm
➢ yolk / food reserves needed by developing zygote / embryo
➢ polar bodies / cells receiving little cytoplasm degenerate
➢ because only small numbers of female gametes are needed
➢ because humans only produce one / few babies at a time

❖ Production of semen involves a series of processes, which in total take many weeks to carry out.
Outline the processes involved in semen production from the start of sperm formation
(spermatogenesis) to ejaculation. ​8 marks​ ​HL
➢ cell division by mitosis to form more cells / spermatogonia
➢ growth of cells / spermatogonia to form larger calls / primary spermatocytes
➢ cells / primary spermatogonia divide by meiosis
➢ haploid cells / spermatids formed
➢ differentiation of haploid cells / spermatids into sperm
➢ growth of tail / other feature of differentiation
➢ FSH, testosterone and LH all needed for spermatogenesis
➢ sperm stored / maturation in epididymis / gain motility
➢ fluid added to sperm by seminal vesicle (during ejaculation)
➢ fluid from seminal vesicle contains nutrients / mucus
➢ fluid added to sperm by prostate gland (during ejaculation) / fluid from prostate gland contains
alkali / minerals

❖ 5. Explain oogenesis. ​5 marks​ ​HL

➢ mitosis multiplies the germ cells to produce oogonia
➢ cell volume increased / cell grows (after mitosis) (oogonium to primary oocyte)
➢ meiosis
➢ unequal division of cytoplasm during meiotic divisions
➢ small polar bodies formed and break down ​(accept three polar bodies formed)
➢ one haploid egg formed per meiosis
➢ oogenesis begins in the fetal ovary of the girl and it is only totally completed at fertilization

❖ Discuss how, in humans, a larger number of sperms are produced than eggs. ​4 marks​ ​HL
➢ more germ cells in testes than ovary / more germinal epithelium
➢ all four products of meiosis become sperm versus one only becoming an egg
➢ continuous sperm production versus monthly egg production

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 ➢ early stages of oogenesis only in the fetus so finite number of cells for oogenesis
➢ reference to progesterone inhibiting FSH secretion and thus egg production
➢ no eggs produced during pregnancy
➢ eggs not produced after menopause

❖ Describe the production of semen (4)

➢ sperm produced by meiosis (1) in testis/seminiferous tubules (1)
➢ sperm are stored/mature in the epididymis (1)
➢ sperm able to swim (1)
➢ seminal vesicles add fluid/seminal fluid (1) which is rich in fructose (1)
➢ prostate gland adds fluids (1) which is rich in proteolytic enzymes/citric acid/acid
phosphatase/lipids/minerals (1)
➢ (semen) contains basic amines/alkaline substances (1) which neutralizes acid/hostile
environment of the vagina (1)

❖ Describe how spermatogenesis occurs in humans (6)

➢ germinal cells/spermatogonia undergo mitosis to replenish their numbers/to keep a supply of
germinal cells present (1)
➢ some germinal cells/spermatogonia grow larger to become ​primary spermatocytes​ (1)
➢ primary spermatocytes go through meiosis I, (1), to form​ secondary spermatocytes​ (1)
➢ these secondary spermatocytes go through meiosis II (1), to produce ​spermatids​ (1)
➢ spermatids differentiate/grow a tail and reduce their cytoplasm (1)
➢ spermatids associate with nurse cells (Sertoli cells) (1)
➢ sperm detach from Sertoli cells and enter lumen of the seminiferous tubule (1)
➢ testosterone stimulates sperm production (1)

❖ Outline the function of the Sertoli/nurse cell (1)

➢ nourishes maturing spermatozoa/protects sperm from lymphocytes (1)

❖ Compare the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis (5)

➢ similarities:
■ both produce haploid cells/gametes (1)
■ both have mitosis at start/in epithelium/both involve mitosis and meiosis (1)
■ both have cell growth before meiosis (1)
■ both involve differentiation (to produce a specialised gamete) (1)

➢ differences: (1 mark for each row)

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

what is produced where sperm/spermatozoa produced eggs/ova produced in the

in the testes ovaries

when the process starts/is during puberty/adolescence during development of the

initiated embryo/fetus

if there are breaks in meiosis no breaks breaks occur in prophase I,

prophase II, metaphase II

if cytokinesis during meiosis is equal division of cytoplasm cytoplasm split

equal unequally/larger cells and
smaller cells

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 number of gametes per meiosis four sperm (per meiosis)/all one egg cell (per meiosis),
become sperm some polar bodies

number of gametes many/far more/hundreds of one (usually) at a time/per

produced/released millions daily/at a time month/per cycle

timing of release continuously from tesis/by on about Day 14/in the middle
ejaculation/intercourse of menstrual cycle/at ovulation

if gametogenesis ever stops goes on (throughout adult stops at menopause

life/until death)

fertilization and pregnancy

❖ Describe the process of fertilization in humans (4)
➢ sperm breaks through follicle cells (1), triggering the acrosome reaction (1), which results in
the release of hydrolytic enzymes/proteases (1) that digest the zona pellucida (1)
➢ the plasma membranes of the sperm (that reaches the egg first) and the egg fuse (1), and the
sperm nucleus enters the egg cell (1)
➢ This triggers the cortical reaction (1), which causes the hardening of the zona pellucida (due to
cross linking of the glycoproteins) (1)
➢ This prevents more sperm cells from entering/preventing polyspermy (1)

