'saSueqJ )rdol aql -

lpaqsrlqelsa sr )rdol aql ^1.

^1i
lpasnJo1 are asrnoJsrp aql ;o slred snorrel
^\.
lpalJauuoJ aJ€ saJualuas un{lr1\{ sasnei) .41. _

lpalJauuoJ aJe sa)ualuas ,\1.. -

lpalJauuo) aJ€ seapr .\t- _

lsasnelJ pue saJualuas ssorJe parJJe) sr aJuaraJaJ,\1 ,

:aldLuexa lol 'raqlaSol palulI alP slred 1ua.ra;;rp .lrorl aas ueJ azrl. 'asrno)srp le 3u1>ioo1 -

'a8en8uel Jo s)unr{J papua+xa aroru le s)iool asrnorj

lanaI aJualuos lo asnplf 1e aBenBuel qll.t,t pauJaJuor dylensn are ar',r 'reruurer8 Surssnrsrp

asrnorslc :9 NOII)IIS
 UNIT 5.1-
I seem to have a good memory for names no
PRONOUNS
matter how long ago I heard them but faces
are a different matter.
What sort of community do you live in? Is it
large or small, in town or country, affluent
or hard-up?

Pronouns are used in place of nouns.

Look at these examples:
I seem to have a good memory for names no matter how long ago I heard them but faces
are a different matter.
Here them replaces names to avoid repetition of the noun names.
What sort of community do vou live in? Is it large or small, in town or country, affluent or
hard-up?
Here it replaces community.
Pronouns can also replace noun phrases. For example:
Considering the problems the regional Water Authorities have to cope with, they do a
remarkable job of providing us with a liquid which is generally safe and palatable.
Here they replaces the regional Water Authorities.
But pronouns can also refer directly to the outside world or sifuation.
Look at these eramples:
We all recognise the benefits of a healthier diet.
We are becoming more conscious of the principle that 'we are what we eat,.
I seem to have a good memory for names no matter how long ago I heard them but faces
are a different matter.
What sort of community do you live in? Is it large or small, in town or country, affluent or
hard-up?
These pronouns, I/ you/ we, are not substituting for a noun or noun phrase in the text. Thev
refer directly to people outside the text itself.
Finally, pronouns can refer to a whole clause, sentence or idea.
Look at these examples:
Many people think that if a cat wags its tail it is angry but this is only partly true.
Here, this refers to the whole sentence about what people think tail,wagging means.
When atoms bind together to form molecules, thev usually share their electrons equally.
This is called a covalent bond.
Here, this refers to the process of binding together to form molecules.

1. Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns have a different form when they are subject, object or possessive
forms.
Look at the followins chart:

236
L€7,

:aldu€xa roc 'unouord Iprnld E qll^{ sunouord asar{} -l,tolloJ ol 'r{srlSug IEruroJ
uI uala 'Aruapual Sursea;rur ue sr arar{} 1nq reln8urs .,{11err1euluer8 are - fpoqou 'auo ou
',{poqauos 'auoaruos 'fpoq,{rana 'auo.{raaa ',,{poqfue 'auo.,(ue - sunouord elrurJapul aLIJ
{poq- ql!.r,r spunodLuo) aql upr{l ual1o
arou pasn ale auoaluos pue auo.{up 'auodraaa 'qsr13u1 uef,rraruv pup qsrlrrg qlog uI
poqou'auo ou /
:s.'\\olloJ sp 'spro.,lr o.4{l sp auo Lllr.l,r pasn ro Apoq- qllm paurqulo) aq up) oN
3urqlr(raaa'.,(poq,{ra,ra'auo,{rarra
Surqlauos',{poqauos'auoaruos
8urq1{ue'fpoq{ue'auo,{uu
:s^{olloI se '8urql-
ro ,{poq- 'auo- r{}r.M paurqr'uo) aq uef, - .{rena pue ,(uu 'aruos - sunouord allurJapur aL{I
sunouord alrurJapuJ '€
'rapnrlur aLIl lp JJeslr papnq 3op aq1
sileq all]]l olur dn 3ur11or a.q sallasuaql lralord sapadr11r61
',Iasreq unq aqs
:aldtuexa roC 'sallesruaql 'sellasrno.{ 'sanlasrno - sunouord lrafqo 1ern1d qll^\ pasn
sI salles- r.uroy lernlcl aql 'Jlaqr 'Jlasraq /Jlasurrq 'Jlasrno{ ';1as.{tu - sunouord lta{qo
relnguls t{llM pasn sI JIas- ru;o1 reln8urs aql l)atqns aq} ol )if,eq Jalal sunouord alrxagau
sunouord a^rxalJau 'z

'(9 € llun aas) sraulruralep lP4uar orP unou

p aroJaq aLUo) r.l)rr.l,4,t- rraql 'rno 'sll 'raq 's1q 'rnod 'lur - sunouord allssassod aql

'arnlnJ aql ol )ool sn laloN suorlde:rad

^
rno pa8ueq: a,req srea.{ -ua1 lsed aql Jo sluana aql AtoLI uaas .{pearle a^eq aM
:alduexa rog .,(es ot spq ll letlm pue lxal aL{l o} luarulnuruo) s,lalrrm
aLIl aJpqs ol Japear aql Surlr^ur are oLIM ro lxal aq] uI luarualloluI Jo asuas e rapear
aql anr8 ol lupll or{lra sraqlo pue slaslpalpP 'sJa}Illlvr )IruapPJP lq pasn uauo sI Ino/sn/aM
'sJauroJ 01 sraIar uaql 'arall
'ruaql punore de,,us lou 'srauro) punore IlPs ll,no.'{ rP) sIL{l ul
'uoqEInJJrJ peurqruoJ Jno loJ spuels srno 'araH
'000'Z€8'€ sI srno '000'g9g'Z sr uollelnJrl) paulquro) s,radedszr,au 1eq1
:sdlLlluaxa asaql ln 10o7

srrar{} tuaql daql

SINO qn a.M
sl! ]I t]
sJaq raq aqs
s ir{ ar{
'-ulq
srnod noi no.,{
ALIILU auI I

aArssassod lralqo l)afqnS

sunouo.rd I g tlun
 Unit 5.1 Pronouns
I certainly wouldn't advise anyone to leave their house empty for long periods. It is
much safer to rent the house.
This avoids the awkwardness of using his or her or his/her:
I certainly wouldn't advise anyone to leave his or her house empty for long periods.
One wav of avoiding the problem is to put the subject into the plural, as follows:
I certainly wouldn't advise people to leave their houses empty for long periods.
4. Determiners and pronouns
Many words, such as the following, can function either as determiners (see Units 3.5,
3.7-3.9) or pronouns.
all what more either
least each no fewer
less this these enough
many one most little
much whose few neither
some both any several
which that those
We distinguish between the two forms by checking whether the word is followed by a
noun or not. Determiners are always followed by a noun; pronouns stand alone as they
refer to the whole noun phrase in these cases.
Look at these examples:
Determiners Pronouns
Many people in Britain have become But most continue to eat meat.
vegetarlan.
Which sports do you watch on Which do you actually go to rvatch in
television? person?
In the first example, most is a pronoun which stands for most people; in the second
example, which stands for which sports.
5. Demonstrative pronouns
The demonstrative pronouns - this, these, that, those - can be preceded by pre-
determiners such as all, both, half. For example:
All these are to be moved over there
I'll take both those.
But the construction with of is much more frequently used. For example:
All of these are to be moved over there.
I'll take both of those.
WARNING BOX
When all, both, half are followed by of and a noun, vou must use the article the.
For examole:
All of the books
Both of the boys
Half of the pages
When the quantifiers, some/ any/ many/ few, etc. are used with of and a noun, you
must also use the article the. For examole:
Some of the people
Many of the students
Most of the books

238
6€,2

6"t1l
unouoJd

',uorsoloxa uorleJrlqnd/
aql palleJ aq plnoqs 1r ler{l pres alpr{ aruos 1nq .uorsoidxa uorleruroJur, aql pallpJ uauo
sl slql 'lr Jo sa)Jnos Jo ssaJxa ue uala pue uorleruJoJur Jo ssaJxa ue alprl .,r,rou aM uosrad
palernpa urapou ar{l sa)eJ ualqo-rd ,,r,rJu p }ng ',11 uodn uorlprruorur purJ ueJ a,r,r araqM
.Mou)i a.tr Jo 'sallasrno 1rafqns e ,laoul aM spur)i o.Ml to sr a8pal,nou;, :alorm 'Lrnluar
qluaalq8ra aqt u1 a8an8ual 4s43u1 a4q Jo rttauo4;rg y palrdtuor or{.l,r 'uosuqo{ lanueg rq (q
'*ar{}
lea lq8ru ]eqt srolepard uror; ,{errae '1ros paur€rp-ilam ur spaas aql paddo.rp pue lrnrJ
aql ualea peq slueqdala aql's8urddorp ,slueqdala aql ur lrplur spaas Jo suazop punoJ
osle daql pue .,{lprder ryeq s,nor8 {rpq aqt teqt puno1 slsrSolooz lng lI III) dlluaredde pue
aarl ar{} ruor, Ireq aql drrls ,,{la1a1druor 'strnrJ aq} lea daql 'slueqdala Jo poo, alrrno^e,
e sI aarl atttat aldtuconps aq+ 'erqtnez ur .,{a11en ervr8uenl ar{l uI 'r,uaq1 Sursrlrgray
pue spaas Surrallers , q spuepoo.4L ol op daql a8eruep aql ro; dn a1er.u slueqdalE r:
'nort nJ ualJum uaaq sa4 a:.
pt{ a41 atnldat sunouotd ary pW ldatuot ayi n'sasnap n sasnt4d unou'sunou a41 pua sunou.r.
)Lll Lltlm molaq ttaL!) a4t u! ult udLll sunouotd a41 11a Jo $rl a )\aw pub s1xa1 gurmo11o|a4t pt.
auo {sPI

