S6 PHYSICHS NOTES (GRAVITATION)

KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION.

These govern the movement of planets around the sun and they state;-
1) Planets describe eclipses about the sun as one focus.
2) The imaginary lines joining the sun and the planets sweep out equal areas
in equal time interval.
3) The square of the periods of revolution of planets about the sun are directly
proportional to the cube of their mean distances from the sun.
i.e T2 ∝ R3
NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITAION
It states that : - Between any two bodies in the universe , there exist a force
between them that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of their distance apart.
𝑚𝑟 𝑚2 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
i.e F ∝ 𝑜𝑟 𝐹 =
𝑟2 𝑟2

where G is the universal gravitational constant taking on a value of 6.67 x 10-11

Nm2 kg-2 .
DERIVATION OF KEPLER’S THIRD LAW OF GRAVITATION
Consider a planet of mass mp that is orbiting the sun of mass ms at a radius ‘ r ‘
as shown in the diagram below.

PLANET

SUN

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From the universal law of gravitation , the force experienced between the planet
𝐺𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑠
and the sun , F is given by ; - F =
𝑟2

Then the planet moving in a circular path is acted on by the centripetal force F to
keep it moving which is given by ;
F1 = mp w2 r
𝐺𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑠
therefore = 𝑚𝑝 𝑤 2 𝑟
𝑟2
𝐺𝑚𝑠 2𝜋
= = 𝑤 2 , 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑤 = .
𝑟3 𝑇

𝐺𝑚𝑠 2𝜋 2 4 𝜋2
Therefore = ( ) = .
𝑟3 𝑇 𝑇2

4 𝜋2 4 𝜋2
= T2 = . 𝑟 3 And since is constant , therefore T2 ∝ r3 , Hence the law
𝐺𝑚𝑆 𝐺𝑚𝑠
is verified.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ‘ G ‘ AND ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY ‘ g ‘
Consider a body of mass m placed at the earth’s surface.
𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚
Therefore = mg , where me and re are the mass and radius of the earth.
𝑟𝑒 2

= G me = gre 2 .
NOTE: Since r e = 6400 km , G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 kg-2 and g = 9.81 ms-2 , the
above expression can be used to calculate the mass and density of the earth . i.e
me = 6.024 x 10 24 kg .
EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE G
This can be carried out by the help of the set – up below.

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 Torsion Wire
C D

l

B 
b d

B B
A
a
a
d d
A

Procedure
Two small identical gold balls a and b of mass m are suspended by long ans
short fine quartz strings from the ends of a highly polished bar ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 of length ‘ L ‘ .
Then two relatively large identical lead spheres A and B of mass M are placed in
two positions near a and b respectively at distances d. The angle 𝜃 through
which the bar is deflected is measured by the lamp and scale method.
𝐺𝑚 𝑀 𝑒 𝜃 𝑑2
Therefore ; 𝑥 𝑙 = 𝑒𝜃 → 𝐺 = , where e is the torque in the
𝑑2 𝑚𝑀𝐿
torsion wire per radian.
THE EARTH’S GRAVITATIONAL FIELD.
The strength of the gravitational field of the earth is defined as the force acting on
one kilogram mass placed in the earth’s field . i.e F = mg and if m = 1 kg then ;
F = g ( strength of the field )
Therefore the strength can be expressed in N kg -1 or ms-2 taking on a value of
9.81 .

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VARIATION OF ‘g’ WITH HEIGHT
If g ’ is the acceleration due to gravity at a distance ‘r ’ from the centre of the
𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝐺𝑚𝑒
earth, where r > re , re being the earth’s radius, then g = 2
𝑡𝑜 𝑔 ′ = ,
𝑟𝑒 𝑟2
where g is the acceleration due to gravity at the earth and me is the earth’s
mass.
𝑔′ 𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒 2 𝑟𝑒 2
Therefore ; = 𝑥 =
𝑔 𝑟2 𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑟2

𝑟𝑒 2 𝑔 𝑘
= g‘ = = , where k is a constant …………………………..(i)
𝑟2 𝑟2

This implies that above the earth’s surface acceleration due to gravity g’ varies
inversely as the square of the distance ‘ r ‘ from the centre of the earth.
At the height ‘ h ‘ above the earth’s surface r = re + h and this implies that g ‘ =
𝑟𝑒 2
(𝑟𝑒 +ℎ)2
.