❖ 16. Describe the process of fertilization in humans. ​8 marks​ ​HL

➢ sperm approaches ovum in oviduct
➢ sperm attaches to receptors in zona pellucida
➢ acrosome reaction /release of enzymes by exocytosis
➢ hyaluronidase / other named enzyme
➢ zona pellucida enzymatically broken down
➢ many sperm needed to allow one to penetrate

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 ➢ membrane of sperm fuses with oocyte membrane
➢ fast block to polyspermy / depolarization of oocyte / sodium gates open
➢ head / sperm nucleus / sperm penetrates the egg membrane
➢ cortical reaction / cortical granules released / lysosomes release enzymes
➢ slow block to polyspermy / zona pellucida glycoproteins cross-link / harden
➢ so additional sperm can't enter
➢ male nucleus swells
➢ secondary oocyte completes meiosis II

❖ 17. Describe the development of the early human embryo. ​SL/HL​ ​5 marks
➢ fertilization in the oviduct / fallopian tube
➢ fertilized egg is a zygote / diploid single cell
➢ cleavage after zygote formation
➢ cleavage divisions reduce quantity of cytoplasm per cell / no increase in overall size of
embryo
➢ cilia propel embryo along oviduct
➢ rapid mitosis leads to morula / ball of cells
➢ blastocyst / hollow ball of cells forms
➢ implantation of blastocyst in the lining of uterine wall / endometrium
➢ implantation occurs up to seven days after fertilization
➢ chorionic villi penetrate the lining of uterine wall / endometrium
➢ Credit marking points above for a clearly drawn and correctly labeled diagram or flow chart.

❖ 18. Outline the regulation of pregnancy by two named hormones. ​4 marks​ ​HL
➢ Award 1 mark for each named hormone and one mark for its correct function.
➢ estrogen
➢ builds up uterine lining / endometrium / prevents ovulation
➢ progesterone
➢ maintains uterine lining / endometrium / prevents ovulation / pregnancy ends when
progesterone drops / prevents contractions of uterus
➢ HCG
➢ maintains / stimulates growth of corpus luteum
➢ oxytocin
➢ stimulates contraction of uterine muscle wall

❖ 19. Outline the role of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) in early pregnancy ​2 marks​ ​HL
➢ stimulates / maintains the corpus luteum
➢ stimulates secretion of estrogen / progesterone levels
➢ maintains pregnancy / uterine lining / progesterone levels

❖ 20. Outline the way in which a pregnancy can be detected at a very early stage. ​4 marks​ ​HL
➢ test strip dipped into urine
➢ embryo produces HCG
➢ HCG is present in the urine if the woman is pregnant
➢ (monoclonal) antibodies detect / bind to HCG
➢ (monoclonal antibodies have dye attached so) a color change if the woman is pregnant

❖ 21. Compare the roles of LH and HCG in female reproduction. ​2 marks​ ​SL/HL
➢ both stimulate the development of the corpus luteum
➢ both stimulate the secretion of progesterone
➢ before fertilization by LH and after by HCG

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❖ 22. State the role of the amniotic sac and the amniotic fluid. ​2 marks​ ​SL/HL
➢ support the fetus / weightless / fetus floats in amniotic fluid
➢ protect the fetus / absorb shock / protect against infection
➢ allows the fetus to move

❖ 23. Outline the process of in vitro fertilization (IVF). ​6 marks​ ​SL/HL

➢ (IVF) is fertilization outside body / "in glass"
➢ (drug) stops normal menstrual cycle
➢ (inject FSH) to stimulate ovaries / stimulate production of eggs
➢ (HCG) matures the follicles
➢ eggs are removed from follicles / ovaries / mother
➢ male provides sperm / sperm donor
➢ washing / capacitation of sperm
➢ eggs are mixed with sperm
➢ 2-3 embryos are implanted into uterus
➢ pregnancy test is done to see if implantation / pregnancy has occurred

❖ Explain how the structure of the placenta helps to maintain pregnancy (8)
■ disc-shaped organ that attaches/embedded to the inside of the uterus (1) and is
connected to the fetus by the umbilical cord (1)
■ It is composed up of embryonic tissue, which grows in the uterine wall (1), and
maternal tissue (1)

➢ Function:​ exchange of material

■ fetal blood flows through capillaries in placental villi (1)
■ mother’s blood flows through placental sinuses/inter-villous spaces (1)
■ nutrients/oxygen and antibodies (1) from mother’s blood transferred to fetal blood
(​through the umbilical vein)​ (1)
■ waste products are transferred from fetal blood to maternal blood ​(through the
umbilical artery)​ (1)

➢ Adaptation for function

■ placental/chorionic villi/maternal intervillous space increase the surface area for
exchange (1)
■ small distance between fetal and mother’s blood, allowing for efficient exchange of
material due to reduced distance of diffusion (1)

➢ Function:​ secretion of hormones to maintain pregnancy

■ produces and secretes HCG that maintains the corpus luteum (1), which secretes
estrogen and progesterone (1) that are required to maintain the uterine lining (1)
■ later on in pregnancy, the placenta secretes progesterone (1)