,I)
I7
sxsvr - sunouord I.9 llun
Unit 5.1 Pronouns - Tasks
Task two
fill tn the missirtg vt6v1l5 tltilft suitable protloutls.
Rend the following texts and

(a) Herons are under threat in Creece and to raise public awareness of . . . . . . the Hellenic
Ornithological Society has been carrying out a scientific study to monitor the birds and
guard their nexts.
(b) The populations of . . . . . . of the most poorly nourished nations are growing at neariy four
percentayear.Atthatrate,......willdoublewithin20years.......ishappening
despite the best efforts of family planning agencies.
in both adults and children chronic malnutrition is made worse bv a 'hungrv period'
during the annual rains. . . . . . . happens when the previous vear's crops start to run out
before the next year's harvest.
(c) Talking in one's sleep is ..... of the most common phenomena and...... that is oi
more concern to the obsen'er than to the sleeper. Laboratory observation suggests that
......iswidespreadandmostpeoplearelikelvtodo......Sometimes......wakeup
awarethat...... have been talking. Often ...... do not.
(d) Anyone can set...... up in business as an estate agent -...... don't need any
qualifications. So how do .. .. . . go about finding . . . .. can trust? Last year a
report showed that half of ...... don't think ......'re getting good value for our
moneyfrom......
Task three
The following passages ltaae been ittritten without anrl pronoufis or determnters. Reatl them, theti
decide which nouns shttttld be reTtlaced by lrronouns ttnd deterntiners and rewrite tlte pnssages.

(a) Just when people were learning to live with the idea of 'safe sun' as far as people's skin is
concerned, along came the scientists and doctors to tell people that people's hair is sun-
sensitive too. Sand, salt and chlorine can strip hair of the hair's oils, leaving the hair
rough and the ends split. Most in danger is a person's parting. A person's parting rs
subject to the same carcinogenic ultra-violet ravs that a person's skin is.
(b) Adam White is a photographer. Yesterday Adarn White flel,r' to the United States to
photograph the President. Adam White's assignments take Adam White all over the
wor1d.
Adam White owns a large house in Sussex where Adam White lives with Adam White's
wife Jane and Adam and Jane White's two children, Margaret and Peter. Adam, Jane,
Margaret and Peter White have three cats, two dogs, a horse and fifteen ducks. Adam,
fane, Margaret and Peter White have lived in the house for five years, ever since Adam
and iane White sold Adam and Jane lVhite's house in London and moved south.

2,10
It7

ul ,,(1rroq1ne ar{} arueu o1 Sur,teq raleads al{l tnoqlrM 'luaualels e o3 firroqlne

+l 'ase) srr{}
pual ruro] aarssed aql pue.Tl_I"msiSatr:a{l'pasn sr a^rss€d Ipuosradrur ue uar{M
'euallpq sllrl lqHll lalor^ Erlln lEql u^rou)I sr lI
',{e;rap qtool 1ua,ra;d o1 padlaq tqgrluns teq} s0E6I aqt uT pare^oJsrp ss^
lI
:saldutuxa asa4l la loo-I

a^rssed Ieuosradtul '€

'aw04s u st qol st4 lsol a4 l01tJ
rt1td a st alal os aLuD) aLl ]DqI
:aldtuexa ro1 '1r areidar plno,^ asnpl) unou aLIl leql ,r(1arypn f:a,r 1nq ,alqrssod
sr lr ' Jla 'arueqs e s;r 'd1d p s;r se sase.rqd r{Jns raue asnell unou e saledorlue lI uar{M
'qo[ slq lsol aq (leql) aweqs e s,11
.elPI os arue) aq (leql) .{1rd e s;1
. :saldwaxa asaql 1D 40oj
esnelJ unou e SurledDquy c

'aurl aHl parelda.r seq 1r

'araq 'leql .,{es aldoad atuos lng JaLIlea.4{ aq} lnoqe 3ur11e1 ur spr{ ll auo aql ol alor relrrurs
e s,{e1d 1r'suorssardxa qJns u1 i{pearle IJoIJ/o ual s;J se suorssardxa qf,ns a^eq oslp aM

st /iap rt1aao1 y*
'st Sutway*
:des louuer ar14 'pareldar aq louueJ pue Surueaw ou spr{ lr /araH
'.{ep ,,{1a.r.o1 e s,11
'Sururer s;y
'saldwuxa asa4l la
4oo'I
rarllPeM eql lnoq€ 3uq1e1 .I
'aJuaraJar due 1noq1r.rt uorlrsod 1rafqns aql
ur pasn sr lr uaq,\ suorse)Jo 'JaAaMoq ,ale araql '1q8r1uns o1 arnsodxa pareldar spq lr /araH
'suorlf,aJur
raqlo lualard o1 suaas oslp lI 'Irelle lreaq e Jo >lsrr aql saspar)ap 1q311uns o1 arnsodxl
:alduexa 3ur.uo11o1 aLIl ur sp '1r areldar pue ase.rqd unou
Jo unou raL{lo aluos o} )iJeq ratar IIrn ll ler{} tJadxa a.r.r 'unouord e sr Jr asnp)ag 'unouord e sr 11

'^Pp P s;I
^la^ol s;1
'Sururer
'1ead ru,l
uooq-;1o8 aql ueqM aSpnf o1 alqrssodrur s,11
'alrqroloru e Surprr unJ s;I CIUOM
',{erap q1oo1 luarrard NOIIfNCIOUINI SVJ/
o1 padlaq lq81luns 1eq1 pare^o)srp sum lI
Z'9IINN
Unit 5.2 If as introduction word
is possible to replace it with the noun clause which foilows the verb. For example:
That sunlight helped to prevent tooth decay was discovered in the 1930s.
This is unusual, however. Also, by using the it form at the beginning, we balance the
sentence. In English, the longer phrases should come towards the end of the sentence (see
unit 5.9).

It is possible to put the passive phrase in the middle of the information. For example:
A dose of sunlight, it is claimed, can lower high blood pressure.
Sunlight, it was discovered in the 1930s, helped to prevent tooth decay.
This creates a dramatic effect where'by the listener has to wait for the complete
information. The speaker/writer has announced the theme or topic, but then interrupts
the information.

Phrases such as it is_ _said, it is claimed, etc. have the effect of the speakers,/writers
distancing themsJveslrom the infoimatlon. The speakers/writers are saying that they
are not certain about the information themselves, but rather it is something they have
heard.
With it is said the transformation rulesare different when it is referrins to an event which
is past or present. For example:
It is said the book was written in only two weeks.
This example can be re-arranged as follows:
The book is said to have been written in two weeks.
In this way the subject of the noun clause becomes the subject of said and the verb in the
noun clause changes to the infinitive form.
When the reference is to a fufure event, however, this transformation does not occur. For
example:
It is said that the railway line to Settle will be sold.
It is not possible to say:
"That the railutatl line to Settle zoill be sold is said.

4. Anticipating a non-finite subject

Look at tltese exantples:
Ifls fun riding a motor-bike.
It costs f2.50 a week to run a motor-bike.
Ifls impossible to judge when the golf-boom will peak.
I(s odd to think that so much fun can be had in such a small town.
When it anticipates a non-finite subject (see Unit 1.3), the non-finite phrase can replace it
as foilows;
Riding a motor-bike is fun.
To run a motor-bike costs [2.50 a week.
To judge when the goif-boom will peak is impossible.
To think that so much fun can be had in such a small town is odd.
As with the'lending authority' statements in 3, the use of it is the one generally preferrei
as this places the longer phrases towards the end of the sentence. But the choice vou mak=
will depend on how you want to focus the information (see Unit 5.9).

242
erz

lp . . . . . (>f)
'pa8upqJ aq plno.rvl ruals{s xel aql ler{l uorlJala aql
ol " " (0
',{-rnluac qluaalq8ra ar{l ur pearq Jo lpol e I€als
'Surure; " (ri)
'alel os aureJ ssaJJns srr{ Jo s,^ au aql l€r{l (3)
'aprn8 rado.rd e lnoqlrr'r qurrlJ ol " " (r)
'azr.rd aql la8 plnorls oq^r aprrap ol '' ' '' (a)
'^ orrourol ,iuuns aq ol " . . . (p)
'1q8ru aq1 ul palp per{ ralsrurlll JarqJ aql leq} ''' (r)
'uaruo.u Sunod Suoue uoururoJ .{.ra,r.uou sr 3ur>1otus leql ' (q)
'arnlral aql pualle 1,uprp nod (e)

a)ueJJo lelrder p sem lr 'llnrIJJIp s,11 ,8uro8 s,11

's,l! 'paurrpl) s,lr /snoraSuep s;r 'umoul spm lr 'aureqs e s,11 'paureal se,vr 11 'fird u s;r
:sasat4d rt,to1tnpot1ur ?utmo11ol ary lo auo Swppa fiq molaq sa)ualuas a41 aqaldwo3
o1t^l {sEI
raq Suraq ,{yanol s,l1 (>i)
'oB o1 aurl s,1y (t)
'uorlpurroJul SurSeurep paureluoJ rulrJ aql leql salJrrJ luaurura,ro8 ur umou1 splv\ lI (r{)
'rauurp loJ arurl ur a^rrre no,{ leql pa1sa83ns sl 1I (3)
'sla^erl aqs uaq.M ralelvr u,!ro raL{ salel sde.trle qlaqpzrlg uaan$ }eql prps sr lJ 0)
'ssel) lsrrJ 3ur11aae;1 aJuaraJJrp ro lol p saleur 11 (a)
'fuenue{ ur s,rlous ualyo 11 (p)
'.,{gea aar.rre o1 sfed 11 (c)
rlep d-rrdxa aql raquraruar o1 luelrodurl s,+I (q)
'rurq aas ],uprp arrl. llrd e s,11 (e)
'saJualuas
Suntoyol a47 lo qtaa lo yad nqjouo utotl asanqd unou a Suutatsuttq rtr1 11 acaldat 'ayltssod ata4p1
auo {sPI

sxsvl - pro/t{ uorlrnpo4ur sP Lt 2.9 +Iun

 UNIT 5.3 The committee disagrees, and has said so in
SO, NEITHEIVNOR
a report.
Americans are too fat. So says one who
admits to being overweight.
The members complained of the
inefficiency; so did the official report.

