INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2006, 41 (1), 42–50

Teaching psychology as a science in Italy

Carlo Prandini Sherri McCarthy

University of Bologna, Italy Northern Arizona University, Yuma, AZ, USA

T eaching of psychology as a science in Italy has developed steadily over the last few decades. University
programs have experienced growth and psychology programs in some secondary schools and in teacher
training programs may be better developed than those in other countries. Italian secondary school programs last
for 5 years, and psychology is taught every year for both semesters. A postgraduate course, which includes
training in psychology, is now mandatory for all public school teachers in Italy, as well. The first level of
university education in psychology now corresponds to ‘‘Class 34’’, Psychological Sciences and Techniques, and
includes courses such as: Behaviour and Social Relation Sciences; Clinical and Community Sciences; and
Techniques and Psychology of Educational Relations. Each course contains different aspects of a fixed national
curriculum. All share a general scientific focus and teach practical abilities in specific areas of psychology. Two
types of degrees are possible for undergraduates. A 3-year degree qualifies students to practice as a
‘‘psychological assistant’’ in a restricted range of areas. A 3-year degree followed by an additional 2 years of study
allows the graduate to practise as a psychologist. Graduate programs then provide specific specialization focus.
At present there are over 500 psychology faculty members in Italian universities. Goals of university psychology
programs are to facilitate student mastery of the wealth of information in the discipline and to prepare competent
psychologists.The lecture is a common teaching method. In the last decade, many teachers have also adopted
more active learning methods. Discussions of assigned readings are used. In addition, students engage in guided
practice activities, conduct library research, participate in empirical studies, and write in-depth papers on various
aspects of psychology. Course grades are generally determined by written tests that include both multiple-choice
and free-response items. Field placement is typically evaluated through written reports and practical exercises.

L ’enseignement de la psychologie en tant que science en Italie s’est développé progressivement au cours des
quelques dernières décennies. Les programmes universitaires se sont accrus, alors que les programmes de
psychologie dans certaines écoles secondaires et dans la formation des professeurs sont probablement plus
développés que ceux des autres pays. Les programmes dans les écoles secondaires italiennes sont d’une durée de 5
ans et la psychologie y est enseignée à chaque année de façon bi-semestrielle. De plus, un cours universitaire de
premier cycle, lequel inclut une formation en psychologie, est maintenant exigé pour tous les professeurs d’école
publique en Italie. Le premier niveau d’éducation universitaire en psychologie correspond maintenant à la «classe
34», Sciences et techniques psychologiques, et inclut des cours tels que: sciences du comportement et des relations
sociales; sciences et techniques cliniques et communautaires et; psychologie des relations en éducation. Chaque
cours comprend différents aspects d’un programme national fixe. Tous les cours partagent une visée générale
scientifique et enseignent des habiletés pratiques dans des domaines spécifiques de la psychologie. Les étudiants
peuvent s’inscrire à deux types de niveaux. Le premier est un niveau de 3 ans qui vise à préparer les étudiants à
devenir «assistant psychologue» dans un éventail restreint de domaines. Le deuxième est un niveau de 3 ans,
suivis de 2 années additionnelles d’étude, qui permet aux diplômés de pratiquer en tant que psychologues. Ainsi,
les programmes de cycle supérieur offrent la possibilité de se spécialiser dans un domaine spécifique.
Actuellement, il existe plus de 500 facultés de psychologie dans les universités italiennes. Les buts des programmes
universitaires de psychologie sont de faciliter la maı̂trise des étudiants de la richesse des connaissances dans la
discipline ainsi que de préparer des psychologues compétents. L’enseignement magistral est une méthode
d’enseignement communément utilisée. Lors de la dernière décennie, plusieurs professeurs ont aussi adopté des
méthodes d’apprentissage plus actives. Des discussions portant sur des lectures choisies sont effectuées. En outre,
les étudiants participent à des activités pratiques guidées, effectuent des recherches en bibliothèque, participent à
des études empiriques et rédigent des travaux de fond sur des aspects variés de la psychologie. La passation d’un
cours est généralement déterminée par des examens écrits, lesquels incluent à la fois des choix multiples et des
réponses libres. Les stages sont typiquement évalués à partir de rapports écrits et d’exercices pratiques.