❖ Outline the process of in vitro fertilisation (3)

➢ mother receives FSH treatment, which stimulates ovulation and egg cell development/causes
superovulation (1)
➢ eggs and sperm collected/harvested (1)
➢ eggs fertilised by sperm outside the body in a dish/lab (1) and develops into an embryo (1)
➢ embryo implanted artificially into the mother’s uterus (1)

❖ Outline the process of ​in vitro​ fertilisation (8)

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 ➢ drugs used to (down-)regulate/stop the menstrual cycle (1)
➢ hormones/FSH injected to stimulate many follicles to develop (1)
➢ HCG injected to cause the follicles to mature (1)
➢ eggs are harvested/extracted from the follicles/ovaries (1)
➢ semen/sperm sample produced/collected (1) semen is processed to concentrate it / sperm
screened/given a swim-up test (1)
➢ semen/sperm mixed with eggs/oocyte / in a dish/in glass (1)
➢ fertilization occurs (1)
➢ embryos/blastocyst placed in uterus/oviduct (using a catheter/long plastic tube) (1)
➢ Do not accept fertilized egg or zygote
➢ one/two/three/up to four (in some countries) embryos implanted (1)
➢ pregnancy test/scan used to see if procedure has been successful / genetic screening to assess
health of fetus (1)
➢ (used in cases of) blocked oviduct / low sperm count
➢ need for donor embryo in cases of female infertility / donor sperm in case of male infertility
Accept other reasonable situations.

Birth
❖ Outline the hormonal control of the process of birth (6)
➢ levels of progesterone decreases drastically just before birth (at about 38-40 weeks of
pregnancy) (1), removing the inhibition of oxytocin secretion (1)
➢ oxytocin is produced and secreted by the (posterior) pituitary gland (1), and stimulates uterus
contractions (1)
➢ uterine contractions and the widening/dilation of the cervix (1) cause impulses to be sent
leading to more oxytocin secretion (1)
➢ this is an example of ​positive feedback (1)

❖ 24. Outline the role of positive feedback in the process of birth in humans. ​4 marks​ ​SL/HL
➢ levels of progesterone falls
➢ level of estrogen rises
➢ falling progesterone make the uterus sensitive to oxytocin
➢ rising estrogen levels make the uterus start to contract
➢ oxytocin causes contraction of the uterus
➢ contraction the uterus causes release of oxytocin
➢ contractions therefore become more and more frequent
➢ contractions therefore become stronger

Nerve control
❖ Draw a labelled diagram to show the structure of a motor neurone (4)
➢ cell body - star shaped at the end of neuron with nucleus inside (1)
➢ dendrites - as multiple long, narrow protrusions from the cell body (1)
➢ axon - at least three times as long as the cell body (1)
➢ myelin sheath/Schwann cells - surrounding the axon (1)
➢ nodes of Ranvier - periodic gaps in myelin sheath (1)
➢ motor end plates - shown as buttons at the end of multiple branches of axon (1)

❖ Outline the general organization of the nervous system.​ ​4 marks

➢ formed of central nervous system
➢ brain and spinal cord
➢ peripheral nervous system divided into voluntary and autonomic nervous systems

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 ➢ autonomic nervous system consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
system
➢ voluntary nervous system has motor and sensory neurons

❖ Outline the changes that lead to the depolarization of an axon as an action

potential travels along a neuron.​ ​5 marks
➢ local currents / ions diffuse from adjacent depolarised section of axon
➢ resting / membrane potential reduced
➢ voltage-gated ion channels affected
➢ sodium channels open
➢ sodium diffuses in / moves in rapidly
➢ therefore fewer positive charges outside and more inside / inside becomes positive
relative to outside / membrane polarity reversed
➢ before depolarisation outside was positive relative to inside
➢ when some sodium gates open entry of Na+ causes more sodium gates to open
➢ membrane potential rises from -70mV to +40 mV ( -+ 10 mV)
➢ (Award no marks for statements about potassium movement and repolarisation)

❖ Explain how the nerve impulse passes along a neuron.​ ​8 marks

➢ in resting potential
■ sodium is pumped out by the active transport and potassium in
■ a concentration gradient builds up electrical potential / voltage
■ negative inside compared to outside
➢ in action potential
■ must pass threshold level
■ sodium channels open and ions diffuse into neuron
■ membrane depolarized
■ potassium diffuse out across membrane through ion channels
■ active transport of ions once more
➢ slower in un-myelinated neuron than in myelinated
➢ an action potential in one part of the neuron causes the action potential to develop
in the next section

❖ Explain how a non-mylenated neuron can maintain a resting potential and

undergo an action potential.​ ​9 marks
➢ resting potential is a charge difference across the membrane / -70mV
➢ inside negative compared to the outside
➢ active transport of ions across the membrane / pumps using ATP
➢ positively charged sodium ions / Na2 are pumped out
➢ fewer K+ are pumped in / 2 K+ compared to 3 Na+
➢ neurone contains negatively charged organic ions
➢ membrane allows little / no diffusion of ions
➢ to create action potential sodium ion channels open
➢ sodium ions move into the neurone
➢ therefore there is depolarisation / membrane polarisation is reversed