So can be usecl with a verb to reolace a clause.

Look at this examlrle:
The committee disagrees. It has said so in a report.
In the second sentence, it and so are replacing information from the first sentence. It is a
pronoun and is replacing the noun committee (see Unit 5.1); so is replacing a whole clause.
Without so, the sentence would be rewritten as follows:
The committee disagrees. It has said that it disagrees in a report.
Nozu look at this exontple:
Americans are too fat. So says one rvho admits to being overweight.
Here, so has replaced the clause Americans are too fat.

In the last example, so has been placed at the beginning of the clause. This has the effect of
keeping the focus on the original clause.
In the last example there is also inversion, so that the subject comes after the verb. It is not
necessary. It is possible to say So he says, but So one who is overweight says is unlikely for
reasons of style. The inversion form is unlikely to occur with other verbs, though it is possible
with think. l{ere it is also stylistically better. It would be possible to say the following:
Americans are too fat. One who admits being overweight says so.
There is, however, an imbalance, where the longer part of the sentence comes at the
beginning (see Units 5.2, 5.9).
In addition to say, there are many other verbs that can be followed by so. For example:
He hopes so
thinks so
suPPoses so
does so.
The negative is usually not. For example:
He hopes not
does not
says not.

244
 'uausa)ods Jraql plp raqllau/roN 'uorsnap ,(ue arunouup +,uplp sralsrulur o,lt] aql
:aldtuexa roC 'Jou ro rar{lrau q}l,t\ pauroJ sr a,rrle8au aq1
'IErauaD-djElarJas aql seq os 'EAauaD ur pa^lrre aAeLI sralsrurl4l uSrarog aq1
:aldurexa rol lJefqns + qra^ .{rey11xne
aql .{q pa.MolloJ uaql sl pue aJualuas aql Jo Suruufaq aql }e sauror s.{e.{1e os 'asPr srql ul
'AJUarJrJJaUr
aq+ Jo paurelduor osle lrodar 1enr11o aq1 ',{ruarJrJJaur aql Jo pauleldtuoc sraqr.uau ar{f
:s^^ollo] sP 'osle
qo Surueatu aql spr{ puE /a}pJrpard aql {1uo lnq asnelJ aloq.e\ aql arelda.r }ou saop os 'araH
'1roda.r
Ier)rJJo ar{l plp oS dluarJrJ]aul aql ;o paureldurol sraqtuaru aLiI
:aldwaxa sn1 la 4oo'I
'aserqd e ro asnelJ e ;o lred areldar ol pasn osle sr oS

'lq8ramJano sr oq.^ auo s.{es 'os loN

roJ asnelr aql Jo Suruur8aq aql
:alduexa
te 'os lou Surllnd ,,{q parurol sr aaqeBau aql 'asnelr aql Jo Suruur8aq aql 1e pareld sr os uaqM

'os {urql l/useop aq:|na

XOS DNINUVM
rou/raqlrau'os€Ellun
Unit 5.3 So, neither/nor - TASKS ifl
-Et
Task one
ln the following dialogue two people are discussing a new plan concerning members ot' the staft' ot'
their instituteusho spend working time on oaerseas aisits. Complete the dialogue, filling in the
missing words zuith the correct form of the u:ords in brackets to make a clause with so or not. The
first two haae been written for you.
Example:

(") [ thirK g-o-'

&) I Cenl!- lhirrk ee-,

Tim: Will you reach an agreement on the plan to curtail overseas visits?
Art: I (a) (think).We've almost finished discussions now.
Tim: What about an agreement on research projects?
Ari; No, I (b) (think). In fact, I (c) (hope) because I don't think the agreement as it stands
gives us a very good bargain.
Tim: We could renegotiate it iater.
Art: I (d) (suppose).
Tim: The head of the unit (e) (say) iast week. He said he would reopen discussions
immediately any agreement was signed
Art: \f he (f) (do), that would make any agreement rather silly, don't you think?
Tim: I (g) (suppose). But it would get us over the position we are in now where we need
somewhere to start further discussions. In a way it would take us a step forward.
Art: | (h) (hope). But we mustn't make ourselves look silly. It will seem to everyone that
either we don't know our own minds, or that we're trying to trick them.
Tim: I (j) (think). People will realise that it's only a stage in the negotiations. I don't think
they'll two criminals.
see us as
Art: I (k) (hope).
But your credibility is weak at the moment.
Tim: Do you really (l) (think)?
Arf: Don't you see anything you don't want to?
Tim: I (m) (suppose). That's how I survive.
Task two
Read the following information about the people and then complete the sentences about them below,
using so, neither/nor. Some examples haae been written t'or you.
Examoles:
Sara was born in March.
5o was Marc.
Miles is going to the USA next year.

9_o_ ere Hglgf gC Darid,

Rowan didn't go to university.
Nor did Marc and Sara,
246
 'om1
4sul Lu pLtl4
a\l Jo suosuadwo) a4aw puu 'pl]om aLll punota Jo lityunot umo .Lnort w taqln 'sa1tr xts lo 4rtttt
aarql {sEI
'ssaulsnq u/\to slt{ a^eq o} s1ue,,lt' ptneq (1)
'reaA lxau VSn aql o1 o3 1,uo,n ereg (f)
'sruual s.,{e1d rre61 (q)
'raqolJo ur parrr€ur prneq (3)
1oB
'JalIJ.lv\ e aq Ot Sluelvt uPl\^oll G)
's0l6l aq] ur parrreur 1aB 1,uprp uemoy (a)
':alq8nep auo ,,{1uo sPrl ualaH (p)
ileqlool o)rl l,usaop ereg (r)
'9t rarye loor{rs le degs 1,uprp rre61 (q)
'{}rsra,rrun ;e srrs,,(qd pea.r pr,req (e)

plroM aql punor Ires ol :sluaM ol

JalrJM e aq :sluuM
VSn ul rPad txau puads o1 :suulcl rea.,{ lxau )lJoM
vsfl ur :sualcl
qJnuJ lou :suv aJuep 'JISnru 'eruaurJ :suv
Surqurlc
pue Surunur.us dsa 'uods IIe :7todg Surqlou :1todg
lsrleurnoI :410M Iaqf,esl :410M
slsfqd pPaJ - dlrs;arrrun :palD)np7 {.ro1srq peal - .{lrsra,trun :paftJnp1
1:rB1's,{oq7-g :uatpltq) slx3 7 :uaryyt13
8l-0r -9I :pautaw gl_l_gl" :pau)Dw
6r-9-62 :urog n9-9-9I :u.tog
uaIaH sallt tr

ralIJA p aq ol :sluaM doqs u.uo slt{ u^{o ol sluaM

real lxau aruerl ur asnoq e ,{nq o1 :sull(I VSn ul rea{ lxau palrle\u 1aB i1v"r : sutllcl
PU]AUIJ
ol sao8 ]nq arlear{l a{rl l,usaop :suv allPaql
eluaurf, pue :sl.tv
Surqurp sa>1r1 .{1uo :1todg sruual .,{1uo
sa1r1 :yodg
aJr.Masnoq :4toM raSeuetu doqs saqlop :4toM
9l lltun Iootils :palD)np1 9I lllun looq)s :palD)np7
lrr81's.,ioqy-g :uatpltll) auoN :uatplu.lJ
09-t-Ir :pautaw 1ar{ lou :paulrJw
8t-9-t :utoB tg-t-62 :utog
UP1|{OU JIPtrAI

raq)eal e aq ol :sluaM ssaursnq u^{o srr{ uels ol :sluaM

rea,{ lxau a)uerC o1 o3 1II.u :stlold read lxau VSn ol oB 11r.u :suolcl
arleaql aql salrl :sltv arleaql ar{l o} 03 l,usaoP aqJnru lou :sltv
[eq+ooJ Ileqloo, lou
lou lnq lsruual 'dsa '1rods lsour :qtodg lnq 13urr.ur.ur/v\s dsa 'gods lsoru :yods
Lrelanas :4)oM lolld :ryoM
8I lllun loor.irs :p410)np7 sJrsdqd pear - ,{lrsra,rrun :pawJnp1
syrr8 7 :uatpu4) 1.rr8 1'sioq Z - t :udtplnl)
9L-8-T€ :pautaw 8l-0L-9L :pautalN
,9-€-6 :utog 6l-9-zl :utog
EJeS PI^€O
s{sel - rou/raq}Iau 'os €'E llun
 UNIT 5.4 In the USA, the number of psychiatrists has
increased ninefold since 1948 and the ranks
CO-ORDINATING
of clinical psychologists have expanded
CONIUNCTIONS fifteen times.
The official language is Arabic, but there
are also other officially recognised
languages.