And if g’ is the acceleration due to gravity at a distance r from the centre of the
𝐺𝑚1 𝐺𝑚𝑒
earth , where r < re then ; g ‘ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 = .
𝑟2 𝑟𝑒 2

𝑔′ 𝐺 𝑚1 𝑟𝑒 𝑚1 𝑟𝑒 2
= = 𝑥 . , where m1 is the mass of the sphere of radius r as
𝑔 𝑟𝑠 𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑒 𝑟2
shown in the figure below.

re

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 4
Considering the earth to be of uniform density …… then ; m1 = 𝜋𝑟 3 ……. And
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me = 𝜋𝑟𝑒 3 ………..
3

𝑚1 4 𝑟3 𝑟3
= = 𝜋 𝑟 3 ………… x 3
…………… =
𝑚𝑒 3 𝑚 𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒 3

𝑔′ 𝑟3 𝑟𝑒 2 𝑟
therefore = , =
𝑔 𝑟𝑒 3 𝑟2 𝑟𝑒
𝑔
= g‘ = 𝑟 therefore g ‘ = Kr , where k is a constant ……………………(ii)
𝑟𝑒

This implies that g ‘ is directly proportional to the distance ‘ r ‘ from the centre
of the earth.
The two equations (i) and (ii) are represented by the graph below.
g1(ms-2)

O re r(m)

VARIATION OF G WITH LATITUDE

This observed variation of g ‘ over the earth’s surface is largely due to the fact
that : -
1) The equatorial radius of the earth being far much bigger than the polar
radii thus g is grater at the poles than at the equator.
2) The earth is always rotating where by bodies at other places other than at
the poles do experience reasonable centripetal force acting on them due to
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 rotation. And the observed gravitational pull on the body of mass m is
normally less than mg and it is equal to ma ‘ where g ‘ is the observed
acceleration due to gravity at a given point.
i.e centripetal force = mg - mg ‘
= mw 2 r

r1 P


r

From the gigure above at pt P , r ‘ = r cos .

Therefore the required centripetal force at P = mw2 r cos 𝜃 .
SATELLITES
When satellites are launched in space using rockets they are normally raised to
the desired height in orbits. The centripetal force which keeps the satellites in the
orbits around the earth is equal to the gravitational attraction of the earth on the
satellites.

Earth re

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For a satellite of mass m travelling with a uniform speed V in a circular orbit of
radius R measured from the centre of the earth we have ;
𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺 𝑚 𝑚𝑒
= , where me is the mass of the earth .
𝑅 𝑅2
𝐺𝑚𝑒
Therefore V2 = , but g re 2 = Gme
𝑅
1⁄
𝑔 𝑟𝑒 2 2
→ V = ( )
𝑅

If the satellite is close to the earth at a height in the range say 100 - 200 km
then R ≈ re and V = (gre) ½
What are called synchronous satellites have got a period of 24 hrs that is exactly
the same as that of the earth about its axis of rotation. And then remain in the
same position as observed from the earth.
i.e they appear stationary as observed from the earth. The orbits occupied by
synchronous satellites are called “ parking orbits “ or “ geostationary orbits “.
By acting as relay stations, synchronous satellite are used to carry out continuous
world wide communication e.g television programmes.

EARTH B

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From the diagram above signals are transmitted from pt P at the earth to satellite
A , from A to B then from B to C until when they are delivered to pt Q .

Example ;
1. (a) Calculate the radius of the parking orbit for an earth’s satellite.
(b)Find the height above the earth’s surface of the parking orbit taking the
mass of the satellite to be m and that of the earth me ( G = 6.67 x 10-11
Nm2 kg-2 , me = 6.023 x 1024 kg ,
re = 6.4 x 10 6 m , T = 24 hrs )
[ r = 4.24 x 107 m , h = 3.6 x 107 m ]

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
The gravitational potential at a point due to the gravitational field of the earth is
the work done to move a 1 kg mass from infinity to a given point.

re

Consider a body ( particle) of mass m at a distance r from the earth . The

𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚
force of attraction on the particle , F is given by ; F = , and if m = 1 kg
𝑟2
𝐺𝑚𝑒
then ; F = .
𝑟2

The work done to move a 1 kg mass a small distance 8 r is now given by ;