77
 ➢ this causes similar changes further on along the neurone
➢ reference to diffusion of ions / local currents
➢ potassium ion channels open after the sodium ion channels
➢ potassium diffuses out causing some repolarization

❖ Explain the process of synaptic transmission.​ ​7 marks

➢ presynaptic neurons pass stimulus / potential to postsynaptic neurons
➢ presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft
➢ process involves exocytosis
➢ exocytosis requires Ca+2 entry into presynaptic neuron
➢ neurotransmitter binds with postsynaptic membrane receptor
➢ neurotransmitter binding can cause postsynaptic membrane ion channel to open /
increase / change permeability of post-synaptic membrane
➢ increase / change permeability of post-synatic membrane
➢ open channel allows specific ions to enter / exit post-synaptic membrane
➢ depolarization / hyperpolarization can result in / initiate action potential
➢ outcome depends on type of postsynaptic receptor and type of channel opened ;
reference to excitatory and inhibitory synapses
➢ Na+ passing to the inside of the post-synaptic neuron (usually) causes
depolarization
➢ Cl- passing to the outside of the post-synaptic neuron (usually) causes
hyperpolarization
➢ (some) neurotransmitters are destroyed by enzymes
➢ Accept any of the above points if accurately illustrated in a diagram.

❖ Define, with examples, the term homeostasis.​ ​4 marks

(the ability of the body to maintain a near constant internal environment)

➢ keeping conditions constant/ within narrow limits

➢ within the body/ internal environment
➢ e.g.,​ temperature in humans kept at 37 degrees C/ other example
➢ e.g.,​ blood sugar/ glucose in humans kept within limits/ other example

❖ Describe homeostasis in relation to blood glucose concentration in humans.​ ​6

marks
➢ homeostasis is maintaining internal environment at constant levels/within narrow
limits
➢ homeostasis involves both nervous and endocrine systems
➢ low blood glucose triggers glucagon release
➢ glucagon is produced å-islet cells in pancreas
➢ glycogen is converted to glucose
➢ high blood glucose concentration triggers insulin release
➢ insulin produced by ß-islet cells in pancreas
➢ glucose taken up by (liver/muscle) cells
➢ glucose converted to glyocgen
➢ blood gluose levels controlled by negative feedback

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 ➢ correct reference to lowering or raising blood glucose levels

❖ Explain how blood glucose concentration is controlled in humans.​ ​9 marks

➢ homeostasis maintains the internal blood glucose levels between narrow limits
➢ 70-110 mg glucose per 100 ml blood
➢ blood glucose level is maintained by negative feedback
➢ islets in pancreas monitor blood glucose levels
➢ after meal blood glucose increases
➢ high blood glucose stimulates release of insulin
➢ (release of insulin) by pancreatic islets/ by ß-cells
➢ causes muscles/ adipose tissue and liver to store glycogen
➢ glucose stored in the form of glycogen (in muscle/ liver)
➢ storage lowers blood glucose levels
➢ if blood glucose levels drops glucagon secreted
➢ secrete glucagon by pancreatic islets/ by å-cells
➢ this causes liver to break down glycogen (to glucose)
➢ glycogen breakdown causes blood glucose level increase

❖ Describe the response of the human body to low external temperatures.​ ​4 marks
➢ thermoreceptors/ sensory input
➢ hypothalamus acts as a thermostat
➢ metabolic rate increases
➢ shivering / goose bumps / hairs raising / swet glands inactive
➢ vasoconstriction of skin arterioles
➢ blood flow from extremities is reduced / blood flow to internal organs is increased
➢ increased activity
➢ heat is transferred in blood

Heart
❖ Outline the mechanism involved in the control of heartbeat (3)
➢ (a heartbeat is caused by a) myogenic contraction, meaning that muscles contract without a
stimulus from the nerve (1)
➢ the Sinoatrial/SA node/pacemaker cell initiates each heartbeat by depolarizing and causing the
atria to contract (1)
➢ nerves carry impulses from the brain to increase or decrease the heart rate (1)
➢ medulla of the brain monitors blood pressure (1)
➢ epinephrine/adrenalin increases the strength/rate of contraction (1)

❖ Explain how the contraction of blood flow is controlled (2)

➢ valves (are structures present in the inner linings of veins which) prevent backflow/ensure a
unidirectional flow of blood (1)
➢ valves open and close due to change in pressure (1)
➢ atrioventricular (mitral/bicuspid & tricuspid) valves are between the atria and the ventricles
(1)

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 ➢ semilunar (pulmonary & aortic) valves are between the arteries and the ventricles (1)

Movement
❖ State the function of the following structures: (2)
➢ cartilage:​ reduces friction/ prevents bone rubbing on bone/absorbs shock (1)
➢ biceps:​ contracts to move/raise forearm/lower arm/radius/ flex/bend at elbow (1)

❖ Explain how the skeletal muscle contracts (8)