Correspondence should be addressed to Carlo Prandini, via Murri 106, 40137 Bologna, Italy (e-mail: prandini@alma.unibo.it).
# 2006 International Union of Psychological Science
http://www.psypress.com/ijp DOI: 10.1080/00207590444000456
 TEACHING PSYCHOLOGY IN ITALY 43

L a enseñanza de la psicologı́a como ciencia en Italia se ha desarrollado de manera estable durante las últimas
décadas. Los programas universitarios han experimentado crecimiento y los programas de psicologı́a en
algunas escuelas secundarias y en los programas de formación de profesores podrı́an estar mejor desarrollados
que en otros paı́ses. Los programas de las escuelas secundarias en Italia duran 5 años, y se enseña la psicologı́a
cada año para ambos semestres. Todos los profesores de escuelas públicas en Italia deben llevar ahora
obligatoriamente un curso graduado que incluye formación en psicologı́a. El primer nivel de educación
universitaria en psicologı́a corresponde ahora a la ‘‘Clase 34’’, Ciencias y Técnicas Psicológicas, e incluye cursos
como: Ciencias de la Conducta y de la Relación Social, Ciencias y Técnicas Clı́nicas y Comunitarias y Psicologı́a
de las Relaciones Educativas. Cada curso contiene diversos aspectos de un currı́culo nacional fijo. Todos
comparten un enfoque cientı́fico general y enseñan habilidades prácticas en áreas especı́ficas de la psicologı́a. Es
posible para los estudiantes de pregrado alcanzar dos tipos de grado. Un grado de 3 años que cualifica al
estudiante para practicar como ‘‘asistente psicológico’’ en un campo restringido de áreas. Un grado de 3 años
seguido de 2 años adicionales de estudio permite al graduado practicar como psicólogo. Los programas de
graduados proporcionan entonces un enfoque especı́fico de especialización. En el presente, existen más de 500
docentes de psicologı́a en las universidades italianas. Las metas de los programas universitarios de psicologı́a son
facilitar el dominio por parte del estudiante del cúmulo de información en la disciplina y preparar psicólogos
competentes. La conferencia es el método más común. En la última década, muchos profesores han adoptado
métodos de enseñanza más activos, también. Se usan discusiones de lecturas asignadas. Además, los estudiantes
se desempeñan en actividades prácticas guiadas, realizan investigación bibliográfica, participan en estudios
empı́ricos y escriben trabajos a fondo sobre varios aspectos de la psicologı́a. Son pruebas escritas, tanto de opción
múltiple como de respuesta libre, las que determinan las calificaciones de los cursos. El trabajo de campo se
evalúa comúnmente mediante informes escritos y ejercicios prácticos.