Co-ordinating coniunctions link^two clauses of equal importance. The most commonly used
co-ordinating conjunctions are,and-and but./There are others, such as yet, either. , . or/
neither . . nor, notonly. . . butalso.
l. And
And is a neutral link between two clauses. It can link facts, such as statistics; and it can
link events in a narrative.
Look at these exntrples:
In the USA, the number of psychiatrists has increased ninefold since 1948 and the
ranks of clinical psychoiogists have expanded fifteen times.
When and is used to link clauses that state facts, the order of the clauses will depend on
how the speaker wishes to focus the message (see Unit 5.9). We could say:
In the USA, the ranks of clinical psvchologists have expanded fifteen times since 1948
and the number of psychiatrists has increased ninefold.
This would not change the meaning; it would give a different focus to the message.
Look at this exarnple:
He went into the theatre and bought a ticket.
Here, the order of the clauses indicates the order in which the events occurred. If we
change them around, the events occur in a different order. For example:
He bought a ticket and went into the theatre.

2. But
The use of but signals that the second clause says something unexpected or something
which is in opposition or in contrast to the first clause. For example:
In Iraq, the official language is Arabic, but there are also other officially recognised
languages.
Here, the second clause seems to contradict the first one.
As with and, when we are dealing with facts like the above, the order of the clauses will
depend on the focus the speaker wishes to put on the statement (see Unit 5.9). Thus, we
could say:
There are other officially recognised languages in lraq, but the official language is
Arabic.
This would not alter the meaning of the statement; there would only be a shift in focus

And and but

Compare these e rantples:
In the USA, the number of psychiatrists has increased ninefold since 1948 and the
ranks of clinical psvchologists have expanded fifteen times.

2-18
6VZ

'(anoqe p aas) uorlrunluo) aql

Jo lred r{Jpa raUE a)ua}uas aq1;o slred aures aql aq lsnru araql 'ro ' ' ' reqlra qll^r sV
'qra^
urpru ar{l aJo1aq .{lalerparurur ro lnq ra11e .{lalerparuurr aq ueJ oslp 1o uorlrsod aq1

XOS DNINUVM

rurr{ qlrlv\ sralrenb pareqs osIE p€q aq lnq '3rag qllzvr par{JrElu srrog peq dluo 1o51
:aldurpxa roC pue Jo asn rrleqdua ue ol Jelrurrs sr osIE lnq' ' 'f1uo
-. 1o1q

oslP lnq ' ' ' {1uo 1o51 'g

iaajjor ro eal a>lrl no^ plnoM

grodar aql yo sardor aarql lnq auo 1sn[ lou palupm aH
'8rag qly"r s.rapenb pareqs pue por{Jrpur ppr{ slrog
:aldruexa roC 'suralr Is)IxeI aleulpJo-oJ osle ro 'lnq 'puv

'Jou' ' 'raqlrau sr urJoJ anqe8au aq1

to ad,tlpa.rordde .* ,.t;:f;;i;:::J::t;,",tiJi"Z:'lkY',:;I::ur:#':,;,1:1.
'lrurlxa aruoJaq llrlv' tt to alpqr\ anlq a,q1 8u4unq n47ra dols suorlpu IIV*
:l)erJo)ur arP saJualuas Surzvrollo; aql 'uorl)un(uor q:ea ,l,,rolloJ lsnru a)ualuas
aql yo ged arues aql 'ro ' ' raqlla asn a.4 uaqm 'suorlcun(uoJ alqnop ral{lo r{lr.M sV

XOS DNINUVM

' '3nq Surdaals laaqs e ql1z"r 3uo1e 3eq Surdaals u.ttop e (q) ro ad,i1 pa.,rordde
aqt ;o 8eq Surdaals laaqs p (e) raqlra asn lsnw (yg1 qsrllors aq] Jo) raquraru r{reE
'lrurlxa aluo)aq Ilr.l.t lr ro aleL{^{ anlq aql Sultunq do+s suorlBu Iie rarllrg
:aldruexa roC alrleuJallp ue ro aJIogJ e saleJlpur Jo ' ' ' raqll1
ro' ' ratIlIE ',
'oraq smau poo8 aruos sr arar{}'saurlpeaq Jr}erupJp a{pru uauo sralsesrp q3noql ua,rg
:(9.9 4un aas) q8noql
uala uorlJunfuor aleurproqns aq] Sursn .{q aldtuexa aq} aserqdar o1 alqrssod aq plno.4{ lI
'araq s.r.rau poo8 auros sr araql 1er( isaurlpeaq )Ileuerp a{eru uauo sra}s€srcl
:alclruexa ioJ uorlrsocloo lJajrp
ueql uolssaJuoJ Jo auo arour sr 'ralamoq 'lJatJo aql 'paluasa;d auo IsJIJ ar{l ol lse4uoJ
ur ro uoqrsoddo ur eapr ue Sunnporlur sr lr leql ul 'lnq o] uorlualul reprurs e sleu8rs 1a1
q8noql uala /le1 '€
'slsrr1erqr.,(sd roJ saurl autu dluo o1 pasoddo
se slsrSoloqrdsd lerrurp roJ sarurl uaaurJ - asparf,ur ar{} ur aJuaJaJJIp aql ol uorlualle
.\^prp a.^^ 'lnq asn a^{ uaqM s}JeJ aql Jo luarua}els lE4nau e salef,rpul puE Jo asn aql
'sawrl uaaurl papuedxa arreq slsr3o1oqr,{sd lerrurlJ Jo s)iuer
aql lnq gt6l arurs plolauru pasearrur spr{ s}srrlprqr,,{sd ;o raqurnu aql 'VSn aW uI
suorlrun[uor Surleurpro-of t g llun
Unit 5.1 Co-ordinating conjunctions
When we begin with not only, the order of the clause after not only is like that in the
question form. For example:
Not only were the police late, but (also) they did not bring a search warrant.
This also applies to clauses beginning with neither and nor. For example:
The police were late; nor did they bring a search warrant.
There are several other words after which the same pattern is followeci. Usually these
words have a negative aspect. These are some of them:
hardly, rarely/ seldom, only, never, not.
Hardly had he arrived when the announcement was made.
Seldom have I seen a better performance.
Only now has she agreed to take part.
Never have I been so humiliated.
Not even for a million dollars would I take part in a marathon.

250
r9z

r.udr gII ueql ralseJ oB 1ou plnoqs slsrpdr

lsPJ oot oB 1ou plnoqs slsrlcdr
raguol lepad plnoqs slsrpdr
ralse1 lepad plnoqs s1sr1c.{r
rud-r gg1 sr 8ur11epad rot aler lsaq aql
earql dnor3
alll slr{ 11e .{ueduor;ood e roJ {ro.M ol peq a^eq plnom aq
rurrJ poo1 wazot! u^{o sn{ dn 1as uapdsv ulqoy
u/v\o srq ;o ,{auou alllll PPq aq
punJ luaulsalur lpJol p r.uorJ dlaq papaau aq
su.ralqo.rd MoU-r{spJ paleJ uoos eq
o1l,ll dnorD

uoddns lualuu;aao8 paau daql

Surllasunoo 0gI arp araq]
saJrJJo
saser SurllasunoJ .^vr.au 000/ lZ alpweq daql
puelSug ur sassaursnq ller'us JoJ saJlual eJrNas ualala aJe alar{l
auo dnorS
'rutol uorlsanb
ary liqpamollot an suotqcun[uot tpt4m Ta8nl 1,uoq'frptassacauun waql Jaadat ol iou ]aprc w spnm
1no Sutaaal rc sunouotd LIilm sunou Sunaldat sa tpns rttussacau sa?ua7t liua atlaytT 'mopq saJualuas
to sdno8 a47 Jo qtaa ur uat nofr sa sa)ualuas luaw su awqwn suoucun[uot Su4aurpto-oc Sutsy'1
auo {sPI

s)svl - suorlrunfuor Supeurpro-o] v. g llun

.f,
 UNIT 5.5
CONNECTERS 1: contrast,
result, difference The behaviour of apes and monkeys is very
illuminating. . . However some recent
books have over-emphasised the
similarities between man and monkeys.

Connecters link together two sentences of equal importance. As rvith co-ordinating con-
junctions and clauses (see Unit 5.4), the order of the two sentences cannot be chansed withour
altering the meaning.
A co-ordinating conjunction must always come at the beginning of its clause, but the position
of connecters is variable. if you put the connecter at the beginning or end of the clause, it is
the connecter itseli which is highlighted. For example:
It was only a short article. However, Janet felt entitled to call herself a writer from the day
it was accepted by a magazine.
It was only a short article. Janet felt entitled to call herself a writer from the day it was
accepted by a magazine, however.
When the connecter comes at other points in the sentence, it is the r.t'ord that precedes it that
is stressed. For example:
It was only a short article. Janet, however, felt entitled to call herself a writer from the dav
it was accepted by a ma6;azine.
It was only a short article. Janet felt entitled, however, to call herself a writer from the day
it was accepted bv the magazine.
This is made made clearer in spoken language, where there would usually be a pause
surrounding the connecter.
As in the case of conjunctions and clauses, the different relationships between sentences are
made clear by the selection of a connecter, regardless of position in the sentence. In this unit.
we look at three relationships: contrast, result and difference.

l. Suggesting a contrast
Look at this exLttnple:
The behaviour of apes and monkevs is very illuminating. . . . However, some recent
books have over-emphasised the similarities between man and monkevs.
However is tlre connecter which shows the link between the two sentences. You can see
this clearly in the following chart:

The behaviour of apes some recent books have

and monkevs is very However over-emphasised the similarities
illrrminrlincr between man and monkevs.