➢ (can be explained) using the sliding filament model/actin and myosin slide past each other (1)
➢ action potential/nerve impulse arrives at the end of the motor neurone (1)
➢ acetylcholine/neurotransmitter released, causing an action potential in the muscle fibre (that
propagates down the T-tubule (1)
➢ the sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium ions (1) that bind to the troponin, causing the
tropomyosin to slide, exposing the myosin binding site on the actin filament (1)
➢ conversion of ATP to ADP and Pi causes the myosin heads to change angle (1)
➢ the myosin heads are attracted to and bind to sites on the actin, forming cross bridges (1)
➢ The release of ADP, causes the myosin head to rotate back towards the centre of the
sarcomere (power stroke) (1)
➢ this causes the actin to move towards the M-line/band/centre of the sarcomere (1), resulting in
the shortening of the sarcomere (1)
➢ binding of ATP causes the release of the myosin heads from the actin (1)
➢ during muscle contraction, this cycle of events is repeated (1)

Gas exchange/lungs
❖ Outline the mechanism of ventilation in the lungs (6)
➢ during inhalation:
■ external intercostal muscles contract moving the rib cage up and out (1)
■ diaphragm contracts, becoming flatter/lower (1)
■ increase in volume ​and ​decrease in pressure of the thorax (1)
■ air flows into the lungs as atmospheric pressure is higher (1)
➢ during inhalation:
■ internal intercostal muscles contract, moving the rib cage down and in (1)
■ diaphragm relaxes, returning to a dome shape (1)
■ decrease in volume ​and​ increase in pressure (1)
■ air moves out until pressure in the lungs falls/is equal to atmospheric pressure (1)
■ abdominal muscles can be used to make a stronger/forced exhalation (1)

Respiratory system
❖ Describe the structure of the ventilation system, including the alveoli (8)
➢ ventilation occurs within the lungs (1)
➢ trachea divides to form two bronchi (1)
➢ bronchi divide to form bronchioles (1)
➢ several divisions of bronchioles (1)
➢ alveoli connected to bronchioles (1)
➢ trachea/bronchi/bronchioles/airways lined with cilia/ciliated epithelium (1)
➢ diaphragm and intercostal muscles (1)
➢ trachea/bronchi have rings/c-shaped pieces of cartilage (1)
➢ alveolus is an (air) sac (1)
➢ very small / diameter is (about) 100μm (1)
➢ many alveoli so large total surface area (1)

80
 ➢ wall of alveolus is a single layer of cells; cells in alveolus wall are very thin (1)
➢ surrounded by a network of capillaries (1)
➢ some (larger) cells in the wall secrete fluid/surfactant/natural detergent (1)

Heart/circulatory system
❖ Describe the action of the heart in pumping blood (5)
➢ atria collect blood from veins (1)
➢ sinoatrial node/SA node depolarizes, and sends impulses to the muscle fibres, initiating
contraction (1)
➢ blood is pushed to ventricles by contraction of atria/atrial systole (1)
➢ during this process/as the atria contract,​ atrioventricular valves are open (1), and semilunar
valves are closed so that ventricles fill with blood (1)
➢ ventricles contract/ventricular systole (1)
➢ during this process/as the ventricles contract, ​atrioventricular valves close, to prevent
backflow (1), and blood is pushed through the semilunar valves/pulmonary artery and aorta
(1)
➢ when ventricles relay/diastole, semilunar valves close, preventing backflow of any blood (1)

Homeostasis
❖ Explain what is meant by homeostasis (4)
➢ homeostasis is the ability to maintain a stable/near constant internal environment (1) within
narrow limits (1)
➢ levels of the variables are internally monitored (1) allowing for modifications by
➢ in response to changes in the internal environment,​ negative feedback mechanisms (1), which
involve hormonal and nervous control (1) ​are used, causing the environment to return to its
set point
➢ example (e.g. body temperature / blood pH / blood glucose / water / CO2 concentration)

Temperature
❖ Describe how body temperature is maintained in humans (6)
➢ body temperature is maintained close to 37°C (1)
➢ heat is transferred/distributed in body by blood (1) from the core to the surface (1)
➢ hypothalamus contains thermoreceptors (in the linings of the blood vessel) (1) which detect
the body temperature. Following a change in temperature, the hypothalamus sends messages
to effectors causing a response (1) (that will bring back the temperature to the setpoint at
approx. 37°C)
➢ Responses:
■ (vaso) dilation of skin arterioles (causes increased flow of blood, carrying heat from
the body, to the surface of the skin. The heat radiates from the body, which) cools the
body (1)
■ (vaso) constriction of skin arterioles retains body heat (1) (by causing a reduced flow
of blood, containing heat, to the skin, preventing heat loss)
■ skin/sweat glands produce sweat (1) => The evaporation of the water in the sweat
uses heat energy from the body, resulting in the cooling effect (1)
■ shivering => generates heat in muscles (1)
■ increased metabolism (1) => (increased heat production)
■ (contraction of the hair erector muscles causing) hair erection => retain heat (1)
■ example of behavioural change to warm/cool the body to thermoregulate e.g.reducing
exposed surfaces to reduce heat loss/reduced activity to decrease body temp (1)

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 ❖ Outline the role of the skin in temperature regulation (5)
➢ heat causes vasodilation of arterioles (1) => blood closer to surface so heat loss from skin (1)
➢ heat causes sweating (from sweat glands) (1) => evaporation of sweat leads to cooling (1)
➢ cold causes vasoconstriction of arterioles (1) => less blood at surface so less heat loss from
skin (1)
➢ cold leads to less sweating/evaporation of water from skin / hair becomes erect and traps
air/goose bumps appear (1)
➢ temperature receptors in skin transmit impulses to the hypothalamus (1)