HISTORY OF TEACHING SCIENTIFIC psychologist Edward Boring in his History of

PSYCHOLOGY IN ITALY
The growth and development of scientific psychol-
ogy in Italy is complex. Some have suggested that
psychology in Italy has been isolated and behind
much of the rest of the world, noting that in 1969 the
number of the members of the Italian Psychological
Society was lower than the number of members of
the American Psychological Association in 1917
(Moderato & Rovetto, 2001). If the number of
psychologists is all that is considered in assessing the
relative success of the discipline, perhaps only in the
last decade has the comparison of Italy with other
countries become satisfactory.
In fact, at the beginning things were not so bad.
From the time of Italian national independence in
1860 until the First World War, when positivism
was dominating the cultural climate, scientific
psychology was welcomed as a highly respected
form of knowledge. As a result of this, in 1889
an experimental laboratory of psychology was
founded in Rome, just 10 years after Wundt’s
work in Leipzig. Moreover, in 1905 the Fifth
International Congress of Psychology was held in
Rome and, in the same year, the first university
teaching posts in psychology were instituted in
Italy. One of these three posts was given to
Kiesow, one of Wundt’s students. A few years
later another post was given to Benussi, from
the Graz school, whose work was noted by US
Experimental Psychology (1929). In 1910 the first
Italian psychology journal, Rivista di Psicologia,
was founded.
Despite the rapid progress in the field, both the
experimental principles of Wundt and psycho-
analytic views spread only among a restricted
circle of scholars, and remained unknown to most
of the academic world. In addition to this, many
scholars in psychology were mainly interested in
philosophical debates on the possibility of con-
ducting a scientific inquiry about the human
mind, rather than in actually conducting empirical
research.
The situation for teaching scientific psychology
worsened in the years between the First and
Second World Wars for two reasons. First, Italy
was a more backward nation, both socially and
economically, than the US and much of the rest
of Europe. As such, it was isolated from the
European cultural life that seemed to spur the
growth of psychology in other countries. Second,
as Trombetta (1997) points out, positivism was
replaced by neo-idealistic thought, and the sub-
sequent interest in the relationship between this
philosophy and psychology prevented Italian
scholars from taking into account the progress of
scientific psychology—both theoretically and
methodologically—in other parts of the world.
An additional obstacle was created by the
ambiguous attitude of the Catholic Church
44 PRANDINI AND MCCARTHY
towards the discipline. This religious perspective
did not help to increase the teaching of psychology
in Italian institutions. Although on one hand,
psychology offered tools to improve pastoral work
and social assistance programs, on the other it was
viewed as a dangerous opponent to the spiritual
domain as established by the church (Prandini,
2001). Then, fascism excluded scientific psycholo-
gical studies from educational and other institu-
tions entirely, as it was not in line with the
philosophical ideology of the totalitarian govern-
ment. Psychoanalysis was also banned by the
fascist regime because it purportedly had Jewish
origins and was supported by Jewish scholars. In
addition, it was considered a product of the
bourgeois decline according to Marxism, which
greatly influenced the Italian cultural scene
through the Communist Party, especially after
the regime fell. However, after the Second World
War, teaching of psychology in Italy started
developing rapidly. During the XIth Italian
Psychologists’ Congress in 1956, new links were
made with the international academic community.
In the social field, the government started a
new policy for childcare services that led to the
development of psychodiagnostic methods for use
with children in Italy. This contributed to the
growth of the discipline. During the 1960s, interest
in psychology continued to blossom. Increasing
numbers of students who graduated from uni-
versities wrote their theses and dissertations in
topics related to psychological research. As
Mecacci (1998) reports, this led to a new circle of
scholars in the universities after this period. Many
fundamental works such as those by Bruner,
Vygotsky, and Jung were translated into Italian
as a result. This revolution in the teaching of
psychology led to many important changes in
Italy within a decade. Most notably, the first
degrees in psychology were formally offered in
Italian universities in 1971. State lunatic asylums
were criticized and later abolished in 1978.
Psychological support was provided to physically
and emotionally challenged people, who were at
last allowed into state schools. Psychological
knowledge gradually spread in Italian society
and in 1989, the law acknowledged the role of
the psychologist in the Italian workplace. Within a
few years, the gap between Italy and other Western
countries regarding scientific research and social
importance of psychology had narrowed.
If we consider the number of psychology articles
in international journals authored by Italian scho-
lars, the number of psychology courses offered
in universities, and the number of graduated
psychology professionals as valid indicators of
the growth of psychology teaching, at present
Italy can be placed at the same level, proportio-
nately, as other Western countries. For example,
Soro (1999) shows that in the period 1987–1991,
Italian researchers were the authors of 4.3 % of the
articles published in the most important interna-
tional general psychology reviews. At the same
time, according to the PsycINFO database, the
Italian production of articles in English globally
amounted to more than 300 per year. In a country
with a surface size equivalent to the state of
Nevada in the US and a population of 56 million
people, 26 universities located in 22 towns offer
degrees in psychology. More than 50,000 students
are currently enrolled in these programs and there
are currently over 35,000 professional psycholo-
gists in Italy according to Sarchielli and Fraccaroli
(2002), with a ratio of 0.6 per 1000 inhabitants, a
rate similar to the European standard.
Two problems still exist. The former, which
has been partially solved, is the inclination of
Italian psychology to provincialism, as Luccio
defined it (1999). Because of this, many research
contributions in the past were not shared with
the international scientific community. The latter
problem is the insufficient utilization of psy-
chologists in social work areas and in business
(Sarchielli & Fraccaroli, 2002). For example,
school psychologists do not have an official role
in Italian schools, and psychologists in the work-
place are still rare, found only in very large firms.
But the discipline of psychology continues to
grow, and the teaching of psychology is now well
established in higher education.
INSTITUTIONS WHERE PSYCHOLOGY IS
TAUGHT
The Italian university system
Although the Italian university system is one of
the oldest in the world (Bologna University was
founded in 1088), the first academic psychology
courses were not established until 1942. They were
postgraduate courses addressed to graduates from
other programs—medicine, politics, and philoso-
phy, which primarily lasted 2 years. These courses
were not compulsory to work as a psychologist,
because at that time the profession was not recog-
nized by the state. However they were important,
because they strengthened the role of psychology
in the academic world, facilitating the rapid
increase in qualified psychology faculty in Italy.
If we consider the data from Moderato and
Rovetto (2001), the number of psychology