The first sentence is very positive. The second sentence expresses a negative view. There
is always this kind of opposition with this type of connecter. Another connecter which
expresses a similar relationship is nevertheless.

252
t9z

'(8'9ltun
aas) seaJaqfr sr drr{suorlelar relrrurs € sassardxa qrrr{.lr uollJun{uor Suqeurproqns aqJ
'asnel) ro aJualuas sir ;o tuluu€aq aql reau Jo ]e saruoJ ,{11ensn pueq Jaqlo aql uO
'slsrEolorJos snourpJ
o.Ml asaq] uaaMlaq aJuaJaJJIp lueuodur ue o] uorlualle Surmerp sr ralrr.^.l aql aJJH
'u€rlell sr 'pueq raLllo aql uo 'otared 'raqdosolqd qruaJC e sr
ruraq)rnq asne)aq .,{lqrssod s1 sli{I 'qreordde luaraJJrp p a)ie} olared pue ruraq)irnq
aldwnxa stll1 1a 4oo-I
pusq-ffn-_o aql uo Sursn ,{q aruara;;1p al{t asrspqdua
ueJ aM 'eapr Sursoddo .ro SurlserluoJ p ssardxa u€J aal .l,toq a^oqp I ur uaas a^eq aM
a)uaraJJrp Sursrsuqdurg'€
'snql'os',{lluanbasuor
:drqsuorlelar arups aql ssardxa q)lqm sJalJeuuoJ rar{lo aJ€ 3ur-uo1o1 aq1
'aJualuas plrof,as aLIJ ut eapr
aL{} Jo esnEJ aql sr af,ua}uas lsrrJ aql Jo papr ar{l 'dla^rleurallv 'aJualuas }srrJ aql uI palels
sr leq.M Jo llnser e sr arualuas puoras aql ul passardxa eapr aql leql sMoqs aroJaraqJ
'slsrluar)s paraprsuoJ aq ol palue,M
aarql IIe 'aroJereql 'dpn1s 1o p1ar1 ^,{ue ur luelrodur se.+r lsrlualf,s e paraprsuof,
aq o1 'dSolorros Jo .{pnls aql dn pauado aarql asar{} r-raqzr.t d;nluar r,{luaa}L{3ra aq} uI
:aldwaxa sry4 ]a 40o'I
-z
llnsau
'lef pue lnq suorlJun{uot Sugeurpro-or aqt ol
sasnplJ uaa,lrlaq diqsuorlelar rpJr.urs e ssardxa ssalaqgalau pup ra^emoq sJalJauuo) ar{I
'll palll aldoad .,{uetu os asnp)aq ure8e 1r r{lleM Ileqs I 'ssalaqua^aN
'uorsrlalal uo umor{s sen lr aurrl lsrrt aqt ailJ)aJae 8u:.3ut5 aryJ aIII l,up}p I
:aldwuxa sryl 1a 4ooj

Isralf,auuo)99llun
 Unit 5.5 Connecters L - TASKS -Et
te
Task one
Read the following text and place the connecters in bold type in the appropriate column in the table
below.

On the one hand, Suleiman the Magnificent (1495(?)-1566) was a statesman, warrior,
administrator and law giver. On the other hand, he was also a poet and patron of the arts.
His fleets dominated the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa and ravaged the coasts of
Italy and Spain. Consequently, his armies were the terror and admiration of the West. Vasr
wealth flowed from his victories, and this was increased by trade in spices, coffee and raw
silk, as well as precious gems, rock-crystal and porcelain. The arts, however, flourished and
Suleiman's architects transformed the face of the great cities of his empire. Thus Istanbul, as
seat of his court, exercised a powerful attraction to craftsmen from Europe, Iran and the
Ottoman Empire. They produced works of art - textiles, carpets, illuminaied manuscripts,
goldsmith's work, arms and armour - which were the envy of Europe.
His family life was not free from trouble, however. His younger son Mehmed, whom he made
his heir, died early. Consequently, a struggle grew up among his younger sons. Mustafa, the
eldest, considered himself to be the heir. Suleiman's wife Hurren opposed Mustafa and
supported the other sons. A civil war threatened. It would be wrong to blame Hurren for all
the troubles. On the other hand, she did present Mustafa as a traitor. He was, therefore.
summoned to his father's presence. Suleiman did not discuss the troubies with him, however
While Mustafa was with his father, he was seized and executed.

Making concessions/ Showing results/

contrasting ideas consequences Emphasising difference

Task two
Read the t'ollowing passage and use connecters to
t'ill in the missing words.
This is a time when the Earth's woodlands are disappearing at an alarming rate. One of the
world's poorest, most densely populated countries has, (a) pioneered the first
successful replanting of a tropical forest. There was, (b) often the possibility of failure.
Large areas were laid waste during the war years. (c) there were large areas ot
grassland, which easily caught fire in the intense heat in the dry season. (d) . . . . . ., man\.
young saplings were burnt in these fires. So, the scientists made a forest cover of strong
exotic trees. When these trees were tall enough, they planted the weaker young saplings. It
has taken the Vietnamese more than a decade to bring back only a small numbeiof rp".i", or
trees (e) the recovering patch of the Ma Da woods stands out as a fragment of green.

Task three
(al Think of (or imagine) a famous person in history and then make notes about his/her life.
(b) write a short passage connecting the notes together, after the style ot' Task one.

254
c_gz

'SPJOM Jeqlo ur aselL{d

aql asn ol sr srr{l Surop are nod 1eq} 3ur11eu3rs Jo {P.M rar{louv uorlsanb srq paserqdar seq
pue lnoqe 3ur>11e1 se.lr ar{ leq.^ poolsrapun seli rapeal arll arns 8ur1eu arar{ sr Jalrr.^r aql
2,{lrleuosrad ,o uorlrun; e ,,(lrrelndod sr ',{Elrt reqlouE 11 1nd o1
:alduexa rol ral)auuol e Sursn ,{q slql leu8rs uer aM ruroJ raqloup
ur lnq 'pres aler{ a.ry\ 1eq,u leadar a.tr 'poolsrapun uaaq aneq a.r,t aJns a)eru ol 'sarurlaruos
drlrelf, '€
'qder8ered ro aJualuas aq] Jo Suluufaq aq1 le auror sralrauuor asaql
'lalretu aql uo a8uer arrrd slr ur JeJ rallaq ou s,aJar{l'dn tuns oa
:aldr.uexa Jo{ 'uorsnlJuoJ ul ro dn runs ol se L{Jns
saserqd qlrM uorsnlJuo) e ol auroJ Jo prps a^pq a.tt l€r{.l,r ;o f.reruurns e alpru ol lnoqe
arp a,{r leql leu8rs a.tr 'lnoqp alrJ.ry\ Jo ,{es o1 1ue.rvr a.,ur lpr{rrt Jo pua aql ol auroJ a.4{ uaqM
zfteunung 'Z
'asnplJ Jo aJualuas aql ,o Suruufaq a,{l le atuoJ fllensn sra}JauuoJ asaql 'saspJ
qloq ul '{11se1 ro ,(11eug se r{Jns sJalJauuoJ asn an /lsrl aql
Jo pua aql ol auroJ alt uar{M
''''lPql lauv''''uaql'' "rIlIAr
upls oI Sursn ,{q passardxa aq osle uer Eur.rapro ue qrns 's)iooq arou 1q3noq aq
se asnoq srq ur aperu araa,r sa8ueqJ ar{} qlrq./vr ur rapro aql lno 3ur11as sr Jalrr.ry\ aq} 'araH
'pre,{)lJeq aql aq o} pasn IPLI1\,\ olur f11eul1 pue :lI ol lxau auo
aql olul peards .{aq1 uaql lasnoq aql ,o luotJ ar{l lp ruoor p ur araM siooq aq} ',lsrl{
:aldurexa rog " "{l1eurg " "uaql " "lsrlC asn a.tr 'aseJ sIL{l u1 'peuaddyq s8urql
q)rr{,lr ul rapro ar{l .ry\oqs ol sr raqloue 'rapro ur s8ulql 3ur11nd ;o ,{e.,tr. auo sI lsrl e 3ur1e141
'uSrsap snqe11,,{s ro3 srspq raqloup apr,ro.rd' slll)s rnoJ lpuolltperl aql'i11eu11
:aloruPxa Jog
,{11se1 ro ,(11eur1 sp r{rns sralJauuo) asn elr '}srl aql ,o pua rql ol auor a.lt uaq6
'r1s'''' {;puorag "'' f1;sr1g
asn a^{ 1r aruelrodurl Jo srural ur sr rapro aqJ 'prlr{l Jo puoJas aql ueql luelrodtut arolu
sr aLIl lpql sl uorlsaSSns aq] 'ra^a/v{ot{ 'uaUO aruel;odtut Jrar{} Jo JapJo uI lou
^\arl lsrrJ
pue pamarl aq ueJ Surqleuos rlJrr{.t/r ur s,{e.rl guaray;rp ar{l }p 3ur1oo1 sI araq rallr/vr aqI
' ' ' InJasn aq IIIrvr ll 'prIrII ' ' ' 'uorl)e paar8e ue
Jo srspq aql aq u€) lr 'puoJas ' ' ' 'aurnsal e apt.ro.rd o1 snqelr{s aql asn deu a,u '1srrg
:sasnqe11.{s Surrreq ro, suosear aql - seapl s1s11 aldruexa 8urrnrol1o1 aq1

rapro 'I
'uoqeruJoJur P4xa aJnporlur
ol pue 'papr ro luaualpls snor^,rard p sarJIrEIJ 1eq1 uopuadar p aJnporlur o1 ',{reururns
e leu8rs ol 'aJualuas e ur rapro relnllred e ur sluala pue s€apr lsrl ol pasn aq up) srelJauuoJ