Blood glucose

❖ Outline how the human body prevents blood glucose concentration from rising excessively (5)
➢ blood glucose concentration monitored by pancreas/islets/beta cells (1)
➢ (more) insulin secreted in response to high blood glucose / glucose above threshold level (1)
➢ insulin stimulates cells to absorb glucose (1)
➢ glucose used in cell respiration (rather than lipids) (1)
➢ glucose converted to glycogen (1) by liver/muscle cells (1)
➢ glucose converted to fatty acids / triglycerides / fat (1)
➢ negative feedback process (1)

Kidney and osmoregulation

❖ Define the term ​excretion​ (1)
➢ removal of waste products of cell reactions/metabolic activities/pathways (1)

❖ Explain the process of ultrafiltration (2)

➢ blood (in the glomerulus) under high pressure caused by difference in diameter of (afferent
and efferent) arterioles (1)
➢ fluid plasma and small molecules forced into kidney tubule/Bowman’s capsule/ through
fenestrations/basal membrane (1) which prevent larger molecules/blood cells from passing
through (1)

❖ Explain how the kidney helps to retain useful substances in the blood and eliminate substances which
the body does not need (8)
➢ ultrafiltration occurs in the glomerulus (1)
➢ During this process, the ​basement membrane acts as a filter (1) preventing proteins/cells from
passing (1)
➢ (filtered) substances pass to the Bowman’s capsule (1) to proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
(1) (where there is) selective reabsorption (1)
➢ during selective reabsorption,​ all of the glucose/amino acids (1) and most the water is
reabsorbed (1)
➢ surrounding the loop of Henle, is an area of high solute concentration (1)
➢ in distal convoluted tubule, ions are exchanged between filtrate and blood (1)
➢ collecting duct has role in osmoregulation (1)
➢ ADH regulates the amount of water reabsorbed (1)
➢ substances not reabsorbed are eliminated as urine (1)

❖ Explain the processes occurring in the kidney that contribute to osmoregulation (8)
➢ osmoregulation is maintenance of water balance of blood/tissues (1)

➢ loop of Henle creates hypertonic conditions in the medulla (1)

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 ➢ water is reabsorbed as filtrate passes through collecting duct (1)
➢ this process is controlled by the ​hypothalamus​ which​ monitors/controls water balance/content
of blood (1) by controlling the secretion of ADH by the posterior pituitary gland (1)
➢ ADH is released when blood too concentrated/too little water/hypertonic (1).
■ ADH makes the collecting duct more permeable to water (1) due to more aquaporins
(1), causing more to be water reabsorbed (1)
■ less water in urine/urine more concentrated/urine hypertonic (1)
➢ no/less ADH when blood too dilute/too much water/hypotonic (1)
■ collecting duct less permeable (1) causing less water reabsorption (1)
■ therefore more water in the urine/urine more dilute/less concentrated (1)

❖ Explain how the nephron changes the composition of the blood (7)
➢ Renal artery vs. renal vein
■ higher urea concentration in renal artery than in the renal vein (1)
■ more oxygen/less carbon dioxide in renal artery than in the renal vein (1)

■ most soluble molecules such as glucose, nutrients and ions are removed from the
blood in the Bowman’s capsule (1) through ultrafiltration (1)
■ proteins and blood cells remain in the blood (1)

■ as the filtrate moves through the nephron tubule, water is returned to the blood by
osmosis (1)
■ glucose/nutrients are returned to the blood by active transport and diffusion/selective
reabsorption (1), which occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule (1)
■ urea remains in the filtrate (1)

■ sodium is pumped into the medulla in the loop of Henlé (1)

■ water reabsorption is enhanced by a high sodium gradient in the medulla (1)

■ permeability of the collecting duct membrane is regulated by ADH (1)

■ water concentration in urine is variable to maintain homeostasis in the blood (1)

❖ Explain the processes occurring in the kidney that cause differences in the concentrations of these
solutes between blood plasma, glomerular filtrate and urine (8)
➢ (filtrate formed by) ultrafiltration (1)
➢ glucose / amino acids / soluble components enter Bowman’s capsule (1)
➢ proteins in blood plasma but not in filtrate / proteins not filtered out (of blood) (1)
➢ glucose not in urine (normally) (1)

➢ (selective) reabsorption (of glucose) (1) in the proximal convoluted tubule (1)
➢ by active transport / microvilli increase the surface area (1)
➢ little/no urea reabsorbed concentration increases / urea more concentrated in urine than in
blood plasma (1)
➢ water reabsorbed from filtrate (1) by osmosis (1)

➢ in descending limb of nephron / in proximal convoluted tubule (1) salts actively transported
into the medulla (from filtrate) (1)
➢ creating concentration gradient/hypertonic medulla (1)

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 ➢ collecting duct permeability altered depending on blood solute concentration (1)