teachers at universities went from 9 in 1954 to 150
in 1972.
At present there are over 500 psychology faculty
members in Italian universities. Many different
university programs, or majors, include compul-
sory psychology courses in the curriculum. The
turning point took place in 1971, when the
first psychology degrees were instituted in Rome
and Padua. The degrees, 4 years in length, were
placed in ‘‘Magistero’’ departments (Pedagogical
Faculty or, in US terms, under Colleges of
Education). There were two reasons for this.
First, applied psychology had traditionally played
an important role in the educational field. Second,
the Faculties of Medicine and Literature did not
welcome the expansion of a competitive discipline
and worked to exclude psychology from their
areas.
In 1985 a federal reform of psychology degree
regulation extended the duration of the required
courses from 4 to 5 years. Many psychology degree
programs were created in the most important
towns, and an autonomous Faculty of Psychology
was founded in 1991. The first 2-year period of the
degree program was dedicated to general educa-
tion, while the second 3 years were composed of
different specialization courses within psycho-
logy, including general, clinical, developmental,
and organizational psychology (Carta & Marini,
1998). The degree allowed full access to the
profession in any specialty area.
Structure of degree programs and curriculum
within the Italian university system
If we refer to the classification of psychology
degrees in Europe supplied by Newstead and
Makinen (1997), we find three models: specialized
/discontinuous (3+3 years, e.g., Great Britain),
specialized/continuous (5 years, e.g., Sweden), and
generic/continuous (5 years, much of the rest of
Europe). The Italian degree originally seemed to
belong to the last category, because the degree was
not divided into two levels and it did not offer a
real opportunity of specialization, at least from the
professional point of view. New degree regulations
were instituted in 2001, changing this. The first
level of university education in psychology now
corresponds to ‘‘Class 34’’, Psychological Sciences
and Techniques, and it includes many kinds of
courses such as: Behaviour and Social Relation
Sciences; Clinical and Community Sciences;
and Techniques and Psychology of Educational
Relations. Each course contains different aspects
of a fixed national curriculum. They all share a
TEACHING PSYCHOLOGY IN ITALY 45
general scientific focus and, at the same time, they
aim at teaching some practical abilities in specific
areas of psychology.
Two types of degrees are possible for under-
graduates. A 3-year degree qualifies students to
practise as a ‘‘psychological assistant’’ in a
restricted range of areas. A 3-year degree followed
by an additional 2 years of study allows the
graduate to practise as a psychologist. Graduate
programs then provide specific specialization
focus.
Since 2001 the psychology degree system has
been comprised of these types: Corsi di Laurea (L)
(3 years), corresponding to the Bachelor degree,
and qualifying students to work as psychology
assistants, but not as psychologists; Corsi di
Laurea Specialistica (LS) (2 additional years
beyond L), combining the general 5-year psychol-
ogy programs in much of Europe and the UK 3+3
model to create a 5-year professional program;
Masters at 1st and 2nd level (2 years beyond L
and LS); Corsi di Specializzazione (DS) (2–5
years beyond LS); and Corsi di Dottorato
(DR) (3–4 years beyond LS), corresponding to
the PhD.
The ‘‘Corsi di Laurea’’ (L) provides a basic
education in a particular field, but sometimes, as
in psychology courses, the aim is also the acquisi-
tion of specific professional competences. Each L
course belongs to a homogeneous group (called
Classe—similar to cohort-based programs in the
US and other parts of Europe), and shares the
cultural identity, the teaching goals, and the legal
acknowledgement of the degree. The courses of the
same Classe have different names, as they differ in
some aspects of the training. The L course itself
may also offer different official curricula, to satisfy
the different interests of the students and needs of
particular regions. Overall, though, the subjects
covered are consistent in the programs at Italian
universities. The academic year is comprised of
two semesters, and most of the courses are one
semester in duration. The compulsory studies are
divided into three sectors: basic, fundamental, and
integrative. Each sector includes several areas and
corresponding exams (see Table 1). The learning of
basic computer skills and linguistic abilities
(English language) are also required. Students
must also participate in practicum activities and
workshops. Most of these activities can be selected
according to student interest.
The credit system has been recently introduced
in the didactic organization at all levels of
education. This means that students must pass
the compulsory exams for each sector of courses
and earn the required amount of credits to proceed
46 PRANDINI AND MCCARTHY