'uoqJp srq roJ suoseal raqlo dn aleru

o1 ,{1a111sl alorureqlrnJ pup 'uorlElrloru
anq srq Jo arEMsun sr uPlu aq1 ,r1rea13 uoIlPruroJur
' ' ''InJasn P4xa'drrelt'druururns
aq IIIrrl lI 'prlql ' ' ' 'uortre paar8u ue
Jo srspq aql aq usJ 1r 'puoJas ' ' ' 'grunsar 'raplo :z sualf,llNNof,
e apl.rord o1 snqellr(s aql asn u(eur aru'lsrrg
9'9 IINN
 Unit 5.6 Connecters 2

We also use to put it another way and in other words to rephrase what another person has
said, especially when that person has been very hesitant about expressing an idea which
is unpleasant. For example:
A; I'm sorry, but, you see, . . . it's not me, but it's difficult with you here. . . .
B: In other words, you want me to leave:

4. Extra information
Look at this erample:
Clearly the man is unaware of his true motivation, and furthermore he is likelv to
make up reasons for his action.
With this type of connecter, the second clause adds to the information we have in the
first. Other connecters expressing the same relationship are also, in addition, besides,
moreover.
The co-ordinating coniunctions rvhich express similar relationships are and and not
only...butalso.

256
tgz

\q) ut sa
suotl)ttllsLtt aql alumat Lta4J'aaoqa (e) ut sli ruop aq oJ 4nm awos,toJ stt)tJ)fi)lsut aLuos lno las
aarql {sPI

ol qsrrod Ierau . rdde dlleurg '.{11n1arer eare aql q}oours oo ".ltq:,,""T ll:*"#
roJ lleM 'raded sse13 aurJ aroru auros paau 1yr.u no^,{ osly ""u,
'd;essarau aq IIr,M suorlerrldde
le.ra^as 'arourarllrnC 'qsrlod i{ruarC luaredsue;1 dldde o1 paau uar{l IIIM no^ .raded
sse13 aur; r{lrm qnr uaql flalaldluor lrpru aql .{emp adens ol aJruI dreqs e alpl lsrrC

'aaoqa (e) Ltt asoql a4r1 sutlrqtntqsut

to
lstl D str ' atnlru.trtJ uo s\tuLu r,lctots lo pu laS ol oro\ noh sllrl q)rym '::aq ?utmo11oJ a41 aytLna2l (q1

'qloolus lr qnr /]as seq rallrt aql ralyy (,r)

'ralllJ poo1vr tlll,!\ 3at aq+ pue Irolq pooM aql uaaMlaq lurot aql IIIJ (^l)
'aJelcl olur )iJolq poo,/v{ aql MarJS (rrr)
'IJolq poom al{t pue rreqc aql riloq o}ur saloq .tra;rs 1olrd IIIrC (ll)
3a1
1o arard e rurrl (r)
'3a1 aql ;o adeqs aql llns ol poo^.{

('swtal la)tu7Jal a41 ilu mou4 lou op noli lr taqluw

|D'ol, 01 aaa4 nort Taqm lo uo\dutsap sttonu\uo) u a#,Lm'atow Surppa to dn Sutwwns
l,usaop
'Stuapn tol staltauuoc Sutsp sna7) uo s3a1 ua,zaun Suundat n! suor1tn4sut auos an ataH (e)
oM+ {sel
'e,le[ 1o lred srq] ur .{eme re; Jalau se,u lSeu
l)elg 'suoruap Sursno.re aq lq8ru .taq1 ,rer
ar{l SulqJnol .{q leql lurql 01 paruaas z(aq1 'rauueu paualq8rry ripq8rls e ur pue n1a,qs .raqler
reJ aL{l L{rnol plno^ uraql Jo o,lrl aLIl 'dddeq aqrnb se.u I arns araM .{aq1 uaq.tr (q) .d"r8ue
Suruoraq se.lr I Jr aas ol atu }e dlsnorlner parool .{aql atull aql IIV 'rer aq+ ol rle^{ pue spueq
urol plnor* .,{aql " (3) 'puarrJ e ol 8urq1auos .,{es plno.u ar{ " " . . 9) 1a:ue13 palsaralurun
'lEnsPr e a,Lr8 plno.vr uosrad aql " " " (a) .{lrapro d:a,r. sE1i{ reJ aq} paqreordde aldoad aql
fe.u' aq1 ]uaruasnurp d1aar1 1o 1o1 e Surlean sem rer par atilli aql 'tl r{Jnol o} fu1 pue reJ aql
punor rarilPg ol arul] punot tuar{l Jo raqurnu a8rel e '.,{snq .{-ra.l pauraas sra8ellr.t aql q8noqlly
'tJo pa{lp./\^ pue pa^arlar paruaas ,{aq1 'luauraarSe pappou
I
'rar{}oJq s,upru aq} }aaru ol uaql L{ll.4^ oB o1 au: luerur l,uprp daql
(p) 'a8elpa aqt punor {ool ot aru toJ Surlsaralur aq plno.M 1r 1eq1 palsa33ns olderdao5
'aru aas o] rano auer daql sE passprrpqrua llg e pa1oo1 .{aq1
'1no 1oB uetu aql pue aq '" " (r) 'aarl e rapun apeqs aql olur ]r anorp olderdao5 .. . .' (q)
'ref, aql Jo lno log I " " ' (e) d.renlsa aql ;o a8pa aql uo sem Je panrrre a.,* a8elpn aq1
'saplsaq 'uoplppp ur 'oslu 'Jaloaloru 'aloruJaq$nJ :arour Surppy
'sprom reqlo ur 'feirt raqloue 11 1nd o1 :reap Surqlauos 3ur1e;41
'uorsnlJuoJ ur 'dn tuns o1 :dn Suruurng
'd11eur; 'lxeu 'uaql 'lsJrJ :(a^uprrpu)
',{1pug 'prrq1 'puoras 'lsrrJ :(seepl) Surraprg
:64 Surmoyol at17 wott stal)auuor Sursn'spto,n Surssrw aql ul Ult ua4l'lxal Suttttollo! ary poa>j
auo {sEI

Eil s)svr - z sralrauuof, 9.9 llun

t/-
 UNIT 5.7 When these trees gained sufficient height,
SUBORDINATE the foresters planted several other species.
CONIUNCTIONS L: place, More forests have been lost in Vietnam
time, manner since the war ended than during it.
Wherever you go in the north-west, you find
signs of new growth.

There are many kinds of subordinate clause, and we have looked in detail at two: conditional
clauses (see Units 2.35-2.39) and relative clauses (see Units 4.H.12).ln this unit and Unit 5.S
we look at several other types.
Like co-ordinating conjunctions (see Unit 5.4) and connecters (see Units 5.5, 5.6), subordinate
conjunctions signal the relationship between the two clauses they connect. The two clauses
are not equal, however. The subordinate clause is alwavs dependent on the main clause. It
can come either before or after the main clause (see Unit 5.9).

Some conjunctions can introduce subordinate clauses of different types. Since, for example
introduces time ciauses (see 1 below) and reason clauses (see Unit 5.8).

1. Place
Subordinate clauses expressing place are introduced by where or wherever. For example
Wherever you go in the north-west, vou can see the signs of growth.

Where very often introduces a relative clause (see Unit 4.11).

2. Time
There are manv aspects of hime rvhich subordinate conjunctions express. The examples
below show their use to describe an event that occurred at a particular point in time, two
events that occurred at the same time, and looking back to a particular time in the past
Look at this example:
When the sfrong trees gained sufficient height, the foresters planted several other
species.
Here, the writer is telling us the particular point in time when something happened
Other conjunctions which express this relationship are as, after, until, before,?q_9gon as.
Look at thesa exnmples:
The Prime Ministerwill step foru'ard as the Queen leaves the stand.
After the war ended in "1975, Vietnamese scientists attemrrted to replant several
species of trees.