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 𝐺 𝑚𝑒 . 8𝑟
8w=F8r =
𝑟2

Therefore ; From Celculus the work done to move 1 kg from infinity to a

distance r is given by ;
𝑟 𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑟 1 𝑟
W.D = ∫∝ 𝑑𝑟 = 𝐺𝑚𝑒 ∫∝ 2 𝑑𝑟 = 𝐺𝑚𝑒 ∫∝ 𝑟 −2 𝑑𝑟
𝑟2 𝑟
𝑟 −1 𝑟 𝐺𝑚𝑒
= G me [ ] = −
−1 ∝ 𝑟
𝐺𝑚𝑒
Therefore ; Gravitational potential = -
𝑟
𝐺𝑚𝑒
Then at the earth’s surface , G.P = -
𝑟𝑒

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

This is the work done to move a body of mass m from infinity to a given point in
the gravitational field of the earth.
𝐺𝑚𝑒
i.e Gravitational potential energy of a mass ‘ m : = - 𝑥 𝑚
𝑟
𝐺 𝑚𝑒
= - - (1)
𝑟
𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚
Therefore ; At the earth’s surface, G.P.E = -
𝑟𝑒

NOTE : From the expression above it implies that potential energy at infinity is
zero.

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KINETIC ENERGY
Consider a satellite of mass in moving in an orbit of radius ‘r ‘ around the earth of
mass me at a uniform speed V.
𝑚 𝑣2 𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚 𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚
Therefore F = = = 𝑚𝑣 2 =
𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟
𝑔𝑚𝑒 𝑚
Therefore ½ mv2 = ½
𝑟
𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚
= Kinetic energy ( k.e) = -- ( 2)
2𝑟

Therefore Total mechanical energy = k.e + p.e

𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚 𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚
= +
2𝑟 𝑟
𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚
= T.M.E =
−2𝑟

Note : Due to friction experienced by the satellite as it moves, the total

mechanical energy normally decreases leading to a decrease in the radius of the
orbit around which the satellite is moving . Kinetic energy instead increases and
the satellite is made to move at a higher speed. But the satellite’s potential
energy instead decreases where by the satellite may eventually burn out.

ESCAPE VELOCITY
Consider a rocket of mass m fired from the earth’s surface such that it escapes
from the gravitational influence of the earth. What is commonly referred to as the
escape velocity of a rocket ( body) is the velocity with which the body is set to
move ( fired ) from the earth so that it just escapes from the gravitational
influence of the earth. And if the body is to escape then the mechanical energy
must be zero.
𝐺 𝑚𝑒 𝑚
i.e ½ mv2 + = 0
𝑟
𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚 2𝐺𝑚𝑒
therefore ; - ½ mv2 = = 𝑣2 =
𝑟 𝑟

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 1 1
2 𝐺𝑚𝑒 2 2 𝑔𝑟𝑒 2 2
therefore ( escape velocity ) v = (
𝑟
) = ( )
1
1
2𝑔𝑟𝑒 2 2
i.e at the earth V = (
𝑟𝑒
) = (2 𝑔𝑟𝑒 )2

WEIGHTLESSNESS
When a rocket is fired to launch a space craft carrying a astronauts into an orbit
around the earth, the initial acceleration must be very high due to the large initial
thrust that is required.
Suppose R is the reaction of the couch on the astronaut , then from F = ma = R
- mg = ma that is being shown in fig. (i).

R1

Mg1

mg

(i)
(ii)
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Figure (ii) instead shows what happens when the space craft rs in the orbit
where by the acceleration of the space craft carrying the astronaut is g’ and g ‘ is
the acceleration due to gravity at a particular height above the earth . i.e if R’ =
O then the astronaut is said to be weight less.
QUESTIONS
1.(a) (i) State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.
(ii) Using Newton’s law of gravitation, derive an expression for the period T of
revolution of a planet around the sun and its orbit at radius R and the radius of
the sun rs .
(b)A satellite is to be put into an orbit 500 km above the earth’s surface. If its
vertical velocity after launching is 2.0 x 103 ms-1 at this height. Calculate the
impulse required to put the satellite directly into its orbit if cos mass is 100 kg.
2.(a) Show that for satellite of mass M revolving around the earth at a period T
and orbital radius r ;
r 3 = constant
T2
(b)Describe how you would determine the universal gravitational constant, G.
(c). (i) State Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
(ii). Use Newton’s law in (c) (i) above to deduce the dimensions of the
gravitational constant , G.
3.(a) Define gravitational field strength and state its S I units.
(b)Two binary stars of masses m1 and m2 respectively rotate about their
common centre of mass with an angular velocity w. Assuming that the force
acting on the stars is the mutual gravitational force between them and that the
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[𝐺(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ] ⁄2
distance between them is d, show that ; w = 3 .
𝑑 ⁄2

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