TABLE 1
General curriculum of 3-year Corso di Laurea (L) psychology degree

Activities Areas Courses

Basic Psychology foundations General psychology

Psychometrics
Development psychology
Social psychology
Interdisciplinary education Applied biology
Demographics
Logic
History of philosophy
Pedagogy
History of science
Sociology
Fundamental General and physiological psychology Careers in psychology
Psychobiology and physiological psychology
Psychological testing
Educational psychology Experimental psychology
Development and educational psychology
Social and organizational psychology Social psychology
Work and organizational psychology
Clinical psychology Dynamic psychology
Clinical psychology
Integrative Quantitative methods Informatics
Computing systems
Mathematical analysis
Probability mathematics
Statistics
Biology and medical sciences Zoology
Physiology
Genetics
Psychiatry
Neuropsychiatry
Legal medicine
Languages, history, philosophy and pedagogy Glottology
Demography
Theoretic philosophy
Moral philosophy
Philosophy of language
History of philosophy
Social pedagogy
Didactics
Contemporary history
Economy and sociology Enterprise economy
Enterprise organization
Social statistics
General sociology
Sociology communication
Juridical sociology
Demography
Theoretic philosophy
Logic: Philosophy of science
Moral philosophy
Philosophy of language
History of philosophy

to the next level. In addition, the L, LS, DS, and
DR degrees each require students to pass a
cumulative final exam.
Credits are awarded after passing an exam and
attending didactic activities, workshops, and train-
ing. Each credit (CFU) corresponds to 25 hours of
work and study. In order to obtain the L degree,
students must get 180 credits and discuss a short
written essay about a psychological case. The
degree allows graduates to work in specific,
restricted areas in psychology linked to the
curriculum. Examples include research, vocational