258
6ta

'Jr sP /se rauuPl I

'ralaJer{rra 'araqrrl areld
'aIIqM'SP UOOS SP /aJOJaq 'aJurs 'raUP 'sP 'uaqM AlxII

uorlJunluo) alPurproqns

AJeruruns 'i
'l,upeq aq Jr sE 'Parrl s>lool aq
/lla-M daals prp aq 'a'r 'alrsoddo aql sl uorlsaSSns aql
lnq ']JeJ uI 'llam lda1s 1,upeq aq leql
'aldr.uexa puof,as ar{l ur 'Jo 'unr llrM aq af,el lsel aql aq IIIm srril ler{} uorlsaSSns ou sr arar{I
1da1s l,uPPq aq Jl se paTool pue parrl .,{,ra.r. se.\t. ag
'11ar'a
'uru ra^a plnoM aq lsel eql sellr lI tI se 'a)er arll uer aH
:ldwexa roC IEaJun Surqlaruos q]y"r uosiredruoJ ar{} sa)etu Jr sV
'ajII slri IIP prPr{ pa)roM raq}eJ sn{ ler{l IJPJ e sI 1r arunsse UPJ aM
'aJII slq IIP euop peq rer{leJ srq se'preq paIroM aH
:aldruexa rol srualr IsJIxal oml arpduror_g; pasn sI oIII ]eql de^{
Jtups aql ur pasn sr pup'leal sr q)rLlrn,r Surqlauos sarpduor sy Jr seio se,{q pa-rnpo.rlur
a.re .{aq1 'auop spm ro pauaddeq Surqlatuos 1rlorl aqrrJsap Uer sasnulJ alpurproqns
rauu€trAJ '€
'1sed sr leql arup ur lurod )IJrJeds p ol sr aruaraJar ar{l araH
.--i--.r rrprrt
'tt,i 9tttlnn *,a,
papua Jel\{ er{l oJuls rueularn uI lsol uaaq a^eq slsalo] arohl
:aldruexa roC 'aJurs asn ueJ a.u lsud aq] ur erup relnrqrud e ol )Jeq 3ur1oo1 are a,ta uaqM
'sasnpl) Jql uaamlaq drqsuorlela.r srql ssa.rdxa ol pasn aq osle ue) sV
'uorlnlos
aldurrs arour p laas o] Surd;1 a.ra.lt sraqlo 'qrreasar JerI uo palrom erJn3 elnlM
:aluq aruPs aql lE Suruaddeq are slua^a o.4^l aql 'aldwexa lxau ar{} uI

'ryaq FB 1ym nort ua4m*

:APs lou op aM
'1ruq 1aB no,{ uaqrrt 'paLisrurt aq tll,|!l. >iro.4^ aqI
:.,(es a1,4 'suorlrunfuoJ asaq] JaUp pasn Jelau sr asual arnlnJ ar{l

XOS CNINUVM
'ue) no,{sP uoos sP atuo]
'palrrru seq uosrad lsrrJ aql aloJaq '.{pea.r slrodar ar{+a^eq llaqs 'xorax q}lM
'alPI ool s;r IFun lreM liuoc

1 suorlrunfuor a]eurproqns l'g llun

 nit 5.7 Subordinate coniunctions 1- TASKS E
Task one
Belou, are seuerql pnrts oi seiltetlces. Connect as manv os vou can by usirg one of the subordinntt
corriunctions from the following list. Some examples haoe heert written for you.
Exanples:

As air-braffic irr*eases in Sor.rth-EasL Englar'td, a hn€jor

catasLroph" s."r.lt. possible rn Britain.
Whgn y9l 999 lhlg si9n: gou -ar? -sure of a ffig"dlg wgl:o*,e.
Time: when, as, after, since, until, before, as soon as, while.
Place: wherc, wherever.
Manner: as, as if.
air-traific increases in South-East England
she looked at her opponent directly
buy now
you'll find the meal has been prepared
businessmen throughout Europe are re-examining their positions
there is a higher growth in industry
you do anything else
she knew she would win
you like it
you see this sign
open this letter
prices are stili at last year's level
there are higher taxes
1992 approaches
you are sure of a friendly welcome
a major catastrophe seems possible in Britain

Task two
Read the t'ollozuing text and fill in the missing utords, using the appropriate conjunctions from the lis'
in Task one.
David Lewis has just been sacked as the Managing Director of Poseur. It seemed to have
happened very suddenly, (a) .... .. the rest of the board had been holding conspiracr
meetings at midnight. (b) . . . . . . he took over the company in 1980, Lewis has made Poseu:
one of the big names in High Street. (c) . . . . . . you go throughout Britain, you will find a
Poseur store or one of its subsidiaries such as Curtains. It seemed at one time that (d) . . . .
one shop had been opened, negotiations were being finalised to take over another (e) . . .
there was a town without a Poseur, Lewis would bring his team to look over the place

260
 L9Z

'oml 4s0f ur )u0

a41 o+.tafwrc'MaLll jnoqb Jtodat a alum puu rtpuatat smau aLfi ut uaaq sa7 ollm uostad a Jo ryy.tt
aarql {sPI
'araq1 .{ertr srr{ uo aq uoos
IIrM sr.,"ra1 pr^ec 'ales .ro1 doqs .Qdua ue s,araql (!)
'urrr{ roJ lJeq-}as ,{.re.rodrua1 e ,,{1uo
1p,u }l arns aJ€ a.la lnq llurr{ ssnu llpqs aM uo ra}pl sJaqto
.,{uBtu os tllll\,\ plp ar{ ' ' (q) 'll paruroJsuerl sr^.ral 'srolrpl la)reu-u.4top 'Surlsaralurun up
spm rnasod '3uo1e atuer aq ' ' ' ' ' ' (3) leql 11e pa8ueqr sr.ltal '1und Jrq) roJ ldarxa 'uorlr€rlle
rraql asoi ol paruaas sai{lolr 'd.r1unor aql ol parrlar per{ s096I aql to srnauardarlua Sur8urrr.rs
aql raUV 'aurlJap olur auo8 ppl{ ssaursnq uonIsEJ arll 'auaJs aq} uo aure) ar{ ''' ' 0)
sISeI - 1 suorlrunluo) aleurproqns l g llufl
 UNIT 5.8 He may respond to questions, even though
he is still asleep.
SUBORDINATE
. . . in Britain'syllabus'refers to the
CONIUNCTTONS 2: content . . . whereas'curriculum' refersto
concession, contTast, cause the totality of what is to be taught.
and effect, result, purpose He wants things to be neutral, because he
does not want people to impose their ideas.

L. Concession
Even though forms a relationship between clauses similar to that formed by however and
nevertheless (see Unit 5.5). We use even though when the main action rs something
which appears unlikely, given the situation in the subordinate clause.
Look at this example:
He may respond to questions, even though he is still asleep.
Here, the writer is talking about what might happen when someone is walking in their
sleep. Other conjrtnctions which can be used to express this idea are though and
although.

WARNING BOX

Even though cannot be shortened to even. It is wrong to say:

*He may respond to questions ei'en he is still asleep.
,

2. Contrast
Contrast clauses are similar to concession clauses. They usually point out the differences
between two situations. We can use whereas, while or although to introduce them.
For example:
. . . in Britain, 'svllabus' refers to tl're corrtent . . . whereas 'curriculum' refers to the
totality of what is to be taught.
Hirst refers to the 'programme of activities', while Kerr refers to the activities.

3. Cause and effecUreason

Cause and effect and reason clauses answer the question WHY? We can use the
conjurrctions because, since, as and for to introduce them. For example:
FIe wants things to be neutral, because he doesn't want people to impose their ideas.
The writers ciid not speak since they scarcely knew each other.

4. Result
Result clauses tell us the result of sornething.
Look at this erantple:
The director was so moved that he promised his support.
l{ere, so and that are separated and surround the r,r.ord that affects the result. This is ofter
an adjective or adverb. When it is a noun, we use such a . , . that. For example:
In 1960, President de Caulle of France met Prime Minister Shastri of India. Mr Shastr:
was such a small man that President de Gaulle had to bend down to talk to him.
262
gr)a

IOJ
SP rlSnoqlle
leql rapro ul leql"'€q)ns a)uIs AIIqllr qgnoql
lPr{l os lEql ' ' 'os asnPJaq sParar{M qgnoql ua^a

asodrnd llnsau l)aJJa rt) asneJ lsP4uoJ uorssa)uoJ

AJ€rutuns 'g
'paleredas ranau are leql os 'esodrnd Surlleu8rs sasnEIJ ul
'Surlaau raq a8uerre plno) aqs leql os 'atuoq .{1e; >lool aM
:alduexa rog ]u{l replo-ul ,ro leqi
ii arur uraql a)nporlur o1 '8urq1ar.uos Surop roJ asodrnd aq] sn IIal sasnplJ asodrnd
"rr,
asodrnd 'g
7 suorlrunluor al€urproqns 8 g llun
 _E:
nit 5.8 Subordinate coniunctions 2 - TASKS tF_
Task one
Using subordinate conjunctions t'rom the following iist, make as many sentences as you cnn by
linking the clauses belou. Some examples have been written for you.
Examples:
Altlrough 1! 9au be uary havmful, peoptc judge the succcss
of a holida g by lhe sun-t€n.
Whgregg it-9f9. w€6 colsldergd Une srgn of peoptc who
dia dirb g r p_hy.lcal jobl ? nowad,aJ: goq rtrusL hare a tan.
Concession: even though, though, although.
Contrast: whereas, while.
Cause and effect: because, since, as, for.
Result: so. . that,sucha... that.
Purpose: so that, in order that.
people judge the success of a holiday by the suntan
suntan is now considered beautiful
the British insist on going out in the hot sun
it can be very harmful
people try manv methods to protect themselves from the sun
nowadays you must have a tan
it can be very painful
it was once considered the sign of people who did dirty, physical jobs
British people lie out in the mid-day sun
the only real protection is to avoid the sun altogether
people get wrinkles in their skin at a young age
some cosmetics are packed in exotic bottles
there are now many tanning cosmetics
they may not be good for you
with the sun, the skin dries
in the nineteenth century, 'pale and interesting'was fashionable
it won't show for twenty years
with fast planes, it is more dangerous than before
the skin can react to the sun slowly