❖ Explain the role of the medulla and the collecting duct of the kidney in the maintenance of the water
balance in the blood (3)
➢ collecting duct has water channels/aquaporins/is permeable to water (1)
➢ high solute concentration in the medulla/medulla is hypertonic (1)
➢ secretion of ADH/vasopressin increases permeability of the collecting duct (1) ​allow vice
versa
➢ reabsorption of water allows excretion of concentrated urine (antidiuresis) (1)

❖ Explain how the collecting ducts can alter the volume of urine produced by the kidney. (3)
➢ ADH is secreted when the solute concentration of the blood is too high/OWTTE/converse (1)
➢ ADH makes the collecting duct more permeable to water / when not secreted the collecting
duct is less permeable to water (1)
➢ (causes) more aquaporins in the (membranes of cells in the) collecting duct (1)
➢ collecting duct passes through medulla (1)
➢ increasing salt concentration of medulla / hypertonic medulla (1) leads to osmosis / more
water is reabsorbed (from the collecting duct) (1)
➢ volume of urine is less / urine more concentrated (1)
➢ (without ADH) higher flow rates so less time for water reabsorbtion; (without ADH) dilute /
large volume of urine is produced (1)

❖ Estimate the content of the glomerular filtrate and urine of a healthy person by completing the
following table: (2)

Plasma protein/mg 100ml​-1 Glucose​/mg 100ml​-1 Urea​/mg 100ml​-1

Blood plasma in renal artery 740 90 30

Glomerular filtrate O 90 <30

Urine O O >30

Option
❖ State one mechanism the ileum uses to transport digested food into the bloodstream (1)
➢ active transport/facilitated diffusion/endocytosis

❖ State the role of the hepatic portal vein (1)

➢ transports blood from the capillaries of the small intestine to the (capillaries/sinusoids of) the
liver
❖ Label the line that represents the ventricle (1)

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 ❖ Estimate the total time the atrioventricular are open (1)
➢ 0.4 seconds (accept 0.37-0.43)

❖ Outline how CO2 interacts with hemoglobin after it enters the erythrocytes (1)
➢ Co2 binds to a protein portion (not Fe) in the heme (1), forming carbaminohemoglobin (1)

❖ Describe the formation of HCO3- in erythrocytes (2)

➢ CO2 diffuses into erythrocytes (1)
➢ joins with water to form carbonic acid (1)
➢ catalysed by carbonic anhydrase (in the erythrocytes) (1)
➢ H2CO3 dissociates into H+ and HCO3- (1)

DIGESTION

❖ Explain the control and the functioning of the gastric glands needed for the digestion of protein in the
stomach (6)
➢ (chief/peptic/zymogenic cells of) gastric glands release pepsinogen (into stomach cavity) (1)
➢ pepsinogen is an enzyme precursor/inactive enzyme (1)
➢ (parietal/oxyntic cells of) gastric glands release HCl (into stomach cavity) (1)
➢ HCl activates pepsinogen to pepsin (when they mix in the stomach cavity) (1)
➢ pepsin digests protein/would digest stomach tissue (1)
➢ (mucus cells of) gastric glands release mucus (into stomach cavity) to protect walls from
digestion by pepsin (1)

Inthinking:
Explain how the features of a secretory cell in the epithelium of the stomach help it to perform its function. (3)

Microvilli increase the surface area of the cell’s membrane to help secretion.

There are large numbers of mitochondria which provide ATP for synthesis and exocytosis.

Large amount of rER / sER / Golgi Apparatus are present for synthesis and secretion.

Secretory vesicles are present which contain the chemical (enzyme) being secreted.

List three structural features of exocrine glands. (3)

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Secretory cells are arranged in a layer one cell thick.

Secretory cells contain secretory vesicles / rER / Golgi apparatus / etc.

The secretory cells are grouped in loops of epithelial cells (called acini)

The secretory cells are adjacent to the duct of the gland.

Explain why secretory cells called Chief cells secrete pepsinogen and how it is activated. (3)

Pepsinogen is the inactive form of pepsin

Pepsinogen is activated by hydrochloric acid

Pepsin also causes pepsinogen to convert to pepsin

Different cells in the stomach wall secrete pepsinogen and HCl

If the chief cell secreted pepsin it could digest proteins which could damage the cell

Outline the hormonal control of gastric secretion (3)

The hormone gastrin is secreted (by g-cells) in the stomach

Gastrin hormone stimulates other cells to secrete pepsinogen and HCl

Food in the stomach causes stretch receptors to stimulate (g-cells) endocrine glands in the stomach wall

When there is no food the g-cells are not stimulated and don’t make gastrin.

Outline the nervous control of gastric juice secretions (3)

​The sight, smell, taste of food stimulates the medulla of the brain

Nerve impulses are sent to the stomach (via the vagus nerve)

This nerve impulse stimulates secretory cells in the stomach

Stretch receptors in the stomach (via reflex/nerve impulses) stimulate secretory cells

Secretory cells produce HCl, pepsinogen, and the hormone gastrin

Chemoreceptors in the stomach stimulate secretory cells in a nervous reflex

DIAGRAMS

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Outline the evidence for evolution provided by selective breeding (3)
● a. crop plants/domesticated animals/livestock produced by selective breeding ✔ 3 max
● b. specific example of a domesticated animal/crop plant and the wild species from which it was
developed OR specific example of a domesticated animal/crop plant and the features in it which have
been improved «compared with the wild species» ✔ For example dogs have been developed from
wolves
● c. artificial selection/crossing selected varieties/eliminating undesirable varieties ✔
● d. «selective breeding/artificial selection can cause» significant/rapid change over time/from the
original wild species ✔
● e. «changes due to selective breeding/artificial selection» shows natural selection can cause
change/evolution «in a species» ✔