guidance, or psychodiagnostics, depending on the
focus of practicum activities. This degree also
allows students to continue their studies to obtain
a 1st level Master’s, or a ‘‘Corso di Laurea
Specialistica’’ (LS). The LS can be taken after
the L courses, and the aim is both to widen general
education, and to provide more specialized train-
ing. The LS degree aims to develop a more
advanced level of preparation, and, at the same
time, to focus students on a more specific profes-
sional area within psychology such as clinical,
social, or developmental practice. Students must
obtain 120 credits for this degree after completion
of the L degree. They must also, at the end of their
studies, complete and discuss a written thesis with
a panel of professors. The LS degree allows
graduates to work as a psychologist in every
professional specialty area. Thus, it is not easy to
classify the Italian system into the specialized or
generic categories proposed by Newstead and
Makinen (1997). It may be more similar to the
US model, where a 4-year degree of approximately
130 credits, comprised of both general and psycho-
logy courses, must first be obtained in order for
students to be admitted to graduate programs,
where additional credits in more specialized
aspects of psychology are required before licen-
sure is granted. However, it also differs from
this model in several ways. LS graduates can
continue their study with a 2nd level Master’s
degree program. If they want to become psy-
chotherapists, they must attend a 4-year Corso
di Specializzazione (DS) program. Graduates
wishing to pursue an academic career or to
increase their preparation in psychology enrol
in ‘‘Corso di Dottorato’’ (DR). DR programs,
equivalent to PhD programs, offer a limited
number of spaces; only 50 per year. The selection
process is very competitive.
In order to work in the field of psychology in
Italy you must be registered at a professional
corporation. To be registered by the ‘‘Ordine
Nazionale’’ (National Licensing Roster) you must
have: a psychology L degree, if you want to work
as a Junior Psychologist (3 years); a psychology
L degree+psychology LS degree to work as a
Psychologist (5 years); a psychology L degree+
psychology LS degree or a Medicine Degree, both
completed as part of a Psychotherapy DS dip-
loma, if you want to work as a Psychotherapist (9
or 10 years). In addition, an internship and state
exam based on written and oral tests is mandatory.
The length of the internship varies according to the
profession, with an average of 6 months for junior
psychologists and 1 year for psychologists.
TEACHING PSYCHOLOGY IN ITALY 47
STRATEGIES AND METHODS OF TEACHING
PSYCHOLOGY
As in the USA and most European countries,
faculty members use a variety of teaching meth-
ods. Lecture is a common practice because the
Italian university tradition is strongly oriented
towards oral communication. However, in the last
decade, many teachers have also adopted more
active learning methods. Discussions of assigned
readings are used. In addition, students engage in
guided practice activities, conduct library research,
participate in empirical studies, and write in-depth
papers on various aspects of psychology. Practical
activity training (AFP) and seminars include role-
playing, simulation, volunteer work in institutions,
group discussion, and limited observation of
psychologists’ activities. Internship programs are
gradually becoming more organized and more
efficiently assessed. Course grades are generally
determined by written tests that include both
multiple-choice and free-response items. AFP
work is typically evaluated through written reports
and practical exercises. The widespread use of
written tests is due both to the need to maintain
objectivity in grading and to the large numbers of
students enrolled in psychology courses. This is
often criticized by students, however, who would
prefer oral exams, especially since verbal skills are
a focal point of the profession.
GOALS AND OUTCOMES OF UNIVERSITY
PROGRAMS
Goals of university psychology programs are to
facilitate student mastery of the wealth of informa-
tion in the discipline and to prepare competent
psychologists. University program assessment is
conducted at each university by an evaluation
panel appointed by the rectors. Panel assessment is
used both to give suggestions for improvement to
university teachers and to inform program man-
agement. A national committee, appointed by the
Public Education Ministry, collects data from each
local evaluation committee and visits universities
for further study when warranted. Another way to
assess success is through student evaluation.
Student evaluation questionnaires ask about the
utility of the information covered in the course, the
instructor’s teaching ability and availability for
assistance, and the student’s overall satisfaction
with course and program structure at the uni-
versity. Students’ overall evaluation of course
quality is positive. According to research by
Perussia and Miglietta (1995), 90% of psychology
48 PRANDINI AND MCCARTHY
TABLE 2
Percentage of Italian university graduates employed in