Task two
Read the follozaing text and fill in the missirtg words zpith subordinate coniunctions chosen f rom tli,
list in Task one.
(a)......onlyafewyearsagothetwomajorpowersietheworldwouldn'ttalktoeachother
theirleadersnowseemunabletokeepapart.(b)......thereisstillalotwhichdividesthen

264
992

'oltl lsal u lxal a41 sa rtbm awas ayJ Lu smau 1o acatd Jua)at u uo luawluo)
aarql {sEI
'alqrssod se uoos sE u€ls sn lai iop ol q)nur llrls sr arar{l (l) 'tuaqt ro; ,,(ueu
roJ preq aq III/\ sl{l ' ' ' ' (I) 'saJuaraJJrp aq} ssar}s uer{} raqler sJaIIaq rlaql ur sar}IrElrurrs roJ
/paulp+ulstu sI lunluaruolu aql
{ool pue sarorlod rrar{l 1'larlal plnoris sluatuuranoS 1e (t)
'a)uer{f, e seq aread lerl} Iaal rvrou orl/r dupur are araq} 'srpm aroLu ou aq Illvr araql uoos leql
lradxa oq.M.MaJ aq uer araql " " ' (q) 'rar{lo qJea o} )lEl ol pauels a.r.eq aldoad o.ul " " ' (3)
pa8ueqr s€q leql IIV 'saprs r{loq uo lsnJtsrp qJnru ool se^ arar{l ''' ' 0) ':e1 .{.rar 1eE
plno,rlr s8urlaar.u asaql lq8noql aldoad 1\tal /os uaag palladslp aq plnor sleal qrns ' ''' (a)
ue8aq s8urlaaur rraql 'aread Burlsel pue lear e Jo af,uptlJ .{ue se.rT ataql llal ^,{poqou " " " (pt
8uorls '' ' ' (p) ser'r aread plro.{r ol lpart{l a\il 's8uriaaur rraql aro1ag alels le sr plro^l
aql ;o .Qa1es aql '' '' ()) tuaqt satrun leql aroul sr araql lelll IaaJ qloq .{aql ',{11ec13o1oapl
s)sel - 7 suorlrun(uo) aleurproqns I g llun
 UNIT 5.9
TOPICALISATION
For me, a glass of Veuve Cliquot says
summer. It conjures up visions of . . .
cloudless skies and long warm evenings.
The Cliquot label even looks summery.

Topicalisation is about how we organise our messages to focus the attention of the listener or
reader. In written discourse, this can mean that we change the neutral order of a sentence -
subject-verb-object (see Units 1.3 and 1.4). This is also frequently the case with spoken
discourse. With spoken discourse, however, we are aiso able to make use of such features as
pitch, movement and stress.
Look at these examales from tuto adaertisements.
(a) For me, a glass of Veuve Cliquot says summer.
(Adaertisement for Veuae Cliquot wine.)
(b) I'm a great believer in instant technology
(Adaertisement f or Polaroid cameras.)
in both of these advertisements, the advertisers have used a famous personality to advertise
the products. In (a), the actor Paul Eddington, who at the time was the most popular actor in
Britain, talks about Veuve Cliquot. In (b) Eddy Shah, who at the time was associated with
introducing modern technology into newspaper production, is talking about Polaroid
cameras. In both cases, the advertiser wants the reader to identify with the personality, and so
in both cases, the focus is on the person speaking. In (b) this is done through the conventional
sentence structure - subject-verb-object. I is at the beginning and is the topic of the sentence.
In (a), hor,l.ever, the speaker has had to reconstruct the sentence, so that reference to himself
comes at the beginning. The neutral sentence order would have the adverbial phrase at the
end of the sentence (see Unit 1.4):
A glass of Veuve Cliquot says summer for me.
By transferring for me to the beginning of the sentence, the speaker becomes the topic of the
sentence and thus its focus.
Sentences are divided into two parts: theme and rheme. The theme is at the beginning and
tells the listener/reader what the sentence is about; the rheme telis us more about the theme
You can see this in the following chart:

Theme Rheme

For me a glass of Veuve Cliquot says summer.

I 'm a great believer in instant technologv

In many cases, the theme/topic is also the grammatical subject of the sentence.

Nozu look at this adaertisement:

In twelve weeks, you could be speaking a neu'language with Linguaphone's help.
Here, the reader's attention is drawn to the short time it will take to speak a new language

266
L9Z

'asrJraxa uorsuaqJJdtuoJ e JoJ laqlo

aql ol ua^r8 PPLI auo leq] slnopueli aLuos ]noqe Sulllel srarnlJal ,{lrsraarun o1tl} ara.M daql 'lre1
ui uopueqe qll:vr s)Ido] paSuetp pup uorlpr.uJolur 1o sarard urplra) lno Ual os pue +noqe s€,n,,r lr
]eq1vr pa^Io^ur aldoad o,\,\l ar{l 'atteztq suraas uor}psJa^uoJ srr{1 raprslno aql o1 q8noqlly
^touI 'ualll )sap .{tu uo a}ou p alpa1 iqo :y
.qlunl raue
lJoll,o rno] le s,ll ig
il1a1 sardo: lue ajaql araM jy
:alduexa ro{'prnsqp suraas uollesra^uo) aql }eql os'raualsrl Ienspr ar{l ol alqelrp^e
lou sI tl)rt{ivl lnoqe 3ur11e1 a.re ,{aql rrdol aql lnoqe a8pal.MouI e areqs raq}a3ol 3ui11e1 aldoad
sawrlauros 'lua^a aql Jo lxeluoJ aql purur ur leaq ol a^eq aM raMsue alaldtuor aql lou sl slr{I
'allloq aql ol 'aurM 1o sse13 ar{l ol .qllpuosrad ar{l
uror] paurt{s seq rrdol aql 'pauleluIEtu are (rarutuns pue 1onbr13 a^na^) sauraLl} o^rl aqt alrq.4
'qder8ered leur8r.ro aql ul raqlaSol asrnorsrp e yo s1.red aql 8ul)iull 1o .{e-u raq}oue sr trdol
'lsol uaaq a^eq
plno-lr aurm ar{} uo snJoJ aqi 'a1qeldat)p uaaq a^eq plno,n,r 1r q8noqlle 'rala.v\or{ ,aseJ srql ul
'dn parnfuoc arp s8urua.la urre.lr
3uo1 pue sar1s ssalpnolr ' ' 'Jo suoIsIA raururns sdes 1onbr13 alna1;o sse13 p aru roC
:aldruexa roC 'raruluns uo pasnJoJ a^Er{ plnoJ 1r ro ,.,{1r1euos.rad
aql uo pasn)oJ a^eq plnol qder8e.red aql Jo lsar aqJ ralrrm aql ol alqeJrpne arrorl) e sr araql
'raqlaSol qder8e.red arll ur saf,ualuas ar{l s{url
]eq] slql sr ll auIM aql Jo aruEu aql uo snJoJ ol uasor{) seq ralrr.M aq} 'af,ualuas }srrJ aql rallv
fuauluns slool ua^a Iaqel lonbllf, aq1 s8uruarta urre.lr 3uo1 pue
sar)s ssalpnolJ ' ' ' lo suorsrl dn sarnfuor ]I raruruns s.{es 1onbr13 alna1 yo sse13 p aru roC
:juauasqnapa autm a4l rcl 7dafiund apqm alll ja 4oo-l
'aroJaq auo3 seq 1eq.u .{q palraJ;e aq
III.t,l arror{r
siralrrm -io s,;aleads aql 'a)ualuas qJpa ur tuaJaJJrp aq ,{eur snJoJ aq} q8noqlle pue - ua}lrr.,r,r
ro ualods - aslnoJsrp Sutnutluor e 1o lred are .{aq1 uorlelosr ur alerado lou op saJua}uas
'puo)as aql uI lJelqns ar{l o} paster
uaaq seq l)erlxa IsJIJ aql ur 1rafqo aJualuas aql ase) slr{l ul 'lJeJlxa puoJas aql ur leuru]rrJ
aqt ol uortrp arrlod aql LuorJ paryr.ls uaaq seq snroJ aql 'a^lssed aql Jo asn aql dq 'lnq ]uaprrur
arrres aql Surssnrsrp r{loq are f,"ql'tZ'Z llufl uI slrodar radBds.r,rau o.\{l ar{l 1e ure8e >1oo.1
'alualuas
aLIl uI uorleurolur lerrads 3ur1q8r1-q8rq 1o .{e.u auo dluo sr aserqd Ipuoursodard agt 3ur1;rqg
'd1aq s,auoqden8uil r{lln s>laam a^lam} ur a8en8uel ,r,rau e Surleads aq plnoJ no1
's1aam a^laml ur a8en8uel ,,r.rau e Surleads aq plnor no.{ 'd1aq s,auoqden8url q1r1,4
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uorlesrlelrdoJ 6 E llun
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Unit 5.9 Topicalisation - TASKS E
tF_
Task one
Find fitte adaertisements and discuss how the adaertiser has focused the infornration. What reasons
can uou gioe for the sentence topic that has been chosen?

Task two
(a) Thinkof aneaentthathasbeeninthenewsrecently.Theeaentcanbeinternational,national
(your honte country) or local (the place u,here you liae). Make notes on it,hat you think nre the
important features of the eaent.
(b) Make notes on your owil attitude to the eaent.
(c) Write your own report on the et,ent.
(dl Underline the t'ocus in each sentence and discuss how qou shilted the topic.
(e't Consider how far your report reflects the points you made in (a) and (b).

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