Describe the origin of eukaryotic cells according to the endosymbiotic theory. [4]
a. mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar to prokaryotes ✔ 4 max
b. «host» cell took in another cell by endocytosis/by engulfing «in a vesicle» ✔ Allow “taking in” in
place of “engulfing”
c. but did not digest the cell/kept the «ingested» cell alive OR symbiotic/mutualistic relationship
«between engulfed and host cell» ✔

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 d. chloroplasts and mitochondria were once independent/free-living «organisms» ✔
e. DNA «loop» in chloroplast/mitochondrion ✔ Award up to [2] for evidence from mpe to mph
f. division/binary fission of chloroplast/mitochondrion ✔
g. double membrane around chloroplast/mitochondrion ✔
h. 70s ribosomes «in chloroplast/mitochondrion» ✔

The biological insights of Mendel and Darwin in the 19th century remain important to this day.
(a) Discuss the role of genes and chromosomes in determining individual and shared character features of the
members of a species. [7]
● Genes
○ a. mutation changes genes/causes genetic differences
○ b. genes can have more than one allele/multiple alleles OR alleles are different forms/versions
of a gene
○ c. different alleles «of a gene» give different characters OR variation in alleles between
individuals
○ d. eye colour/other example of «alleles of» a gene affecting a character
○ e. alleles may be dominant or recessive OR dominant alleles determine trait even if recessive
allele is present
○ f. both alleles influence the characteristic with codominance OR reference to polygenic
inheritance
○ g. all members of a species are genetically similar/have shared genes OR certain genes
expressed in all members of a species
○ h. reference to epigenetics/methylation/acetylation / not all genes are expressed «in an
individual»
○ i. genes are inherited from parents/passed on to offspring/passed from generation to generation
● Chromosomes
○ j. same locus/same position of genes OR same sequence of genes/same genes on each
chromosome «in a species»
○ k. same number of chromosomes «in a species»/all humans have 46 chromosomes/differences
in chromosome number between species
○ l. some individuals have an extra chromosome/Down syndrome/other example of aneuploidy
OR polyploidy divides a species/creates a new species
○ m. X and Y/sex chromosomes determine the sex/gender of an individual
○ n. meiosis/independent assortment/fertilization/sexual reproduction give new combinations
«of chromosomes/genes»

(b) Outline the process of speciation. [4]

● a. speciation is the splitting of a species «into two species»
● b. reproductive isolation/lack of interbreeding
● c. isolation due to geography/«reproductive» behavior/«reproductive» timing
● d. polyploidy can cause isolation
● e. gene pools separated
● f. differences in/disruptive selection cause traits/gene pools to change/diverge
● g. gradualism / speciation/changes accumulating over long periods
● h. punctuated equilibrium / speciation/changes over a short time period

Define osmolarity.
● «measurement of» solute concentration of a solution

State one type of environmental factor that may increase the mutation rate of a gene.
● a. radiation

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 ● b. chemical mutagens/carcinogens/papilloma virus/cigarette smoke

(ii) Identify one type of gene mutation.

● base substitution/insertion/deletion/frameshift

List two characteristics of the phyla: Arthropoda

● a. jointed appendages 2 max
● b. «chitinous» exoskeleton
● c. segmented body OR bilateral symmetry OR mouth AND anus OR paired appendages

Outline how reproductive isolation can occur in an animal population.(3)

● a. can be sympatric or allopatric 3 max
● b. temporal isolation by members of difference populations reproducing at different times OWTTE
● c. behavioural isolation by difference in courtship behaviours OWTTE
● d. geographic isolation by a population being separated by river/mountain/barrier to contact An
example of a geographic barrier is required
● e. polyploidy

Draw a labelled diagram of the formation of a chiasma by crossing over.

●
(c) Describe, using one example, how homologous structures provide evidence for evolution. [4]
● a. similar structure but different function «in homologous structures»
● b. pentadactyl limbs/limb with five digits/toes / other example
● c. similar bone structure/example of similarity of bones «in pentadactyl limbs» but different
uses/functions
● d. two examples of use of pentadactyl limb by a vertebrate group
● e. suggests a common ancestor «and evolutionary divergence»
● f. process called adaptive radiation

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● a. «scientists would accept» hypothesis A as the better one as mutations are random 3 max
● b. scientists would reject hypothesis B because characteristics acquired during the lifetime of the
individual being inherited is Lamarckian/not part of the evolution by natural selection theory/not all
mutations are heritable OWTTE can be used for any of the answers in this part.
● c. «the resistance» mutation would be present in the population initially and not caused by the shampoo
«as hypothesis B states»
● d. both hypotheses include variation in the population of lice «resistant and non-resistant»
● e. variation is necessary for natural selection to occur
● f. frequency of the best adapted increases and these individuals reproduce/pass on resistance to their
offspring, so the resistant population increases «so hypothesis A is better»

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