chosen field by study area (ISTATS, 2003)
Degree area Employment ratesa
Engineering 93.2
Architecture 84.5
Social-political sciences 82.9
Economics 82.1
Chemistry 82.0
Natural sciences 81.0
Teaching 80.7
Psychology 77.9
Languages 77.4
Agriculture 77.0
Humanities 71.0
Geo-biology 67.6
Law 56.0
Medicine 20.1
students expressed satisfaction with their studies,
and 92% appreciated faculty preparation.
Another means of assessing programs is through
tracking successful employment of graduates.
Table 2 displays the percentage of university
students from several programs who have been
able to work in their chosen field of study after
graduation. Psychology programs are moderately
successful according to these criteria, as nearly
79% of the graduates work in their chosen field.
This percentage is higher than in languages,
humanities, agriculture, geology, biology, law,
and medicine degree programs. It is, however,
worth noting that a considerable percentage of
students have arranged for a permanent job at the
time of program completion even before starting
their studies (Donini & Pizzini, 1999). The profes-
sional perspectives for psychologists are appar-
ently favourable, as is shown by the data from
ISTAT (National Institute of Statistics) in 2003.
77% of graduates have a job 3 years after their
degree. Among these, 43% consider their degree
necessary, while the percentage drops to 35% if we
refer to graduates from programs other than
psychology.
A third relevant means of evaluating success is
through graduation rates and time to completion
of programs. The average age at graduation is
29–30 years (Moderato & Rovetto, 2001). Last,
the local university evaluation panels are charged
with assessing the quality of research activity on
the basis of criteria established by the national
committee appointed by the Ministry of Educa-
tion. Discussion on these criteria is ongoing, but
there is a general accordance that time devoted to
research, number of publications, and the quality
and impact of the journals in which publications
appear are important considerations. Funding for
university programs is contingent upon satisfac-
tory assessment.
FUTURE TRENDS
The information above suggests that teaching
of psychology in Italian universities is relatively
successful and likely to continue developing fa-
vourably. However, it must be taken into account
that, in the last 6 years, employment rates of
psychologists have lowered by 5.2%, while the
general employment rate in Italy has slightly
increased (Carta & Marini, 1998; ISTAT, 2003).
Moreover, research by the Psychologists’
Corporation (Sarchielli & Fraccaroli, 2002) shows
that just a small proportion of the registered
psychologists perform the duties of their profes-
sion as their main employment activity, while an
even lower percentage of psychologists (7%) are
permanently employed in public services. Thus,
current work opportunities for psychologists are
not readily available. A considerable percentage of
psychology students attend university courses
mainly for cultural interests, or to improve
performance in another work activity. Many
students who choose psychology as their major
may well have to find a job in a different field.
There is no balance between the supply and the
demand at present. Such discrepancy is evident in
the fact that one of the best job possibilities for
psychologists is teaching psychology courses,
either in public secondary or private, postgraduate
programs. There are various reasons for this. In
Italy, as in Russia, finding a profession suitable to
university studies is a widespread problem. The
population tends to be well educated, but profes-
sional posts requiring higher education are limited.
As far as psychologists are concerned, this diffi-
culty is worsened by the fact that the Department
of Health and Social Services filled most of their
psychology positions during the 1980s and this
group of psychologists has not yet retired. Thus,
other than in private practice, there are few
positions available and, because the supply of
psychologists is greater than the demand for their
services in private practice, most supplement their
incomes in other ways. Although the necessity of
establishing school psychologists in Italian public
schools, which would increase employment oppor-
tunities, has been discussed, nothing concrete has
happened as yet.
According to Sarchielli and Fraccaroli (2002),
one of the problems with employment after
graduation is due to the fact that students’ choices

in curriculum planning are strongly influenced by
the stereotypical image of the psychologist, and
there is not a sufficient knowledge of the emerging
social needs that could be addressed by psycholo-
gists. A closer relationship between academic
psychology and society would be useful. It should
become a priority of academic psychologists to
strengthen the role and the number of profes-
sionals in public and social services, especially in
schools. This probably would not solve the wide-
spread degree of unemployment among young
psychology graduates, but it would serve to
improve the quality of life in Italy.
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